minerals

Article
Hydrodynamic and Flotation Kinetic Analysis of a
Large Scale Mechanical Agitated Flotation Cell with
the Typical Impeller and the Arc Impeller
Zhengchang Shen 1,2 , Ming Zhang 1,2,3, *, Xuesai Fan 1,2 , Shuaixing Shi 1,2 and Dengfeng Han 1,2
1 Beijing Engineering Research Center on Efficient and Energy Conservation Equipment of Mineral
Processing, BGRIMM Machinery & Automation Technology Co. LTD., Beijing 100160, China;
shen_zc@bgrimm.com (Z.S.); fanxuesai@bgrimm.com (X.F.); shi_sx@bgrimm.com (S.S.);
handengfeng@bgrimm.com (D.H.)
2 State Key Laboratory of Mineral Processing, BGRIMM Technology Group, Beijing 100160, China
3 School of the Mechanical Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
* Correspondence: zhangming@bgrimm.com




Received: 29 November 2018; Accepted: 22 January 2019; Published: 29 January 2019


Abstract: The processing of low grade mineral ores using large scale flotation cells is obviously more
advantageous than smaller-scale processing. Large-scale flotation cells have become increasingly
important for effective volume scale-up. In this study, the latest and largest flotation cell in China,
with an effective volume of 680 m3 , is considered. Hydrodynamics and flotation kinetics analyses are
conducted using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation. It is demonstrated that the flotation
cell with a typical impeller produces suitable hydrodynamics for mineral particles based on analysis
of the flow pattern, gas dispersion and solid suspension. The performance of the large-scale flotation
cell is studied using hydrodynamic performance parameters. The variation of the performance
parameters, such as the power number (Np ), the Froude number (Fr ), the air flow number (Na ), and so
on, with the flotation cell volumes, followed trends similar to that of previous cells of a different
size, which were proven to be effective for engineering applications. To decrease the detachment
of mineral particles, a new type of impeller, for which the impeller plate is a hyperbolic curve,
viz. an arc impeller, was developed. Compared with the typical impeller, the arc impeller expands
and lifts the low circulating flow, thereby shortening the transportation distance of the mineral
particles. The data indicates that kinetic eddy dissipation plays a key role in determining the collision
kernel and collision probability profile. The newly designed arc impeller leads to a higher collision
probability than the typical impeller, resulting in better flotation performance. This research should
aid in the optimization of the structure of the 680 m3 flotation cell.

Keywords: scale-up; computational fluid dynamics simulation; hydrodynamics number; flotation

kinetics; optimization

1. Introduction
Froth flotation is a technique that is used extensively in the mineral industry, to process most
metallic minerals. The proportion of low-grade ores has increased with the global depletion of mineral
resources. The increased capacity of concentrators has escalated the demand for large-scale flotation
cells [1]. Therefore, flotation equipment has undergone a significant increase in size, where large-scale
flotation cells have prominent advantages for improving metallurgical performance, reducing the
area of the plant blueprint, lowering the power consumption of the unit ore and decreasing labor
cost. Since the end of the 1940s, there has been a trend towards the scale-up of flotation cells. At the
end of the 1990s, a flotation cell with an effective volume of 200 m3 was developed. In the last two

Minerals 2019, 9, 79; doi:10.3390/min9020079 www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals

Minerals 2019, 9, 79 2 of 17

decades, flotation cells have undergone a dramatic increase in size. In 2007, the first 300 m3 Tank
Cell flotation cell was designed and was industrially applied to Macraes gold ore, New Zealand [2].
Furthermore, 320 m3 BGRIMM (Beijing General Research Institute of Mining and Metallurgy) flotation
cells are also in operation in Toromocho Copper Mine, Peru and Wunugetushan Copper Mine, China [3].
Flotation cells are conventionally designed using empirically-derived relations and geometric similarity.
The continual scale-up of flotation cells is still a significant developing prospect. A 500 m3 Tank Cell
flotation cell was designed for the industrial experiment in Finland and a 620 m3 Tank Cell flotation
cell has also been completed in the design [4]. A 660 m3 Super Cell flotation cell was manufactured for
the industrial experiment released at the Procemin conference in 2015 [5]. Thus, the development of
a flotation cell with a volume exceeding 600 m3 has become a notable and crucial research field for
researchers worldwide.
Table 1 summarizes the key research about computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation
and scale-up of flotation cells, not including other fields such as reagents, molecular computing,
the flotation process, and so on. Due to the weakening of mineral resources, major organizations
have devoted themselves to the engineering applications of large flotation cells and the development
of the new stirred mechanism. In the early stages, researchers studied the method of scale-up for
flotation cells based on hydrodynamic numbers and engineering experience. With the application of
large flotation cells worldwide, the CFD method is used in flotation cell design and optimization [6].
The CFD method provides more detailed information on the flow than previous experimental research,
especially for large-scale flotation cells. Thus, the key components of the flotation cell, the impeller
and stator, are the one of key points of the research.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has become a popular approach for the research and design
of flotation cells [7]. A review of CFD simulation in flotation cells was summarized by Wang et al. [8].
Numerical simulations have been conducted to study the single-phase flow field in a 0.8 m3 “Metso
Mineral” cell and the overall flow characteristics are provided [9]. A comparative study of three
turbulence models which predicted the flows in a Tank Cell flotation cell was conducted, and the local
flow field of the rotor–stator mechanism was presented [10]. CFD has been used to model single-phase
and two-phase flows in Dorr-Oliver flotation cells, from laboratory models to full-scale machines [11].
Multiphase flow numerical simulation was carried out to investigate the air dispersion and solid
suspension in a Tank Cell flotation cell [12]. The effects of the impeller angle were analyzed in a 0.2 m3
pilot KYF flotation cell by CFD and Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) [13]. The CFD results were
consistent with the PIV measurement. Further, A CFD-based flotation model was developed to predict
the flotation kinetics in the flotation cell. The connecting of hydrodynamics and flotation kinetics using
the CFD simulation is an elegant innovation. The recovery and flotation probability can be obtained
for various particle diameters [14]. Thus, many researchers have devoted themselves to optimizing the
flotation cell using numerical simulation.
In order to estimate the properties of the flotation cell, a series of hydrodynamic numbers are
established to analyze the hydrodynamics characteristics [15]. Arbiter proposed seven important
hydrodynamic numbers, including the power number, circulation capacity, flow number, and so on [16].
Zlokarnik summarized 24 dimensionless numbers for mineral processing and chemical engineering,
including the Reynolds number, Prandtl number, Froude number, and so on [17]. The designs of the
Wemco and Tank Cell flotation cells are based on the previous hydrodynamic criteria. In recent years,
Yianatos et al. (2006–2012) calculated the effective mean residence time for the industrial cells from
the residence time distribution (RTD) measurements to evaluate the industrial flotation cell [1,18–22].
The investigation of flotation cells via hydrodynamic and flotation kinetic analysis has become a
rising trend.
Minerals 2019, 9, 79 3 of 17

Table 1. The summary of the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation and scale-up of
flotation cells.

Research Comment Author/Organization

Tank cell flotation cells scale-up from 60–620 in 1960s-now; m3
Outotec company
The new flotation force impeller was developed

Large flotation Dorroliver/Wemco flotation cells scale up to 660 m3 /300 m3 .

FLSmidth company
application The next step impeller and stator was developed
KFY/JJF flotation cells scale up to 680 m3 /320 m3 from
1990–2018. The arc impeller and other newly designed impeller BGRIMM company
are developing
hydrodynamic numbers are established to analyze the
Nelson [15]
hydrodynamics characteristics in Wemco flotation cell
Propose seven important hydrodynamic numbers to scaling up Arbiter [16]

Scale-up method summarized 24 dimensionless numbers for mineral processing

Zlokarnik [17]
of flotation cell and chemical engineering
Based on the RTD research to scale up and optimize large
Yianatos et al. [18–20,22]
flotation cell
Scale-up method of BGRIMM flotation cell based on four
Shen et al. [23,24]
scale-up numbers
R(t) = Rmax (1 − e−kt ) Garcfa-Zuniga [25]
Rc R f
R= R∞ R R +( 1− R c ) Dobby & Finch [26]
c f
Kinetic model ∞
s
R(t) = Rmax (1 − e−kt ) f (k) E(t)dkdt Yianatos [1,21]
0
dNp
= −kNp Ahmed and Jameson [27]
dt
Single phase:
Continuity:
∂ρ
∂t + ∇ · ρu = 0
Momentum:
∂ρu
∂t + ∇ · ρuu = −∇ p + ∇ · (µL,i + µT,i )(∇ui + (∇ui )T + ρg
Euler-Euler:
Continuity:
∂ ( αi ρi )
∂t + ∇ · α i ρ i u i = Si
Monentum:
∂ ( αi ρi ui )
∂t + ∇ · ( αi ρi ui ui ) =
∇ · [αi (µL,i + µT,i )(∇ui + (∇ui )T )] + αi ( f i − ∇ pi ) · + Fi + Si ui
CFD model Fi = Fd + FA + FL + FT + Fother Wang et al. [8]
Euler-Lagrangian:
Continuity:
∂ρ
∂t + ∇ · ρu = 0
Monentum:
+ ∇ · ρuu = −∇ p + ∇ · (µL,i + µT,i )(∇ui + (∇ui )T ) + ρg
∂ρu
∂t
Continuity:
∂(αl ρ)
∂t + ∇ · αl ρu = 0
Monentum:
∂(αl ρu)
∂t + ∇ · αl ρuu =
−αl ∇ p + αl ∇ · (µL,i + µT,i )(∇ui + (∇ui )T ) + αl ρg
Particle or bubble motion:
mi du
dt = Fd + Fp + FG + Fother
i
Minerals 2019, 9, 79 4 of 17

Table 1. Cont.

Research Comment Author/Organization

Salem-Said et al. [28]
Flow pattern research including mixing, air bubbles dispersion
Tiitinen [12,29];
and so on, such as air forced flotation cell of TankCell, KYF,
Xia et al. [10]
Dorr-Oliver flotation cell
Shen et al. [30]
Self-induced flotation cell research on air suction, flow pattern Fayed and Ragab [31]
CFD simulation Particle-air bubbles collision, adherin, detachment research
Koh and Schwarz [7,32–35]
predict the metallurgical performance
Recovery simulation would be compared with experiment Koh and Schwarz [14]
CFD model verification using experimental data Shi et al. [13]
Optimized of flotation cell of structure Zhou et al. [36]
where Rmax (R∞ ): the theoretical maximum recovery achievable, considering the equipment effciency and mineral
liberation; t: time; k: flotation constant; Rc : the recovery from the collection zone; Rf : the recovery from froth zone;
E(t): the residence time distribution; f(k): the flotation rate distribution; Np is the number of free particles in the pulp
phase; u: velocity vector; ρ: density; t: time; p: pressure; g: gravity vector; α: phase volume fraction; µ: dynamic
viscosity; F: inter-phase force; Fd : the drag force; FA : the virtual mass force; FL : the lift force; FT : the turbulence
dispersion force; Fother : the other force; f : body force; Si: source term. The subscript: i: represents for each phase;
l: liquid; g: gas; d: drag; p: pressure gradient; G: gravity.

In this study, a 680 m3 BGRIMM flotation cell is initially designed using empirically-derived
relations, and CFD simulations are used to provide more details for further study. Multiphase flow
numerical simulations are implemented to investigate the hydrodynamics and flotation kinetics of the
large-scale flotation cell. The variation of the hydrodynamic numbers such as the power number (Np ),
the Froude number (Fr ), the air flow number (Na ), and so on, with volume scale-up, suggests good
performance of the large-scale flotation cell. To decrease the detachment of the mineral particles in
the large-scale flotation cell, a newly designed impeller, for which the impeller plate is a hyperbolic
curve, namely an arc impeller, is developed. A comparison of the effects of the typical impeller and arc
impeller on the hydrodynamics and flotation kinetics is also presented. This research should aid the
optimizing of the structure of the 680 m3 flotation cell.

2. Model Description

2.1. Hydrodynamic Numbers of Flotation Cells

The design of a large-scale flotation cell has been primarily based on geometric similarity,
dimensional analysis and empirical relations, employing dimensionless numbers, with the objective to
achieve a flow pattern, air dispersion and solid suspension on different scales [19]. Six hydrodynamic
numbers are listed in Table 2, these parameters can be used to evaluate the performances of the flotation
cell. The power number is a significant dimensionless factor that indicates the effects of variation
of the cell structure on the power consumption. The power number is also a critical factor for the
scale-up of stirred equipment in mineral processing and chemical engineering. For cells of different
scales, the power number remains almost the same. The power intensity is a criterion that is used to
evaluate the power consumption per unit volume, and reflects the economy of the flotation equipment.
The circulation capacity indicates the fluid pump effect at a given time interval and indicates the
relationship between the effective volume of the cell and the pumping effect. Moreover, it can represent
the collision probability of particles and bubbles. The Froude number, the ratio between the centrifugal
or inertial forces due to the pumping action of the impeller and the gravitational forces due to the
hydrostatic head in a flotation cell, is another important and similar factor. This number can be
used to estimate the solid suspension to some extent. The air flow number defines the critical ratio
between the air flow rate and the impeller pumping rate regardless of the cell size and represents the
upward velocity of the bubbles. The air capacity number represents the total air holdup, indicating the
aeration intensity.
Minerals 2019, 9, 79 5 of 17

Table 2. The typical hydrodynamic performance parameters for flotation cell.

Parameter Definition
Power Number, Np P/ρN3 D5
Power intensity P/V
Circulation Intensity Qr /ND3
Froude Number, Fr N2 D/g
Air Capacity Number, Ca Q/ND3
Air Flow Number, Na Q/Ac Vt
where P: the net power input in the water system; ρ: density; N: rotation; D: the diameter of the cell; g: the acceleration
due to gravity; V: the effective volume of the flotation cell; Q (m3 /s): the gas volumetric flow; Qr : the circulation
volume of the impeller; Ac : the area of the cross section in the flotation cell; Vt : the velocity maximum of the impeller.

2.2. Flotation Kinetics

Flotation is a complicated process that is not only a multiphase flow but also a physical and
chemical process. For simplification, flotation is generally regarded as a first-order process considering
the interaction of air bubbles and mineral particles as follows:

dNp
= −z1 Np Nb Pc Pa Ps (1)
dt
where Np and Nb : the particle and bubble number concentrations; Pc, Pa and Ps: the probabilities of
particle–bubble collision, adhesion and stabilization against external forces; z1 : the particle–bubble
collision kernel.
Z pb = −z1 Np Nb (2)

where Zpb is the particle–bubble collision rate in turbulent flow and is dependent on the size of the
particles and bubbles.
Abrahamson [37], Schubert and Bischofberger [38] have proposed the following equation for the
particle–bubble collision kernel.
2 
d p + db
 1/2
z1 = 5.0 U p2 + Ub2 (3)
2

where dp : the particle diameter; db : the bubble diameter; Up : the turbulent fluctuating velocity of the
particle relative to the fluid; Ub : the turbulent fluctuating velocity of the bubble relative to the fluid.
Schubert and Bischofberger [38] reported that these parameters are related to the local turbulent
dissipation rate.
 ρ −ρ 2/3
0.4ε4/9 d7/9
i
i
ρf
f

Ui = (4)
ν1/3
where ε is the turbulent dissipation rate per unit mass, ν is the kinematic viscosity, qf is the fluid density,
and qi is the density of the particle (p) or bubble (b). In the equation, we assumed the qb = 0.5qf .
The collision probability is a significant parameter that indicates the performance of flotation cells.
Yoon and Luttrell [39] defined the collision probability as follows:
 2
dp

4
Pc = 1.5 + Re0.72
b (5)
15 d2b

The bubble Reynolds number (Reb ) is given as follows.

q
db Ub2
Reb = (6)
ν
Minerals 2019, 9 FOR PEER REVIEW 6

d b U b2
Minerals 2019, 9, 79 Reb = 6 of(6)
17
ν

2.3. Geometry
2.3. Geometry and
and CFD
CFD Model
Model
This study
This study was
was conducted
conducted usingusing aa mechanical
mechanical agitated
agitated flotation
flotation cell
cell with
with anan effective
effective volume
volume of of
680 m 3 which is developed by BGRIMM. The large-scale flotation cell consists of a tank with an inner
680 m which is developed by BGRIMM. The large-scale flotation cell consists of a tank with an inner
3

diameter of
diameter of 11,000
11,000 mmmm and and aa tank
tank height
height ofof 8500
8500 mm.mm. The
The speed
speed of of the
the impeller
impeller is is about
about 7–97–9 m/s
m/s
which is determined by mineral properties. The two types of impellers
which is determined by mineral properties. The two types of impellers were introduced into the were introduced into the
large-scale flotation cell in this study. The typical impeller features a horizontal
large-scale flotation cell in this study. The typical impeller features a horizontal impeller plate that impeller plate that has
beenbeen
has proven to exhibit
proven good performance
to exhibit good performance in engineering applications
in engineering (Figure 1).
applications The newly
(Figure 1). Thedesigned
newly
designed impeller, namely the arc impeller, features a hyperbolic curve at the impeller plate the
impeller, namely the arc impeller, features a hyperbolic curve at the impeller plate for improving for
performance
improving theofperformance
the large-scale of flotation cell (Figure
the large-scale 2). cell (Figure 2).
flotation
The numerical
The numerical approaches
approaches for for multiphase
multiphase flow flow can
can bebe classified
classified roughly
roughly intointo direct
direct numerical
numerical
simulation (DNS), Euler-Lagrange, and Euler-Euler models. The Euler-Euler approach practical
simulation (DNS), Euler-Lagrange, and Euler-Euler models. The Euler-Euler approach is more is more
and appropriate
practical for the high
and appropriate for thegas
highvolume fraction
gas volume system,
fraction in which
system, bothboth
in which phases are are
phases modeled
modeled by
volume-averaged equations. The movement of the different continuous
by volume-averaged equations. The movement of the different continuous phases is described by phases is described by solving
the corresponding
solving Reynolds
the corresponding averaged
Reynolds Navier-Stokes
averaged equations
Navier-Stokes (Table 1):(Table 1):
equations
The overall
The overall dimensions
dimensions of of the
the model
model werewere established,
established, in in which
which the the model
model is is meshed
meshed withwith
hexahedral grids. As the geometrical size becomes increasingly large,
hexahedral grids. As the geometrical size becomes increasingly large, the advantages of the the advantages of the structured
mesh for reducing
structured mesh the for mesh number,
reducing the improving
mesh number,the mesh quality and
improving thereducing computational
mesh quality expense
and reducing
become obviousexpense
computational when compared
become with obviousthe unstructured
when compared mesh. Thethe
with entire flotation cellmesh.
unstructured mesh Theconsists of
entire
1.2 × 10 6 units, as is illustrated in Figure 1. Mesh quality is above 0.4 using the criterion “determinant
flotation cell mesh consists of 1.2×10 units, as is illustrated in Figures 1. Mesh quality is above 0.4
6

2×2×
using the2”criterion
in the ICEM software. 2Grid
“determinant × 2 ×refinement tests showed
2” in the ICEM software.lessGrid
thanrefinement
10% differencetests in the results
showed less
predicted with finer meshes.
than 10% difference in the results predicted with finer meshes.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure
Figure 1.
1. (a)
(a)The
Themesh
meshofof
thethe
typical impeller;
typical (b) (b)
impeller; TheThe
mesh of the
mesh of arc
theimpeller; (c) The
arc impeller; (c)mesh of
The mesh of
the stator.
the stator.

In the single phase simulation, the wall boundary condition is imposed on the top of the weir slip.
However, in the multiphase flow simulation, the degassing boundary condition is imposed to allow
only air to escape. Water is defined as a continuous fluid. Both air bubbles and mineral particles are
Minerals 2019, 9, 79 7 of 17

considered to be dispersed fluids. The air bubbles have a uniform diameter of 2 mm. The drag force
and surface tension are taken into account for the interface forces between the gas and liquid. The drag
model uses the drag coefficient with 5. The other phase interactions, such as lift force, virtual mass
force, turbulence dispersion force, and so on, are not considered in this study. The surface tension
is 0.072 N·m−1 . For solid and liquid phase, the mineral particles are defined as a dispersed solid,
and the uniform diameter is 0.074 mm. The mass concentration is 36% (volume fraction 15%). The ore
density is 2650 kg/m3 and the viscosity of the pulp is 3 mPa·s. The drag model of the Wen Yu model
was selected for the interface force between the solid and liquid. The particle suspension may cause
local high solid fractions, such as near the bottom of the tank. The Wen Yu model is valid for solid
phase volume fractions up to 0.2. Thus, other phase interactions between solid and liquid were not
considered. CFD simulations were implemented using computational fluid dynamics code CFX 14.0.
It is suitable that the standard k–ε turbulence model is used in a flotation cell simulation for liquid
phase. C1ε , C2ε and C3ε are the model constants in the turbulence kinetic energy transport equation
and the turbulence energy dissipation transport equation in Table 3. The estimated Reynolds Number
(ND2 ρ/µ) would be 5.7 × 106 . This means it is fully turbulent in the major region of the flotation cell.
For liquid and solid phase, the density difference and dispersed phase zero equation was selected.

Table 3. Turbulence model constants.

Constant Cµ C1ε C2ε C3ε k σε

k2
Value 0.09 1.44 1.92 1.0 0.4187 (C2ε −C1ε )C0.5
µ

In the CFD model of flotation cell is divided into multiple zones, such as the rotating impeller
and stationary tank that are separated by interface boundaries. The Multiple Reference Frame model
(MRF) approach was used to model the impeller rotating in the stationary tank. All equations are
calculated by using high resolution and the residual RMS of equation was about 1 × 10−3 to 1 × 10−4 .
The velocity fluctuation of the monitoring point was about 10%. The detailed information about CFD
is summarized in Tables 4 and 5. The numerical simulations are conducted in National Supercomputer
Center in Tianjin, China.

Table 4. CFD simulation settings.

Single Phase Multiphase

Mesh type Structure mesh
Analysis type Steady stead
Phase Water for continous fluid; air for dispersion fluid; solid for dispersion solid
Model K–ε model for liquid; dispersed phase zero equation for liquid
Multiple zone The Multiple Reference Frame model (MFR)

Table 5. CFD simulation initial and boundary conditions.

Single Phase Multiphase

Move zone with rotating of 90 rpm including impeller; stationary zone including stator
Mesh zone
and tank
Interface Connecting move zone and stationary zone with GGI
Materials Water; air bubbles of 2 mm, particles of 0.074 mm, 2650 kg/m3 , 3 mPa·s
Wall at the top of tank; Degassing at the top of tank as air outlet;
Boundary
others as wall Air inlet at the impeller; others as wall
The simulation result of the single phase;
100% of water; Pressure 1 atm; Gas liquid simulation: the volume fraction of water 1,
Initial velocity 0; Turbluence: the volume fraction of gas 0;
medium (intensity 5%) Gas–liquid–solid simulation: 15% of solid, 85% of water,
no air for initial
Solution High resolution in CFX software
 The simulation result of the single phase;
The simulation result of the single phase;
100% of water; Pressure 1 Gas liquid simulation: the volume fraction of water 1,
100% of water; Pressure 1 Gas liquid simulation: the volume fraction of water 1,
Initial atm; velocity 0; Turbluence: the volume fraction of gas 0;
Initial atm; velocity 0; Turbluence: the volume fraction of gas 0;
medium (intensity 5%) Gas–liquid–solid simulation: 15% of solid, 85% of water,
medium (intensity 5%) Gas–liquid–solid simulation: 15% of solid, 85% of water,
no air for initial
Minerals 2019, 9, 79 no air for initial 8 of 17
Solution High resolution in CFX software
Solution High resolution in CFX software

3. Resultsand
3. and Discussion
3. Results
Results and Discussion
Discussion
3.1.Hydrodynamics
3.1. Hydrodynamicsofofthe
theLarge
LargeFlotation
FlotationCell
Cell
3.1. Hydrodynamics of the Large Flotation Cell
3.1.1.
3.1.1.Flow
FlowPattern
Pattern
3.1.1. Flow Pattern
ItItisisimportant
importanttotoproduce
produceaasuitable
suitableflow
flowpattern
patternininaalarge-scale
large-scaleflotation
flotationcell.
cell.Figure
Figure22illustrates
illustrates
It is important to produce a suitable flow pattern in a large-scale flotation cell. Figure 2 illustrates
the
thestreamline
streamlineatatthe thecenter
centersection
sectionofofthe
theflotation
flotationcell
cellwith
withaatypical
typicalimpeller.
impeller.AAcirculating
circulatingflow
flow
the streamline at the center section of the flotation cell with a typical impeller. A circulating flow
similar to that of the previous BGRIMM flotation cell was formed, which is a suitable
similar to that of the previous BGRIMM flotation cell was formed, which is a suitable fluid dynamics fluid dynamics
similar to that of the previous BGRIMM flotation cell was formed, which is a suitable fluid dynamics
environment.
environment. The The upper
upper circulating
circulating flow
flow isis larger,
larger,with
withaarelatively
relativelylower
lowervelocity
velocitythanthanthe
thelower
lower
environment. The upper circulating flow is larger, with a relatively lower velocity than the lower
circulating
circulatingflow.flow.TheThefluid
fluidisisthrust
thrustaway
awayfrom fromthe theimpeller
impellerblades
bladesand
andisispumped
pumpedinto intothe
theimpeller
impeller
circulating flow. The fluid is thrust away from the impeller blades and is pumped into the impeller
zone
zonedue duetotothe thenegative
negativepressure.
pressure.TheTheturbulent
turbulentdissipation
dissipationrateratereflects
reflectsthe
theflow
flowintensity
intensityininthe
the
zone due to the negative pressure. The turbulent dissipation rate reflects the flow intensity in the
flotation.
flotation.As Asisisshown
shownininFigure
Figure3,3,the
theturbulence
turbulenceeddy eddydissipation
dissipationatatthe
thecenter
centerisishigh
highininthe
theimpeller
impeller
flotation. As is shown in Figure 3, the turbulence eddy dissipation at the center is high in the impeller
zone
zoneand andititisisobviously
obviouslylow
lowininother
otherregions.
regions.
zone and it is obviously low in other regions.

Figure2.2.Velocity
Figure Velocitystreamline
streamlineprofile
profileatatthe
thecenter
centersection.
section.
Figure 2. Velocity streamline profile at the center section.

Figure3.3.Turbulence
Figure Turbulenceeddy
eddydissipation
dissipationatatthe
thecenter
centersection.
section.
Figure 3. Turbulence eddy dissipation at the center section.
3.1.2.
3.1.2.Gas
GasDispersion
Dispersionand andSolid
SolidSuspension
Suspension
3.1.2. Gas Dispersion and Solid Suspension
Air
Airdispersion
dispersionand andsolid
solidmixing
mixing areare
fundamental
fundamental functions
functionsof flotation cells.cells.
of flotation Figure 4 presents
Figure the
4 presents
air Air dispersion
dispersion at the and solid
center mixing
section of are flotation
the fundamental
cell functions
with a of flotation
typical impeller, cells.
where Figure
the 4 presents
superficial
the air dispersion at the center section of the flotation cell with a typical impeller, where the
the air of
velocity dispersion at cm/s.
the centerissection of the flotationthecell
cell,with a typical impeller, where the
superficialthe air is 2.5
velocity of the airAiris 2.5well dispersed
cm/s. inside
Air is well dispersed but the
inside air holdup
the cell, butisthequite
airlow in the
holdup is
superficial
lower cell velocity
for buoyancy. of the air is52.5
Figure cm/s.
shows theAir is well
mixing of dispersed
conventional inside the cell,
particles withbuta size
the air
of holdup
0.074 mm. is
quite low in the lower cell for buoyancy. Figure 5 shows the mixing of conventional particles with a
quite low
There in
is a0.074
verythelow
lower cellholdup
for buoyancy. Figure 5 shows the mixingcell.
of conventional particles with
thea
size of mm. solid
There is a very region
low atsolid
the top of the
holdup flotation
region at the top Thisof demonstrates
the flotation cell. that This
size of 0.074
mineral mm.
particles There
arethe
broughtis atovery lowregion
the top solid and
holdup region
attached to at
thethe
air top of the
bubbles flotation
in the cell. This
demonstrates that mineral particles are brought to the top region and attached toactual
the airflotation
bubbles
demonstrates
cell. Thus, high that
solidthe mineral
holdup particles
appears are
under brought
the to the
impeller. top
This region
agrees and
with attached
engineering to the air
practice bubbles
where
in the actual flotation cell. Thus, high solid holdup appears under the impeller. This agrees with
in thesuspending
solid actual flotation cell. Thus,
is uniform in thehigh
majorsolid holdup
region appears
of the under
flotation cell.the
Theimpeller. Thisflotation
large-scale agrees with
cell
developed produces excellent air dispersion and solid mixing.
Minerals 2019, 9 FOR PEER REVIEW 9
Minerals 2019, 9 FOR PEER REVIEW 9
Minerals 2019, 9 FOR PEER REVIEW 9
engineering
engineeringpractice
practicewhere
wheresolid
solidsuspending
suspendingisisuniform
uniformin inthe
themajor
majorregion
regionofofthe
theflotation
flotationcell.
cell.The
The
engineering
large-scale
Minerals 9, practice
2019,flotation
79 where
cell solid suspending
developed produces is uniform
excellent air in the major
dispersion andregion
solidofmixing.
the flotation cell.
9 ofThe
17
large-scale flotation cell developed produces excellent air dispersion and solid mixing.
large-scale flotation cell developed produces excellent air dispersion and solid mixing.

Figure 4. Air volume fraction profile.

Figure 4.
4. Air volume
volume fraction profile.
profile.
Figure 4.Air
Figure Air volumefraction
fraction profile.

Figure 5. Solid volume fraction profile.

Figure 5. Solid
Figure 5. Solid volume
volume fraction
fraction profile.
profile.
Figure 5. Solid volume fraction profile.
3.1.3.Analysis
3.1.3. Analysis ofHydrodynamics
Hydrodynamics Performances
3.1.3. Analysisof of HydrodynamicsPerformancesPerformances
3.1.3. Analysis of Hydrodynamics Performances
Figure 66 shows
Figure shows the relationship
relationship between the the flotation volume volume and and power number number or power power
Figure 6 shows the the relationship between between the flotation
flotation volume and power power number or or power
Figure
intensity.
intensity. For 6flotation
shows the cell
cell relationship
volume
volume rangingbetween
ranging from
from the
70 toto
70 flotation
680
680 mm ,volume
3 , 3the
thepower
powerandnumber power
number number
remines
remines at or about
about
at power
5.4,
intensity. For flotation cell volume ranging from 70 to 680 m33, the power number remines at about
intensity.
illustrating
5.4, Fora flotation
good cell
balance volume
between ranging
the from
volume 70
and to 680
power m , the
during power
the number
cell remines
scale-up. at about
Generally,
5.4,illustrating
illustratingaagood goodbalance
balancebetween
betweenthe thevolume
volumeand andpower
powerduring duringthe thecellcell scale-up.Generally,
Generally,
5.4,power
the
the illustrating
power a good
intensity balance as
decreases between
as the volume
volume and power
increases. during the cell
This observation
observation scale-up.
suggests theGenerally,
obvious
the power intensity decreases as the volume increases. This observation suggests
intensity decreases the This suggests the the obvious
obvious
the powerof
advantages
advantages ofintensity
reducingdecreases
reducing the poweras
thepower the volume
consumption
consumption and
andincreases.
loweringThis
lowering observation
theoperation
the operation cost.suggests
cost. Thepower
The powertheintensity
obvious
intensity
advantages of reducing the power consumption and lowering the operation cost. The power intensity
advantages
ofthe
of the 680m of
3 reducing
m flotationcell the power consumption
cell is lightlyhigherhigher thanthat and lowering
that of320 3 the
320 m3flotation operation
flotation cell. cost. The
As shown power intensity
in Figure 1c,
of the680680 m3flotation cellisislightly
lightly higherthan than thatof of 320m m 3flotationcell. cell.As Asshown
shownin inFigure
Figure1c, 1c,aa
3 3
3flotation
aofcircular
the 680
circular ringmwas
ring flotation
was cell ison
positioned
positioned lightly
on
top tophigher
of of the
the than
stator
stator that ofto
blades
blades 320 tommaintain
maintain flotation
the thecell. As shown
structural
structural in Figure
stability
stability where 1c, a
where
the
circular ring was positioned on top of the stator blades to maintain the structural stability where the
circular
the
stator statorring
bladeswasarepositioned
longer than on topthoseof the
everstator
usedblades
in the toprevious
maintaincells. the structural
It is alsovery stability
very where the
important to
stator blades
blades are are longer
longer thanthan those
those ever
ever used
used in in the
the previous
previous cells. cells. ItIt isis also
also very important
important to to
stator blades
minimizethe
minimize are
the effectof longer than
of thecircular those
circular ringon ever used
on theflow in the previous
flow pattern.The The newdesigncells. It is also
design mayincrease very important
increase thepowerpower to
minimize theeffect effect ofthethe circularring ring onthethe flowpattern.
pattern. Thenew new designmay may increasethe the power
minimize
consumptionof
consumption the effect of the
of thelarge-scale circular ring
large-scale flotation cell. on the
cell. flow pattern. The new design may increase the power
consumption ofthe the large-scaleflotation
flotation cell.
consumption of the large-scale flotation cell.

Therelationship
Figure6.6.The
Figure relationshipofofvolume,
volume,power
powernumber
numberNp
Npand
andcirculation
circulationintensity.
intensity.
Figure 6. The relationship of volume, power number Np and circulation intensity.
Figure 6. The relationship of volume, power number Np and circulation intensity.
 Minerals 2019, 9, 79 10 of 17
Minerals2019,
Minerals 2019,9 9FOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 1010

Asillustrated
As
As illustrated
illustratedinininFigure
Figure
Figure 7,7,the
7,thecirculation
the intensity
circulation
circulation decreases
intensity
intensity dramatically
decreases
decreases for cellfor
dramatically
dramatically volumes
for ranging
cellvolumes
cell volumes
from 70 to 130 m 3 . However, for cell sizes larger than 130 m 3 , the parameter varies a little and Fr
rangingfrom
ranging from70 70toto130
130mm. However,
3 3 . However,for forcell
cellsizes
sizeslarger
largerthan
than130
130mm, the
3 3 , theparameter
parametervariesvariesaalittle
little and
and
number
FrFr number
number also changes
also
also changes
changes slightly,
slightly, which
slightly, which
which indicates
indicates
indicates the similarity
the
the ofof
similarity
similarity the serial
ofthe
the flotation
serial
serial cells.
flotation
flotation cells.
cells.

Figure7.7.The
Figure Therelationship
relationshipofofvolume, powerintensity,
volume,power intensity, air
intensity,air flow
airflow numberNN
number
flownumber N , andFroude
a,aaand numberFFrF.rr.
Froudenumber
number

Itisis
ItIt iseasy
easytoto
easy tosee
seethat
see thatthe
that theair
the airflow
air flownumber
flow numberand
number andthe
and theair
the aircapacity
air capacitynumber
capacity numberonly
number onlyfluctuate
only fluctuateslightly
fluctuate slightlywith
slightly with
with
scale-up in Figure
scale-upininFigure
scale-up 8. The
Figure8.8.The air
Theair flow
airflow number
flownumber is ~0.002,
numberisis~0.002,
~0.002,andand the
andthe air
theair capacity
aircapacity number
capacitynumber is ~15%.
numberisis~15%. The
~15%.The primary
Theprimary
primary
hydrodynamicsnumbers
hydrodynamics
hydrodynamics numbersthus
numbers thusremained
thus remainedstable.
remained stable.InIn
stable. Insummary,
summary,the
summary, thelarge
the largeBGRIMM
large BGRIMMflotation
BGRIMM flotationcell
flotation cellcan
cell can
can
maintainexcellent
maintain
maintain excellenthydrodynamic
excellent hydrodynamicperformance
hydrodynamic performancecompared
performance comparedtoto
compared theprevious
tothe
the previousmodel,
previous model,with
model, withdifferent
with differentsizes
different sizes
sizes
thathave
that
that havebeen
have been proven
proventoto
beenproven be
tobe effective
effectiveinin
beeffective engineering
inengineering applications.
engineeringapplications.
applications.

Figure8.8.The
Figure Therelationship
relationshipofofvolume,
volume,power intensity,air
powerintensity,
intensity, air flow
airflow numberNN
number
flownumber a.aa.
N

3.2.Comparison
3.2.
3.2. Comparisonofof
Comparison ofthe
theTypical
the TypicalImpeller
Typical Impeller and
Impellerand the
andthe Arc
theArc Impellers
ArcImpellers
Impellers
3.2.1. Comparison of Flow Pattern
3.2.1.Comparison
3.2.1. ComparisonofofFlow FlowPattern
Pattern
The tank height of the large-scale flotation cell is relatively larger, even though the scale-up of the
Thetank
The tankheight
heightofofthe thelarge-scale
large-scaleflotation
flotationcell cellisisrelatively
relativelylarger,
larger,even
eventhough
thoughthe thescale-up
scale-upofof
flotation cell is based on geometric similarity. The greater tank height may increase the probability
theflotation
the flotationcell
cellisisbased
basedon ongeometric
geometricsimilarity.
similarity.The Thegreater
greatertank
tankheight
heightmay
mayincrease
increasethetheprobability
probability
of detachment when mineral particles are transported in the large-scale flotation cell. Thus, a newly
ofofdetachment
detachmentwhen whenmineral
mineralparticles
particlesare aretransported
transportedininthe thelarge-scale
large-scaleflotation
flotationcell.
cell.Thus,
Thus,aanewly
newly
developed impeller, the arc impeller, was employed. The streamline at the center section of the flotation
developedimpeller,
developed impeller,the thearc
arcimpeller,
impeller,was wasemployed.
employed.The Thestreamline
streamlineatatthe thecenter
centersection
sectionofofthe
the
cell with the arc impeller is illustrated in Figure 9 with the same operation parameters and structural
flotationcell
flotation cellwith
withthe thearc
arcimpeller
impellerisisillustrated
illustratedininFigure
Figure99withwiththethesame
sameoperation
operationparameters
parametersand and
parameters. A change in the circulating flow was readily observed. Compared with the typical impeller
structuralparameters.
structural parameters.AAchange changeininthe thecirculating
circulatingflow flowwaswasreadily
readilyobserved.
observed.Compared
Comparedwith withthethe
in Figure 2, the low circulating flow becomes larger and reaches the tank wall. The flow pumping out
typicalimpeller
typical impellerininFigure
Figure2,2,the
thelow
lowcirculating
circulatingflow flowbecomes
becomeslarger
largerand andreaches
reachesthethetank
tankwall.
wall.The
The
from the arc impeller is obviously inclined upward where the flow produced by the typical impeller
flowpumping
flow pumpingout outfromfromthethearc
arcimpeller
impellerisisobviously
obviouslyinclined
inclinedupward
upwardwhere wherethe theflow
flowproduced
producedby by
is nearly horizontal. The lifting of the streamline would shorten the distance for the transportation
thetypical
the typicalimpeller
impellerisisnearly
nearlyhorizontal.
horizontal.The Thelifting
liftingofofthe thestreamline
streamlinewould wouldshorten
shortenthethedistance
distanceforfor
distance of mineral particles. Figure 10 also shows the turbulence eddy dissipation profile at the
thetransportation
the transportationdistance
distanceofofmineral
mineralparticles.
particles.Figure
Figure1010alsoalsoshows
showsthe theturbulence
turbulenceeddy eddydissipation
dissipation
center section in the flotation cell to that of the typical impeller. The overall distribution is similar to
profileatatthe
profile thecenter
centersection
sectionininthe
theflotation
flotationcell
celltotothat
thatofofthe
thetypical
typicalimpeller.
impeller.The Theoverall
overalldistribution
distribution
the typical impeller (Figure 3), where large turbulence eddy dissipation appears around the impeller.
isissimilar
similartotothe
thetypical
typicalimpeller
impeller(Figure
(Figure3),3),where
wherelargelargeturbulence
turbulenceeddy eddydissipation
dissipationappears
appearsaround
around
theimpeller.
the impeller.TheThedifference
differencebetween
betweenthe thetypical
typicalimpeller
impellerand andthe thearc
arcimpeller
impellerisisthe
theturbulence
turbulenceeddyeddy
dissipationprofile
dissipation profileoutside
outsidethetheimpeller.
impeller.ItItisisdemonstrated
demonstratedthat thataachange
changeininthe theshape
shapeofofatatthe
theimpeller
impeller
Minerals 2019, 9, 79 11 of 17

The difference
Minerals between the typical impeller and the arc impeller is the turbulence eddy dissipation
Minerals 2019,
2019, 99 FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 11
11
profile outside the impeller. It is demonstrated that a change in the shape of at the impeller plate affects
the flow
plate
plate and the
affects
affects turbulence
the flow andinturbulence
flow and the flotation
turbulence in cell.flotation
in the
the The impeller
flotation cell. plate
cell. The
The with aplate
impeller
impeller hyperbolic
plate with aa curve
with that cause
hyperbolic
hyperbolic curve
curve
smooth
that causeflow along
smooth the
flowcurves
along results
the in
curves the variations.
results in the
that cause smooth flow along the curves results in the variations. variations.

Figure 9.
Figure9.
Figure Velocity
9.Velocity streamline
Velocitystreamline profile
streamlineprofile at
profileat the
atthe center
thecenter section
centersection in
sectionin the
inthe flotation
theflotation cell
flotationcell with
cellwith the
withthe typical
thetypical impeller.
typicalimpeller.
impeller.

Figure
Figure 10. Turbulence
Figure10.
10. Turbulenceeddy
Turbulence eddydissipation
eddy dissipationat
dissipation atthe
at thecenter
the centersection
center sectionin
section inthe
in theflotation
the flotationcell
flotation cellwith
cell withthe
with thearc
the arcimpeller.
arc impeller.
impeller.

The
The linerrr=== 1550
Theline
line 1550 mm
1550 mm(the
mm (theblue
(the blueline)
blue line)and
line) andrrr=== 2750
and 2750 mm
2750 mm(the
mm (thegreen
(the greenline)
green line)at
line) atthe
at thecenter
the centerlongitudinal
center longitudinal
longitudinal
section
section was
was selected
selected totoshow
show the
thedifferent
different between
between the typical
the typicalimpeller
impeller
section was selected to show the different between the typical impeller and the arc impeller and the
and arc
the impeller
arc impellerin Figure
in 11.
in Figure
Figure
Figures
11.
11. Figures12 and
Figures 12 13
12 and show
and 1313 showthe radial
show the and
the radial axial
radial and velocity
and axial comparisons,
axial velocity respectively,
velocity comparisons,
comparisons, respectively, between
respectively, between the two
between the types
the two
two
of impellers
types of at
impellersthe blue
at theline
blueand green
line and line.
green The vertical
line. The coordinates
vertical value
coordinates
types of impellers at the blue line and green line. The vertical coordinates value of 0 m is the bottomof 0
value m is
of the
0 m bottom
is the of the
bottom
impeller
of
of the plate. At
the impeller
impeller the blue
plate.
plate. At
At theline,
the theline,
blue
blue axialthe
line, velocity
the axial of the arcof
axial velocity
velocity ofimpeller
the
the arc is upward
arc impeller
impeller isaround
is upwardthe
upward impeller.
around
around the
the
Thus, the
impeller. velocity
impeller. Thus,
Thus, the of the
the velocitytypical
velocity of impeller
of the
the typical is downward.
typical impeller
impeller is It seems
is downward.
downward. Itthe arc impeller
It seems
seems thethe arc could
arc impellerpush
impeller couldthe slurry
could push
push
higher.
the
the slurry At higher.
slurry the green
higher. Atline
At the which
the green
green lineis far
line awayis
which
which isfrom
far impeller,
far away
away fromthe
from different
impeller,
impeller, theisdifferent
the much smaller.
different is
is much
much The axial
smaller.
smaller.
velocity
The axialof the
velocitytypical
of impeller
the typical is a little
impeller downward
is a little which
downward the value
which
The axial velocity of the typical impeller is a little downward which the value is negative around is
the negative
value is around
negative impeller.
around
For radial For
impeller.
impeller. velocity
For radial
radialcomparison,
velocity the arc impeller
velocity comparison,
comparison, the
the arcshows
arc greater
impeller
impeller radial
shows
shows velocity
greater
greater at the
radial
radial blue line
velocity
velocity at than
at the the
the blue
blue
typical
line
line than
thanimpeller.
the
the typical
typical impeller.
impeller.
Figure
Figure 14
14 shows
shows the
the turbulence
turbulence eddy
eddy dissipation
dissipation (TED) comparisons. The
(TED) comparisons. The turbulence
turbulence eddy
eddy
dissipation is very small at the green line because the position is away from the impeller. No changes
dissipation is very small at the green line because the position is away from the impeller. No changes
could
could be
be detected
detected between
between two
two types
types of
of impellers.
impellers. The
The turbulence
turbulence eddy
eddy peak
peak ofof the
the arc
arc impeller
impeller is
is
larger
larger than
than that
that of
of the
the typical
typical impeller.
impeller. It
It also
also indicates
indicates that
that the
the arc
arc impeller
impeller could
could push
push slurry
slurry higher.
higher.
Minerals 2019, 9 FOR PEER REVIEW 12

Minerals 2019, 9 FOR PEER REVIEW 12

Minerals 2019, 9, 79 12 of 17
Minerals 2019, 9 FOR PEER REVIEW 12

Figure 11. The line at the centre longitudinal section.

Figure 11. The line at the centre longitudinal section.

Figure 11. The line at the centre longitudinal section.
Figure 11. The line at the centre longitudinal section.

Figure 12. Axial velocity comparisons between two types of the impeller at the blue line and green
line. 12. Axial velocity comparisons between two types of the impeller at the blue line and green line.
Figure
Figure 12. Axial velocity comparisons between two types of the impeller at the blue line and green
line.
Figure 12. Axial velocity comparisons between two types of the impeller at the blue line and green
line.

Figure 13.Radial
Figure13. Radialvelocity
velocitycomparisons
comparisonsbetween two
between types
two of the
types impeller
of the at the
impeller at blue line and
the blue linegreen line.
and green
line.
Figure 14
Figure 13. shows
Radial velocity comparisons
the turbulence between
eddy two types
dissipation of thecomparisons.
(TED) impeller at the The
blue line and green
turbulence eddy
line. is very small at the green line because the position is away from the impeller. No changes
dissipation
Figure 13. Radial velocity comparisons between two types of the impeller at the blue line and green
could be detected between two types of impellers. The turbulence eddy peak of the arc impeller is
line.
larger than that of the typical impeller. It also indicates that the arc impeller could push slurry higher.
Minerals 2019,9,9 79
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13
Minerals 2019, 9 FOR PEER REVIEW 13

Figure 14. Turbulence eddy dissipation comparisons between two types of the impeller at the blue
Figure 14.Turbulence
Figure 14. Turbulenceeddy
eddydissipation
dissipationcomparisons between
comparisons twotwo
between types of the
types impeller
of the at the
impeller atblue line
the blue
line
and and green line.
line green line. line.
and green

3.2.2. Comparison
3.2.2. Comparison of of Flotation
Flotation Kinetics
Kinetics
3.2.2. Comparison of Flotation Kinetics
The particle–bubble
The particle–bubble collision
collision kernel
kernel (z(z1) is a key parameter for assessing the flotation kinetics.
The particle–bubble collision kernel (z11) is a key parameter for assessing the flotation kinetics.
The collision
The collision kernel
kernel atat the
the center
center section
section in
in the
the flotation
flotation cell
cell with
with thethe typical
typical impeller
impeller is is indicated
indicated inin
The collision kernel at the center section in the flotation cell with the typical impeller is indicated in
Figure 15a.
Figure 15a. The
The collision
collision kernel
kernel around
around thethe impeller
impeller and
and stator
stator is
is larger
larger than
than that
that at
at other
other regions
regions of
of
Figure 15a. The collision kernel around the impeller and stator is larger than that at other regions of
the flotation
the flotation cell.
cell. The
The collision
collision kernel
kernel for
for the
the arc
arc impeller
impeller has
has aa profile
profile similar
similar to
to that
that in
in the
the flotation
flotation
the flotation cell. The collision kernel for the arc impeller has a profile similar to that in the flotation
cell in Figure 15b.
cell 15b. ItItisisalso
alsoillustrated
illustratedthat outside
that outsideof of
stator, thethe
stator, profile follows
profile an upward
follows an upward tendtend
r. The
r.
cell in Figure 15b. It is also illustrated that outside of stator, the profile follows an upward tend r. The
collision kernel maximum of the arc impeller is larger than that of the
The collision kernel maximum of the arc impeller is larger than that of the typical impeller. typical impeller. This means
means
collision kernel maximum of the arc impeller is larger than that of the typical impeller. This means
there will
there will be
beaapromotion
promotionin inflotation
flotationkinetics.
kinetics.
there will be a promotion in flotation kinetics.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure15.
Figure 15.The
Thecollision
collision kernel
kernel profile
profile at center
at the the center section:
section: (a) The(a) The typical
typical impeller;impeller; (b)impeller.
(b) The arc The arc
Figure 15. The collision kernel profile at the center section: (a) The typical impeller; (b) The arc
impeller.
impeller.
The collision probability is a significant parameter that directly reflects the metallurgical
performance. The collision
The collision probability
probability at the center
is a significant section ofthat
parameter the flotation cell is shown
directly reflects in Figure 16.
the metallurgical
The collision probability is a significant parameter that directly reflects the metallurgical
The collision probability
performance. The collision profile revealsatthe
probability thezone
centerwhere the of
section mineral particles
the flotation cellmainly
is shown collide with air
in Figure 16.
performance. The collision probability at the center section of the flotation cell is shown in Figure 16.
bubbles. There
The collision is a high collision
probability probability
profile reveals the zonein the impeller
where chamber.
the mineral The impeller-stator
particles mainly collide zone
withand
air
The collision probability profile reveals the zone where the mineral particles mainly collide with air
the outflow
bubbles. around
There is a the
highstator are the
collision main zones
probability for impeller
in the particle–bubble
chamber. collision because the turbulence
The impeller-stator zone and
bubbles. There is a high collision probability in the impeller chamber. The impeller-stator zone and
kinetic energy
the outflow is alsothe
around high in these
stator regions.
are the mainCompared with the turbulence
zones for particle–bubble eddybecause
collision dissipation profiles in
the turbulence
the outflow around the stator are the main zones for particle–bubble collision because the turbulence
Figures 3 and 10,
kinetic energy the profiles
is also high in for
thesetheregions.
collision kernel and
Compared collision
with probability
the turbulence eddyare dissipation
similar in both the
profiles
kinetic energy is also high in these regions. Compared with the turbulence eddy dissipation profiles
typical impeller
in Figures 3 andand 10, the
thearc impeller.
profiles Considering
for the the flotation
collision kernel kinetics probability
and collision models proposed by Schubert
are similar in both
in Figures 3 and 10, the profiles for the collision kernel and collision probability are similar in both
and
the Bischofberger
typical impeller (Formulas
and the(3)arcand (4)) [39],Considering
impeller. the turbulentthe eddy dissipation
flotation plays
kinetics a critical
models role in the
proposed by
the typical impeller and the arc impeller. Considering the flotation kinetics models proposed by
flotation kinetics. The difference in the collision probability profiles of the arc impeller
Schubert and Bischofberger (Formulas (3) and (4)) [39], the turbulent eddy dissipation plays a critical is the same as
Schubert and Bischofberger (Formulas (3) and (4)) [39], the turbulent eddy dissipation plays a critical
the
roledifference in the collision
in the flotation kinetics. kernel profiles for
The difference two typesprobability
in the collision of impellers. The arc
profiles of impeller gives rise
the arc impeller is
role in the flotation kinetics. The difference in the collision probability profiles of the arc impeller is
to
thea higher
same as collision probability
the difference thancollision
in the the typical impeller,
kernel leading
profiles to better
for the metallurgical
two types performance.
of impellers. The arc
the same as the difference in the collision kernel profiles for the two types of impellers. The arc
impeller gives rise to a higher collision probability than the typical impeller, leading to better
impeller gives rise to a higher collision probability than the typical impeller, leading to better
metallurgical performance.
metallurgical performance.
Minerals 2019, 9, 79 14 of 17
Minerals 2019, 9 FOR PEER REVIEW 14
Minerals 2019, 9 FOR PEER REVIEW 14

(a)
(a) (b)(b)
Figure
Figure
Figure 16.The
16.
16. Thecollision
The collisionprobability
collision probability profile
probability profile
profile at thecenter
atthe
at the centersection
center sectioninin
section inthe flotation
the
the cell:
flotation
flotation (a)(a)
cell:
cell: The
(a) typical
The
The typical
typical
impeller;
impeller;
impeller;(b)(b)
(b) Thearc
The
The arcimpeller.
arc impeller.
impeller.

Figures
Figures
Figures 1717and
17 and18 show
and the collision
18 show
18 show kernel and
the collision
the collision kernelthe and
kernel collision
and thetheprobability
collision comparisons,
collisionprobability
probability respectively,
comparisons,
comparisons,
respectively,
between the twobetween
types the
of two
the types
impellers of the
at impellers
the blue lineat the
and
respectively, between the two types of the impellers at the blue line and green line. Theblue
green line and
line. Thegreen line.
collision The
kernelcollision
peak of
collision
the kernel
two peak
types
kernel peak of the of the two
impellerstypes of the
appears impellers
the appears
position nearby the position
the similar
thetwo types of the impellers appears the position nearby the similar heightnearby
height the
of similar
the height
impeller of of
region.
the impeller region.
Itthe
indicates
impeller theregion.
impeller ItItisindicates
the source
indicates thefor
the impeller is the source
the collision
impeller sourcefor
is thebetween the collision
mineral
for and air
the collision between
bubbles.
between mineral
The and
collision
mineral and
air bubbles.
kernel peak ofThe thecollision
arc impeller kernelispeak
higherof the
than arcthat
impeller
of theistypical
higherimpeller
than thatboth
of theattypical
the blue impeller
line and
air bubbles. The collision kernel peak of the arc impeller is higher than that of the typical impeller
theboth
green at line.
the blue line and
It is similar the green line.
characteristics with It is
thesimilar
variation characteristics
of the velocitywithandthethevariation
turbulence of the
eddy
both at the blue line and the green line. It is similar characteristics with the variation of the
velocity and
dissipation. Thethe turbulenceofeddy
attenuation dissipation.
the collision Thefrom
kernel attenuation
the blueofline
thetocollision
the greenkernel
linefrom the blue
is larger in the
velocity and the turbulence eddy dissipation. The attenuation of the collision kernel from the blue
arcline to the The
impeller. green line is larger
collision kernelin the of
peak arctheimpeller. The collision
arc impeller kernel
is obviously peak of
smaller thethat
than arc of
impeller is
the typical
line to the green
obviously smaller
line
than
isthat
larger
of
in typical
the
the arcimpeller
impeller.at
The
the
collision
green line.
kernel
The
peaktrend
variation
of the of
arc
the
impeller is
collision
impeller at the green line. The variation trend of the collision probability is similar with that of the
obviously
probability smaller thanwith
is similar thatthat
of the
of typical impeller
the collision at the green line. The variation trend of the collision
kernel.
collision kernel.
probability is similar with that of the collision kernel.

Figure
Figure 17.17.
TheThecollision
collisionkernel
kernelcomparisons
comparisons between
between two
twotypes
typesofofthe
theimpeller
impelleratat
the blue
the line
blue and
line and
green
green line.
line.
Figure 17. The collision kernel comparisons between two types of the impeller at the blue line and
green line.

Figure
Figure 18.18.
TheThe collision
collision probability
probability comparisonsbetween
comparisons betweentwo
twotypes
typesofofthe
theimpeller
impelleratatthe
the blue
blue line
line and
and line.
green green line.
Figure 18. The collision probability comparisons between two types of the impeller at the blue line
and green line.
Minerals 2019, 9, 79 15 of 17

Table 6 summaries the comparison of the volume average parameters in the impeller region.
The same trend could be observed about the volume average of the TED, z1 and Pc. Compared with
the typical impeller, the volume average of the arc impeller is a little smaller. Thus, the torque of the
typical impeller is also larger than that of the arc impeller. Considering the lifting of the slurry higher,
the arc impeller would be favor for the coarse particle recovery which a lower turbulence flotation
environment is needed.

Table 6. Critical Parameters Comparison.

Volume Average of TED in Volume Average of z1 Volume Average of Torque of Rotor Zone,
Rotor Zone, m2 /s3 in Rotor Zone Pc in Rotor Zone, % N·m
Typical Arc Typical Arc Typical Arc Typical Arc
33.0 17.2 2.4 × 10−5 1.9 × 10−5 31.9 25.4 54,280.6 46,859.3

4. Conclusions
Scale-up of the flotation cell is required for the solution processing of low-grade mineral ores
worldwide. This study was conducted on the latest and largest flotation cell in China, having an
effective volume 680 m3 , developed by BGRIMM. Multiphase flow numerical simulations were
performed to investigate the hydrodynamics and kinetics of the large-scale flotation cell for further
optimization and improvement.
The circulating flow is similar to that of the previous flotation cell. Good air dispersion and solid
mixing in the flotation cell were demonstrated. The hydrodynamic performance parameters were
analyzed with scale-up of the cell. The variation of the hydrodynamic numbers, such as the power
number (Np ), the Froude number (Fr ), the air flow number (Na ), and so on, with the flotation cell
volumes g follows trends similar to those of the previous cells of a different size that have been proven
to be good for engineering applications.
To decrease the detachment of the mineral particles, a new type of impeller was developed
(namely the arc impeller), where the impeller plate is a hyperbolic curve. The arc impeller expands and
lifts the low circulating flow, thereby shortening the transportation distance of the mineral particles.
Kinetic eddy dissipation plays a key role in determining the collision kernel and collision probability
profile. The newly designed impeller leads to a higher collision probability than the typical impeller,
leading to better flotation performance.

Author Contributions: conceptualization, Z.S. and S.S.; methodology, Z.S.; software, M.Z.; formal analysis, X.F.;
investigation, M.Z. and D.H.; writing—original draft preparation, M.Z.
Funding: This work was supported by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(No. 51474032 and No. 51674034).
Acknowledgments: The work was carried out at National Supercomputer Center in Tianjin, and the calculations
were performed on TianHe-1 (A).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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