CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION:

Psychology plays a very important role in understanding the teaching and learning process. Many
innovations in the learning process have been made possible because of the contributions of
psychology. Psychology is a branch of science that studies human behavior, and helps educators and
teachers to understand the nature of diversity of learners. Teachers are now more confident and
competent to teach because of a deep understanding of their learners. They can facilitate learning
according to the learners’ needs. History has been witnessed as to how concepts, information, and
studies in psychology have helped immensely in understanding the nature of the human being. They are
bases for innovations and reforms in teaching. Teaching strategies are made more appropriate for every
learner. Part of human nature is learning, which has been made interesting because of the application of
knowledge obtained from psychology. Studies are continuously undertaken to enhance knowledge
about the teaching and learning process. In this chapter, you are expected to:

1 explain learner-centered psychological principles;

2 discuss implications of the learner-centered psychological principles to teachers and educators;
3 analyze specific classroom situations where the 14 learner-centered psychological principles are
used; and
4 suggest teaching strategies that could further enhance the 14 learner-centered psychological
principles
Document A

Lesson 1: The 6 Principles of Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

In the early 1990s, the American Psychological Association (APA) appointed a group, a Task Force on
Psychology in Education, to conduct further studies in both psychology and education. The purpose of
this group was to conduct studies that could further enhance the current understanding of educators on
the nature of the learners about teaching and learning process.

• Nature of the learning process

The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing
meaning from information and experience. Teachers play a significant role in guiding their lessons to
become active, goal-oriented, and self-regulating, and to assume personal responsibility for their
learning. The learning activities and opportunities provided by the teacher are very important situations
where learners can integrate knowledge and concepts to their experiences. Whenever teachers plan
their lessons and topics, they always need to consider how they can bring reality in the classroom.
Learners need to have a clear and concrete understanding of knowledge and concepts presented so that
they would also know in what particular situations they have to apply them. Learning through
experience is the most effective way of teaching. An intentional learning environment is one that fosters
activity and feedback and creates a culture that promotes metacognition, that is, one in which the
learner becomes aware of his or her learning process and can use tools to enhance this learning process.
(Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1989).

• Goals of the learning process

The successful learner, over time and with support and instruction guidance, can create meaningful,
coherent representation of knowledge. Learners need to be goal-oriented. Teachers have to guide
learners in terms of determining their personal goals. They need to set their goals, not dictated by
others, to ensure their willingness to achieve them. Meaningful learning takes place when what is
presented to learners is very much related to their needs and interests. When learners have good
understanding of the concepts discussed in school, they can reach long-term goals most likely. Indeed, it
is challenging to motivate learners to succeed.

• Construction of Knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways. In planning
a lesson to be presented, teachers would usually find it more effective when they connect the learners’
existing knowledge to new information. The integration of prior experiences to a new concept to be
learned is a way of making connections between what is new and what is already known. The new
knowledge is created from old knowledge is the very heart of constructivism. Teachers should initiate
more opportunities for learners to share ideas, experiences, observations, and readings as the need
arises. Sharing prior knowledge can be done in creative strategies like concept mapping, group activities,
and other collaborative techniques where learners are also able to learn from each other’s experiences.

• Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create and use repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve
complex learning goals. Strategic thinking is a person’s ability to use knowledge in different ways to
solve problems, address concerns and issues, decrease difficulties in certain situations, and make sound
decisions and judgments in varied conditions. Strategic thinkers do not easily give up even in difficult
situations. They are more challenged to find ways to solve a problem no matter how many times they
already failed. They are not afraid to commit mistakes because they perceive them as meaningful
learning experiences to continuously discover other ways of arriving at solutions. Teachers are supposed
to give them as many opportunities to learn, experiment, solve, and explore new ideas and concepts.
Thus, to motivate and encourage the learners to be more creative and innovative in their ideas,
opinions, and responses are musts for learners.

• Thinking about thinking

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical
thinking. One of the most challenging roles of the teachers is to develop among their learners’ higher
order thinking skills (HOTS). It means that the learners can do evaluation, synthesis, analysis, and
interpretation of varied concepts, information, and knowledge. As previously mentioned, learners
develop their thinking skills when they are provided with opportunities and learning experiences to
process varied events and situations, specifically if given real problems. This context means that aside
from mastering information, discovery, problem-solving, creation, and evaluation should also be
integrated into their learning experiences. Assessment tools in school should be authentic. Students can
make inferences, sound judgment, and relevant conclusions, and use their learned knowledge to varied
situations. HOTS are very much needed in this fast-changing world.

• Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and instructional
practices. Learning does not only take place inside the classroom. Much of what learners learn in the
classroom with their teachers can only have meaning once they see them concretely in their everyday
life. Examples are given in the classroom should be a reflection of their actual life experiences. The
digital tools and instructional practices must be carefully selected to facilitate a motivating, stimulating,
and encouraging learning environment geared toward effective acquisition of knowledge, concepts, and
skills among learners.
Document B

Lesson 1: The 3 Principles of Motivational and Affective Factors.

How the learners push themselves to learn and how they value learning are the concerns of
motivational factors. Meanwhile, the affective factors relate to the attitude, feelings, and emotions that
learners put into the learning task.

• Motivational and emotional influences on learning

What and how much are learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation. Motivation to learn is
influenced by individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.
Motivation plays a very important role in learning. It pertains to an individual’s inner drive to do
something, accomplish something, pursue a goal, learn, and master a skill, or just discover without
necessarily being forced or pushed by anyone. The level of one’s motivation would also determine the
extent of his or her ability to accomplish desired tasks. The way teachers motivate their learners is then
crucial to make them actively engaged in the learning process.
In lesson planning, the motivation part of the lesson sets the positive mind-set of the learners. No
matter how new, challenging, and technical a topic is, if the level of their motivation is a high, they
would always find the interest to participate and get themselves engaged. Meanwhile, if there were no
efforts to motivate learners, then, there would also be no engagement to learning.

Teachers and parents’ encouragement, praises and rewards can boost the learners’ confidence. They
can also establish positive emotional states and good habits of thinking in individuals. Learners will
always feel that mistakes and errors are normal parts of learning. Teachers should also use learning
materials and strategies that would eradicate learners’ anxiety panic and even insecurities.

• Intrinsic motivation to learn

The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn.
Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interest,
and providing for personal choice and control. There are two kinds of motivation-intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation. Intrinsic motivation is manifested when an individual engages in an activity or task that is
personally gratifying. It is personally rewarding, and there is no expectation for any external or tangible
reward. Extrinsic motivation, meanwhile, is its direct opposite. A person engages in a task or activity to
earn external rewards or to avoid punishments in some situations. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by
tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice
and control.

As teachers and mentors the most important way to motivate the students to learn is to present the
value of that knowledge or concept to their life. Learning is not only about getting good grades or
complying with requirements, but it is more of knowing why they need to learn such and to what
specific instances in their lives that they would be able to use them. When what is being taught to the
students is presented creatively, it stimulates their HOTS, that allow personal choice and control,
collaboration, and creation for learners contribute to a more heightened intrinsic motivation for
learning.
• Effects of motivation on effort
Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills require extended learner effort and guided practice.
Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.
The learners’ motivation to learn is also partnered by their extended efforts. Teachers facilitate learning
opportunities and experiences that encourage learners to exert time and effort and at the same time
commitment and enthusiasm toward a task they have to do

SUMMARY

Teachers’ comprehensive understanding of the cognitive and metacognitive factors of learning is very
much needed. The potentials, skills, talents, and abilities of learners would not be enhanced well if
learning opportunities and experiences are minimal. The teachers’ strategies and techniques in
delivering information and concepts would highly determine the extent of how this potentials, skills,
talents and abilities of learners can be fully developed.

Document C

Lesson 2: The 2 principles of developmental and social factors.

Development and social factors as well as individual differences are considered critical factors in the
capacity of learners to engage in learning.

• Developmental influences on learning

As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is most
effective when differential development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social
domains is taken into account. Learning is most effective when differential development within and
across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account. Knowledge on the
physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains of the learners is an excellent springboard for
planning learning activities, materials, and assessment. Often, some learners are not learning well
because there is a mismatch between the learning activity and the learners’ developmental stage.
teachers are persons and professionals who should be knowledgeable of the various developmental
milestones of learners. They should always collaborate with the school administrators, guidance
counselors, learners’ parents, guardians, and even family. Specifically, teachers should always look into
the readiness of the learners through keen observations, diagnostic tools, authentic assessments, and
the like. All of these will help to create optimal learning contexts and environment.

• Social influences on learning

Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with others.
Collaboration is a 21st century skill. All learners should learn the skill of working with others in an
instructional setting. This ability will prepare them for the real world where they are expected to interact
effectively to a community of diverse people. Collaborative skills encompass social interactions,
interpersonal relations, and communication. Learning activities in the classroom should offer our
opportunities for such collaborative skills. Group works, group dynamics, as well as group tasks are
examples of situations where such can be developed. When learners work with the peers and
classmates they learn to appreciate and respect diversity. They practice their listening skills and at the
same time consider each other’s perspectives and contributions on the task to be completed. When
adequately facilitated by the teacher, this ability contributes to a positive and healthy learning such as
respect for each other’s opinions, give and take relationships, and taking responsibility for assigned tasks
to develop the interpersonal relationships of the learners.

Document D

Lesson 2: The 3 principles of individual difference factors

• Individual differences in learning

Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior
experience and heredity. Diversity is a natural part of life. The learning environment is the best example
where diversity is manifested between and among learners. Each learner has his or her learning style,
intelligence, potential skills, talents, learning preferences, as well as cognitive abilities, which are the
effects of both experience and heredity. Theories on multiple intelligences, learning styles, and
differentiated instructions are all to be considered when planning the delivery of lessons. Teachers assist
and support their learners in identifying the most effective learning style, dominant intelligence, skills,
and potentials and help them identify the ways and means on how they can use them to maximize
learning. Current trends in teaching encourage teachers to apply concepts on multicultural teaching,
differentiated instruction (DI), and the universal design for learning (UDL). All these principles support
the premise that teachers should be creative, innovative, and supportive of the individual differences of
their learners. These trends in teaching offers various ideas, options, and ways by which diversity can
best be used for meaningful teaching and learning.
• Learning and diversity
Learning is most effective when differences in learner’s linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are
taken into account. Multicultural teaching encourages teachers to consider their learners’ linguistic,
cultural, and social backgrounds. Language can be a barrier in learning when learners cannot express
themselves properly and when the learning materials is not also related to their social contexts.
Examples given maybe too vague or abstract because their most specific application cannot be found
outside of the school. Cases and situations should be contextualized and localized. When learners find
that their lessons are also concretely seen in their places and are closely related to their environment,
the more they can appreciate learning. Culture makes one person distinct from other people. Students
manifest differences in language, values, belief systems, and way of life. An inclusive classroom is one
that welcomes and respects these differences, which are incorporated into the learning activities they
are also used as actual examples of concepts presented during discussions. Students do not feel
discriminated upon and ridiculed because of their uniqueness as individual. When each learner feels
valued, accepted, and appreciation for what he or she is, this affirmation contributes to a positive
learning environment.

• Standards and assessment

Setting appropriately high challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as learning progress –
including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment – are integral parts of the learning process.
Assessment and evaluation are essential parts of the teaching and learning process. The results of
assessments conducted are used to gauge the learners’ strengths, weaknesses, limitations, and areas of
difficulties. Teachers can also determine what kind of support and scaffold the learners need. This
process also includes knowing which instructional material would best assist a learner for better school
performance. Assessment should be an ongoing process. Whether it was formative or summative,
results should be used as a means of improving the teachers’ strategies and techniques in teaching. Low
results may not always be attributed to students’ negligence and difficulties but may also be because the
teacher’s strategy was not effective during the delivery of the lesson. Assessment, therefore, is for both
the teacher and the learner.

SUMMARY

In engaging learners to learn, development and social factors as well as individual differences are
considered. Effective classroom strategies and activities stem from these principles. These principles
highlight the need to communicate and collaborate with other learners because learning is a social
experience. They are given paramount emphasis to facilitate learner centered teaching.
CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION:
Today, facilitating learning is aimed at assisting learners in acquiring expected
competencies. In addition, the facilitation of learning addresses the expected competencies to help
them understand their learning and thinking. Research findings have shown that metacognitive thinking
operates as a vital skill to other skills like problem- solving, creative thinking and critical thinking. The
good news is that metacognition can be taught. In this chapter, you will discover the nature of
metacognition, its components, and how metacognitive processes work in the classroom. In this chapter
you expected to:

1. explain metacognition and its components

2. delineate the relationship between metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive processes; and
3. identify effective metacognitive teaching strategies to facilitate learning.

LESSON 1
Metacognition and metacognitive knowledge

Metacognition
- refers to “thinking about thinking” and was introduced as a concept in by John Flavell, who is typically
seen as a founding scholar of the field. Flavell said that metacognition is the knowledge you have of your
own cognitive processes (your thinking). Flavell (1979). It is your ability to control your thinking
processes through various strategies, such as organizing, monitoring, and adapting. Additionally, it is
your ability to reflect upon the tasks or processes you undertake and to select and utilize the
appropriate strategies necessary in your intercultural interactions.
Components of Metacognition
Declarative knowledge - knowledge required of themselves as learners and the strategies, skills and
learning resources source. It refers also to the factual information that we know, and can both be
spoken or written. This is also the knowledge about ourselves as learners and about what factors can
influence our performances.
Process/ Procedural knowledge - know how to use what is known in declarative knowledge that the
learning activities. It also refers to information on how to do something or how to perform the
procedural steps that make up a task. A high degree of procedural knowledge allows us to perform tasks
more automatically through a variety of strategies.
Conditional knowledge is knowing when a process, skills or strategies to use, and when things are not
used, why a process takes place, and why a process is better than other methods. It is about when to
use a procedure, skill, or strategy or when not to. Such knowledge allows us to assign optimal resources
for various tasks.
Lesson 2
Metacognitive knowledge and control

Metacognitive regulation refers to what learners do about learning. It describes how learners monitor
and control their cognitive processes. For example, a learner might realize that a particular strategy is
not achieving the results they want, so they decide to try a different strategy.

During the planning phase, learners think about the learning goal the teacher has set and consider how
they will approach the task and which strategies they will use. At this stage, it is helpful for learners to
ask themselves:
‘What am I being asked to do?’
‘Which strategies will I use?’
‘Are there any strategies that I have used before that might be useful?’

During the monitoring phase, learners implement their plan and monitor the progress they are making
towards their learning goal.
Students might decide to make changes to the strategies they are using if these are not working. As
students work through the task, it will help them to ask themselves:
‘Is the strategy that I am using working?’
‘Do I need to try something different?’
During the evaluation phase, students determine how successful the strategy they used was in helping
them to achieve their learning goal. To promote evaluation, students could consider:
‘How well did I do?’
‘What didn’t go well?’ ‘What could I do differently next time?’
‘What went well?’ ‘What other types of problem can I use this strategy for?’

Reflection is a fundamental part of the plan-monitor-evaluate process. Encouraging learners to self-

question throughout the process will support this reflection.

In the rest of this unit, we will look at the basics of metacognition in more detail. We will discuss the
benefits, look at the theory behind metacognition and discover some practical examples.

Throughout the unit, you will be encouraged to reflect upon metacognition and to think about how you
can integrate it into your own classroom practice. At the end of the unit there is a glossary of key words
and phrases.

Lesson 3

Metacognitive instruction

Veenman (1998), in reviewing the literature, identified three fundamental principles that are necessary
for successful metacognitive instruction:

1. embedding metacognitive instruction in the content matter to ensure connectivity,

2. informing learners about the usefulness of metacognitive activities to make them exert the initial
extra effort, and
3. prolonged training to guarantee the smooth and maintained application of metacognitive activity.

Metacognitive strategies
refer to methods used to help students understand the way they learn; in other words, it means
processes designed for students to ‘think’ about their ‘thinking’.
Teachers who use metacognitive strategies can positively impact students who have learning disabilities
by helping them to develop an appropriate plan for learning information, which can be memorized and
eventually routine. As students become aware of how they learn, they will use these processes to
efficiently acquire new information, and consequently, become more of an independent thinker. Below
are three metacognitive strategies, which all include related resources, that can be implemented in the
classroom:

Think Aloud
Great for reading comprehension and problem solving. Think-aloud helps students to
consciously monitor and reflect upon what they are learning. This strategy works well when teachers
read a story or problem out loud and periodically stop to verbalize their thoughts. This allows students
to follow the teacher’s thinking process, which gives them the foundation they need for creating their
own strategies and processes that can be useful for understanding what they are trying to comprehend.
Checklist, Rubrics and Organizers
Great for solving word problems. These organizational tools support students in the decision-
making process because they serve as an aid for planning and self-evaluation. Typically, they ask what
students know and need to know to arrive at an answer, and emphasize the need to reread the problem
and self-check responses.

Explicit Teacher Modeling

Great for math instruction. Explicit teacher modeling helps students understand what is
expected of them through a clear example/model of a skill or concept. When a teacher provides an easy
to follow procedure for solving a problem, students have a memorable strategy to use for approaching a
problem on their own.

Reading Comprehension
Truly comprehending reading involves students actively engaging with a text and accurately
deciphering the layers of meaning. It is very important for students to develop solid reading
comprehension skills because statistics show that people who have low reading comprehension ability
suffer in academic, professional, and personal pursuits. The resources in this guide from
supersummary.com are effective strategies for promoting reading comprehension.
CHAPTER 3
INTRODUCTION
The term cognitive learning derives its meaning from the word cognition defined by an
electronic dictionary, as “the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding
through thought, experience, and the senses. “Thus, learners are viewed to learn by using their brains.
In the process, they are actively engaged in mental activities involving perception, thinking, and relying
on their memory as they process new experiences. Through the connections of these old and new
experiences, the acquisition of knowledge and understanding results exist. In this chapter, you are
expected to:
• Explain the meaning of cognitive learning theories;
• Differentiate the cognitive learning theories by citing their key features;
• Cite empirical proofs of the cognitive learning theories; and
• Identify the teaching implications of the cognitive learning theories.

Read and analyze the picture

Figure 1. Adaptive process of schema development. Adapted from McLeod (2018)
Figure 2. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Figure 3. Scaffolding as intervention to reach the zone of proximal development. Source: Wheeler
(2013)
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive theory of Development
(Figure 1 and 2: Document A and B)
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive theory of Development is truly a classic in the field of educational psychology.
This theory fuelled other researches and theories of development and learning. Its focus is on how
individuals construct knowledge.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development

(Figure 3. Document C)
The key theme of Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays a very important role in cognitive
development. He believed that individual development could not be understood without looking into
the social and cultural context within which development happens. Scaffolding is Vygotsky’s term for
the appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the learner accomplish a task.
Lesson 3
Information Processing Theory

Information processing theory discusses the mechanisms through which learning occurs. It was
developed by American psychologists including Miller in the 1950s, and in recent years compared the
human brain to a computer. Specifically, it focuses on the aspect of memory encoding and retrieval. It
pertains to the study and analysis of what occurs in the person’s mind as he or she receives a bit of
information. The “input” is the information we give to the computer or to our brains-while the CPU is
likened to our short-term memory, and the hard-drive is our long-term memory.

Basic Components of the IPT Model

The information processing theory model has three major components, namely: sensory memory, short-
term memory and long-term memory that has different functions.

Sensory memory
–information is gathered via senses through a process called transduction, which are
temporarily held in mere seconds for the information to be processed further. These memories usually
last for a very short amount of time, ranging up to three seconds. Our senses are constantly bombarded
with large amounts of information. Our sensory memory acts as a filter by focusing on what is important
and forgetting what is unnecessary.

Short-term memory
- serves as a temporary memory while the information is given further processing before it is
transferred to long-term memory. Information in this stage is 15-20 seconds only and can hold from 5
to 9 bits of information only at a given time. Two strategies involved before the information is
transferred to long-term memory; rehearsal and encoding or elaboration.
Maintenance rehearsal
involves repetition of the information to sustain its maintenance in the short-term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal
is the process of relating the new information to what is already known and stored in the long
term memory to make the new information significant?

Imaginary
is a strategy that involves the memory taking what is to be learned and creating meaningful
visual, auditory, or kinesthetic images of the information.

Long-term memory
-is the storehouse of information transferred from short-term memory. It has unlimited space.
Varied contents of information are stored, namely:

Ø Semantic memory is the memory for ideas, words, facts and concepts that are not part of the person’s
perspective.

Ø Episodic memory includes the memory of events that happened in a person’s life, connected to a
specific time and place.

Ø Procedural memory accounts for the knowledge about how to do things.

Ø Imaginary refers to mental images of what is known.

Retrieving Information from the Long-term Memory

Retrieval of information from the long-term memory entails bringing to mind the previously
acquired information to understand some new point or to make a response. According to Schunk,
2012(as cited by Bulusan, F., et.al, 2019) there are two ways of information retrieval. One is recalling
which is either free recall or cued recall.

Recognition is another way to retrieve information, which involves providing the learners with
stimuli as choices to make decisions or judgment.

Forgetting
Forgetting is the loss of information, either sensory memory, short-term memory, or long-term
memory. Interference is the process that occurs when remembering certain information hampered by
the presence of other information. Retroactive interference is when new information interferes with
recalling the same phenomenon. Proactive interference is when the old information interferes with
recalling the new information.

Ø Time decay is another factor for the loss of stored information from long –term memory. Unused
information decays and is forgotten.

Ø Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon involves the failure to retrieve the information, but the person is sure
the information is known. The person feels that retrieval is imminent, but there is difficulty to directly
identify it at the moment.
Lesson 4
Problem Solving and Creativity

Problem solving
refers to cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal for which the problem solver does not
initially know a solution method. There are four major elements namely:

Ø Cognitive. Problem solving occurs within the problem solver’s cognitive system and can only be
inferred indirectly from the problem solver’s behavior (including biological changes, introspections, and
actions during problem solving.

Ø Process. Problem solving involves mental computation in which an operation is applied to a mental
representation, sometimes resulting in the creation of the new mental representation.

Ø Directed. Problem solving is aimed at achieving a goal.

Ø Personal. Problem solving depends on the existing knowledge of the problem solver so that what is a
problem for one problem solver may not be a problem for someone who already knows a solution
method.

Types of Problems

Well-defined problem as one that provides all the information required to solve it. It is
considered as a problem requiring the application of a definite number of concepts, rules, and principles
being studied to a constrained problem situation. The problem tells you everything you need to know to
solve it or whether you need to work out for yourself what you are supposed to do.

Ill-defined problem is one where the initial state of the problem is given but what the goal state
looks as if it is not provided. It is typically situated in and emergent from a specific context, where an
aspect or aspects of the problem scenario are not well specified, the problem description are not
definite, or the information needed to solve it is not expressed in the problem statement (Chi&Glaser,
1985 as cited by Bulusan, F., et.al, 2019)

Approaches to Problem Solving

Ø Behaviorist approach- reproducing a previous behavior to solve a problem.

Ø Gestalts approach is a productive process
Problem-solving Cycle

Step 1. Identify the problem and opportunities

Step 2. Define goals
Step 3. Explore possible strategies
Step 4. Anticipate outcomes and act.
Step 5. Look back and learn

Barriers to Problem Solving

Ø Mental set. The situation when the person becomes fixated on the use of a strategy that previously
produced the right solution, but in the new situation, it is not the application.

Ø Functional fixedness. This is a phenomenon when individual fail to recognized that objects can have
other purpose, aside from the traditional use they were made for.

Ø Failure to distinguish relevant and irrelevant information. This happens when a situation arises during
the analysis of a problem when an individual cannot discern the relevant information needed in planning
the strategy to solve the problem.

Creativity in Problem-Solving
Creativity is defined as “the interaction among aptitude process, and the environment by which
an individual or group produces a perceptible product that is both novel and useful as defined within a
social context. “ (Plucker et.al, 2004 as cited by Bulusan, F., et.al, 2019).
 Varied theories explain how creativity is developed. One is developmental theory, which
advocates that creativity develops over time (from potential to achievement). Cognitive theory of
creativity also states that ideational thought processes are foundational to creative persons and
accomplishments. The stage and componential process of creativity point out that creative expression
proceeds through a series of stages or components.
One of the first models of creativity was advanced by Guilford (1967) where he considered
creativity as a divergent thinking act. He claimed that creativity is the result of several processes:
fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration.

Fluency is defined as the ability to produce a number of ideas or problem solutions in a short
period. Flexibility is the ability to simultaneously propose a variety of approaches to a specific problem.
Originality refers to ability to produce new, original ideas, as well as products. Lastly, elaboration is the
ability to systematize, organize the details of an idea in one’s head, and carry it out.

The creative process follows a certain stage. Preparation is the initial stage, which involves
becoming passionate about an idea that motivates you to gather materials. Next is incubation, the
period where you unconsciously continue to work on the idea, but there is no active attempt to solve
the problem. The mind just wanders until an idea takes form. Illumination is the next step; a sudden
idea pops out in your mind. The subconscious thoughts find the connection with the consciousness,
resulting in the AHA and Eureka movements. Once the idea is concretized, it needs to be verified.
Verification is the final stage that involves working with the idea into a form that can be tested and once
proven, it could be communicated to others.

Transfer of Learning in Problem Solving and Creativity

The phenomenon that experiences in solving problems are carried over or used in solving new
problems is referred to as the transfer of learning. Transfer of learning are categorized into the
following:

1. Near transfer and far transfer. When learners apply their knowledge and skills in situations and
contexts that are very close to those in which the learning occurred, it is near transfer. When the learner
performs a skill in a context very much different from the context it was learned, it is far transfer.

2. Positive and negative transfer. When the learners can use their prior knowledge or experiences in
solving a new problem situation, it is positive transfer. When the previous learning or skill obstructs the
acquisition of a new skill or the solving of a problem, it is negative transfer.

3. Vertical transfer and lateral transfer. When learners use their learning at a lower level to perform a
higher level of cognitive task, vertical transfer occurs and it is the goal of the spiral progression in the K
to 12 curriculums. When learners use the same skills to solve a related but different problem of the
comparable level of difficulty after learning it, lateral transfer happens.
4. Neutral or zero transfer. This happens when past learning or prior experience does not enhance or
hinder the acquisition of a new skill or in the solution of a problem.