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Subject PSYCHOLOGY

Paper No and Title Paper No 3: Qualitative Methods

Module No and Title Module No 26: Case Study

Module Tag PSY_P3_M26

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Learning Outcomes
2. Introduction
3. Case Study Method in Research
3.1 What is a case study?
3.1.1 Definition of Case study Method
3.1.2 Characteristics of Case Study Method
3.2 Evolution of Case Studies and its uses
3.3 Assumption and Reasons for conducting a case study
3.3.1 Assumption underlying the use of Case Study Method
3.3.2 Why is a Case Study Conducted?
3.4 Evaluation of Case Study Method
3.4.1 Advantages
3.4.2 Limitations
4. Summary

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1. Learning Outcomes
After studying this module, you shall be able to

 Familiarize yourself with the case study method and its distinguishing characteristics

 Know the history of the method and its applications in the present day

 Understand the rationale behind the method and why it is conducted

 Evaluate the method and weigh its advantages and limitations

2. Introduction

 Famous Ground-breaking Case Studies

The Erratic Case of Phineas Gage: In 19th century Vermont, Phineas Gage worked as a railroad
worker. He suffered a severe brain injury when a 43-inch tamping iron that he was using to pack
explosive powder into a hole detonated. It drove through his brain and out through the top of his
skull. Although he miraculously survived, his friends and family noticed changes in his behavior.

He seemed to have lost his inhibitions, grown impatient and violent and behaved inappropriately
in public. Gage's case was studied by Dr. John Martyn Harlow and examined the effect of severe
brain injury, specifically the frontal lobe, on a person's personality. This famous case study
provides seminal work on how damage to the frontal lobe can impact human behavior, mood and
personality

“Genie”, The Feral Child: ‘Feral children’ is a term used to describe children who have been
raised in environments of extreme social depravity and isolation. Abandonment of the child is a
major cause, along with child abuse. Malnourishment, in conjugation with insufficient mental
stimulation results in stunted cognitive development. Found in 1970 at the age of 13, Genie was a
feral child who had spent the majority of her life strapped to a potty chair in her bedroom. This
was motivated by her father’s belief that she was mentally retarded, which necessitated action to
“protect her.” She was physically abused every time she uttered a word or made a sound. The
result of such abuse was severely deficient mental and physical development in addition to the
inability to talk properly. After being rescued by caregivers, Genie made some progress,
including learning to communicate with them by means of nonverbal cues. Unfortunately, as
monetary resources and research vigour diminished, Genie passed through multiple foster homes
and today, at 54 years of age, is psychologically restricted. The defense mechanism of regression
has come into play and she now copes with situations with silence. Genie’s story contributed
widely to theories of both psychological and linguistic nature. It demonstrated the importance of
enculturation in the acquisition of social skills. Mental stimulation, from a young age, is key for
the development of motor and sensory skills. Genie’s case lends support to the “critical period
hypothesis” of language acquisition. Post the initial few years of life which are considered as the
critical developmental period, learning a language becomes increasingly difficult for a human.
Having missed this period of development, Genie was unable to ever converse using a
grammatically correct verbal language.

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Jill Price: Jill Price is a patient with hyperthymesia, a rare

condition of possessing an incredible memory that permits her
to remember various insignificant aspects of her life in remarkable detail. She can, for instance,
remember her dinner from two decades ago, on an undistinguished afternoon. This capacity of
incredible memory has caused her severe emotional trauma because she remembers in detail
every painful remark or event in her life. She actively participates in studies to reveal more about
the psychological aspects of this condition.

More current memory tests, however, show how Mrs. Price isn’t really a memory whiz, and that
her expertise has been exaggerated. She is unable to memorize a new list of words with
pronounced accuracy. Her memory, in many ways, is average. She can remember popular events,
but only if she can find them in some way pertinent to herself. One of the significant, previously
underestimated aspects of Mrs. Price’s condition is her OCD­like symptoms. She has the
tendency to hoard and feels compelled to systematise her life. Perhaps most importantly, she
spends a considerable amount of time consistently thinking about herself and events that take
place in her life, precisely encoding them into her memory

H.M.:Attempts to trace the development of neuroscience bring to light one of the most critical
cases in the history of the field, that of Henry Gustav Molaison. When Molaison was 9, a bicycle
accident caused serious damage to his brain which led to multiple seizures. In 1953, as a final
attempt at curing these spasms, surgeons removed layers of tissue from his hippocampus, an area
that is dominant in the construction of long-term memories. As a result, Molaison now suffered
from severe amnesia. His condition made him incapable of creating new memories. Furthermore,
even recollections from the past were impacted by mild retrograde amnesia, which resulted in
him being able to recall only faint images of his childhood. Dr. Brenda Milner’s analysis of
H.M’s case consequently aided the study of human memory and memory disorders. In multiple
trials, Dr. Milner had H.M. perform an elementary motor task. At each trial, H.M experienced the
task as an entirely new phenomenon. However, in spite of this feeling of unfamiliarity, H.M
gradually became more skilled at the task with practice. This points to the conclusion that H.M
had been classically conditioned to perform the task, without him being aware of any learning
taking place. Dr. Milner’s study demonstrated how memory consists of two systems that operate
simultaneously. The first is explicit and declarative. It includes facts that we are aware of and are
able to declare. These abilities are determined by the hippocampus, which in H.M’s case had been
partially removed by surgery. The other system is that of retention, a function that takes places
independent of conscious remembrance; in H.M’s case, this was demonstrated in his
subconscious recollection of motor functions. These results radically transformed the perception
of memory and the neurological structures and processes that guide it.

3. Case Study Method in Research

3.1 What is a case study?

Let’s begin by understanding what case study as a method in behavioural research is. A case
study is a qualitative research method involving an in-depth and detailed investigation to gather
information about one or more individuals or groups. It lays emphasis on studying few cases in
great depth instead of gaining surface information about many cases. As Madan, Paliwal &
Bhardwaj (2011) point out, “It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth.”

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The data is collected not just from one source but many and the
researcher, during the course of the study, employs several
research tools such as interviews, observation, and psychometric tests; Individually or in
combination to comprehensively and exhaustively study the aspect of concern. For example, a
researcher interested in conducting a case study on an autistic child might observe the child in
different settings, interview the parents and administer psychometric tests to draw inferences
about the behaviour of interest. The holistic understanding of the child will thus be gained by
putting together and analysing the data collected from multiple sources.

3.1.1 Definition of case study method

Different authors define case study in their own distinctive ways. Young (1960) in her book
Scientific Social Surveys and Research describes case study as “a comprehensive study of a
social unit be that unit a person, a group, a social institution, a district or a community.” Her
definition incorporates drawing inferences about each and every aspect being studied in minute
details.

Odum & Jocher (1929) believe “the case study method is a technique by which individual factor
whether be it an institution or just an episode in a life of an individual or a group is analysed in its
relationship to any other in the group.” Thus a fairly exhaustive study of a person or group is
called or a life or case history.

(as cited in Madan, Paliwal & Bhardwaj, 2011, p.113)

3.1.2 Characteristics of the case study method

Common to all definitions are certain characteristics which distinguish the case study method
from others. Thus, by its very nature the case study is:

Descriptive: The data collected in a case study comprises of description of psychological

processes and events and the context in which they occur. Quantitative data such as the frequency
of a behaviour of interest may be present but the emphasis is always on elaborating on the when,
how and where of the behaviour.
Narrow: Although a case study might be conducted on a group, it is rarely done in practice due to
factors such as time and resources. A case study therefore, usually concerns itself with one
particular individual and one or few aspects of the individual. For example, a researcher studying
peer interaction on social networking sites in adolescents would limit his concern to just that and
not study other aspects of social interaction such as parent-child relationship.

Highly Detailed: Being a qualitative method, case study is capable of producing “thick”
descriptions about the individual, event or behaviour of interest. Its narrow and case-centric
approach lends to its ability to describe such aspects in great detail.

Combination of Objective and Subjective Data: The data collected in a case study is capable of
representing any combination of objective and subjective data. The description of behaviour and
its context accounts for the objective aspect which is supplemented by details of the subjective
matters such as feelings, beliefs, impressions and interpretations. This quality of integrating
different types of data helps in achieving an in-depth understanding of a single individual.

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Process oriented: Case studies allow the researcher to explore

and describe the nature of processes occurring over time
instead of following the snapshot approach to studying behaviour, which only takes into account
the behaviour and experiences as they occur at a single point in time. This facilitates the study of
changes that might occur over time. It is for this reason that researchers studying developmental
psychology, as we also read in Genie’s case study, given in the introduction often employ the
case study method.

(Adapted from Dyer, 1995, p. 48-49)

3.2 Evolution of Case Study and its Uses

The use of case study as a methodology has a long history within the sciences, social sciences,
and humanities. It can be traced back to the 1930s when it started being used in medical research.
Through a case study, medical practitioners would take detailed history of illnesses suffered by
the patient. The case study method has the distinct quality of allowing the researcher to make
inferences outside the lab, in natural settings while retaining the scientific quality of the method
of data collection and the research as a whole.

As such, it gained significance as a research methodology for identifying rich sources of data,
further developing into a technique that combines both qualitative and quantitative research.
Although initially rooted within a sciences approach, the case study method increased in
popularity within the social sciences and has been credited as being especially useful in
practice-oriented fields as management, education, public administration, and the human services.
It has been an essential tool for advancing researchers’ knowledge of various individuals, groups,
events, and phenomena.

The case study method was first used by Frederic Le Play (1829) on cyclic changes that
contribute to decline or rise in family morale. Dr. William Healy used this method in 1912 to
study juvenile delinquency and considered it a better method over and above the mere use of
statistical data, which he believed restricts the scope of social sciences.

Case studies have been widely used in psychology and amongst the best were the ones carried out
by Sigmund Freud.He conducted extremely comprehensive investigations into the private lives
of his patients in order to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

The best known of Freud's case studies include Little Hans (1909)and The Rat Man (1909). In
keeping with its long history, case histories continue to remain one of the primary methods of
investigation within abnormal psychology and psychiatry. For students of these disciplines they
can give a vivid insight into mental illnesses as well as patients suffering from them. This insight
can then be used to trigger further, more specific research focusing on issues such effectiveness of
treatment plans, onset of disorders, factors that influence etiology etc.

Similarly, anthropologists, historians, novelists have used this method concerning problems
pertaining to their areas of interest. The case study method is also used by management experts to
study clues pertaining to several management problems. Therefore, the use of this method
permeates the boundaries of a particular discipline and is effectively used in different fields.

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3.3 Assumptions and Reasons for Conducting a Case

Study

The choice of the method rests with the researcher, depending upon several factors such as the
research’s own skills, the resources available to carry out the study, the logic of the research, its
objectives and applications. It is, however, important to understand the rationale behind using a
particular method.

3.3.1 Assumptions underlying the use of case study method

It is assumed that no matter the individual differences that exist between different
cases/individuals, there is certain uniformity across the basic human nature which enables case
study as a method to draw generalizations, however low the level of generalizability may be. This
generalizing ability is greater in natural sciences as opposed to social sciences as phenomena are
understood as being universal, however because social sciences take into account the individual
and/or group differences in behaviour and experiences, there is always room for exception.
Despite this shortcoming, case study method is used to understand phenomena as they occur
across individuals. For example, developmental psychologists often use case studies to track
stages of development in children. It is a well-known fact that certain developmental milestones
must be achieved at a particular stage. Since the stages of development are more or less consistent
in the normal population, case study can be effectively used to draw generalizations in such cases.

The history of the unit of study can be exhaustively explored and researched using a case study,
giving the researcher an elaborate timeline of the individual’s life as it occurred. Case studies are
often longitudinal i.e. done over a period of time allowing the researcher to track changes in the
aspect being studied. A case study on displacement of people during the Partition of India and
Pakistan may involve a comprehensive understanding of life and livelihood of the people before
and after the Partition and its impact.

The fundamental assumption behind the case study method is the comprehensive and elaborate
study of the individual or event. One unit is exhaustively studied and focused on to derive
maximum information relevant to the objective and scope of the study. This in itself gives the
researcher using the case study method a wider perspective than most other methods.

3.3.2 Why is a case study conducted?

According to Coolican (2006, p.101), a case study may be conducted for the following reasons:

Outstanding cases: The cases are studied because they are so rare and intrinsically interesting in
themselves. The ‘distinctiveness’ of a case becomes a huge factor in itself, which in turn leads to
the selection of this method for carrying out research. For instance, an exceptionally talented
individual’s life and his extraordinary achievements can be effectively captured using a case
study.

Contradicting a theory: As mentioned earlier, social sciences understand and accept the existence
of exceptions and thus, one single counter-example can prove to be a challenge to any theory. For
instance, if a maternally deprived child is found to have developed quite normally in most
important respects, then we have to adjust the view that such deprivation is alwaysdamaging.

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Data pool: A mass of information from several case studies can

be pooled and analyzed for specific factors that might emerge.
Once patters emerge and are linked with others, more quantitative might be employed and this
time not on special cases. For example, if a researcher wishes to study the lifestyle of a
schizophrenic patient, he/she may choose to make use of several case studies involving different
people suffering from schizophrenia, and then look at the commonly emerging aspects.

Insight: The fact that in-depth case studies contain rich information is one of their unique
strengths, even when they might not lead to further quantitative studies. Very often one might not
be able to imagine the special circumstances of the individual, nor their ways of coping with
adversity. In such situations, findings from a case study can inspire the researchers to formulate
new and unique ways of looking at a psychological phenomenon, can teach greater empathy and
understanding, and can add to our overall psychological knowledge without necessarily testing a
specific hypothesis.

3.4 Evaluation of the Case Study Method

Any research method is a tool of knowledge generation and information-gathering in the hands of
a researcher. Each method comes with its own set of advantages and limitations, which must be
carefully weighed before use. It is the discretion of the researcher to assess these and effectively
use the tool for making inferences about the individual or phenomenon of interest. Based on this
assessment, the researcher decides the appropriateness of the method for his/her research.

3.4.1 Advantages

The detailed descriptions and comprehensive study of the individual enable us to gain deep
insight. In the words of Charles Horton Cooley, “Case study deepens our perception and gives us
a clearer insight into life… It gets at behaviour directly and not by indirect and abstract
approach.”

A thick account of personal experiences can be maintained. This allows the researcher to
historically analyze past experiences, which may not be tapped by a method like observation.
Individual and social changes can be tracked using case studies as they are usually done over a
period of time.
It can combine information from various sources and methods, thus allowing the researcher to
look at a particular case from different vantage points and refining his/her knowledge about the
case of interest. Each source or tool supplements information from the other and paints a
complete picture about the individual.

The case study method highlights individual differences and acts as an excellent tool for studying
phenomenon about which little is known. Therefore, case studies are extensively used in
exploratory research. In the case of Phineas Gage, studied by Dr. John Martyn Harlow, the case
study method provided a ground-breaking finding about the impact of damage in the frontal lobe
on personality and behaviour.

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3.4.2 Limitations

Case studies are often done on special, peculiar and rare individuals or events and hence, suffer
from low generalizability. The personal experiences of an individual and the inferences drawn
about them are not always comparable with other people.

The case study method is very time consuming and costly.

The research who undertakes a case study must be extremely skilled and rigorously trained in
scientific investigation.

Critics often suggest that case studies lack scientific rigor and objectivity in terms of the way the
data is gathered, presented and analyzed.

Case studies cannot practically be conducted on a large sample of individuals due to time and
resource constraints.

It is often only the voice of the researcher that is expressed in a case study and is susceptible to
subjectivity of the researcher.

5. Summary

Case studiesare in-depth investigations of an individual, group, event or community.

Typically data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g.
observations & interviews). The case study research method originated in clinical medicine.

The data collected is highly descriptive and detailed in nature, narrow in the sense that it focuses
on limited aspects on the case it’s studying. The data collected is a combination of objective and
subjective data. It is capable of studying changes occurring over time.

It assumes that basic human behaviour is uniform in certain ways, allowing a certain level of
generalizations, however low that degree might be. The major reasons for choosing to conduct a
case study are to study outstanding cases, contradict an existing theory, generate a data pool and
develop insight into cases.

The main advantages of case study as a research method is its capability to help the researcher
gain deep insights into the behaviour or event of interest and help maintain a detailed account of
personal experiences. Combining data from various sources, it helps highlight individual
differences to even help in studying phenomenon about which is little known previously. There
are certain limitations to the method, though. It studies rare individuals or events and thus
Suffers from low generalizability and also becomes costlier and more time consuming to conduct.
It is for this reason that case studies cannot be conducted on a large number of people.

The researcher is required to be highly skilled and trained, and still the method is critiqued for
lacking objectivity and depending largely on the voice of the researcher alone.

PSYCHOLOGY Paper No.: 3: Qualitative Methods

Module No.: 26 Case Study
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PSYCHOLOGY Paper No.: 3: Qualitative Methods

Module No.: 26 Case Study