CHAPTER 3

Fundamentals of the Theory of Damages

3.1. Damages of Typical Machine Components
• Damages are causes for the loss of functionability
or workability of a machine or an equipment, if
proper action is not taken against them.
• Even with optimum design and operation
conditions damages are unavoidable. Thus
damages are the reasons for the existence of a
maintenance organization.
• The design of a component or structure often asks
to minimize the possibility of damage. Therefore,
it is important to understand the different types of
damage.
 3.1.1. Types of Mechanical Damage
1. Damages Due to Fracture
• Fracture is a form of failure, and is defined as
the separation or fragmentation of a solid body
into two or more parts under the action of
stress.
• The process of fracture can be considered to be
made up of two components, crack initiation
followed by crack propagation.
• The fracture is termed ductile or brittle
depending on the ability of a material to
undergo plastic deformation during the fracture.
 Cont.
• A ductile fracture is characterized by
considerable amount of plastic deformation
prior to and during the crack propagation.
• On the other hand, brittle fracture is
characterized by micro-deformation or no gross
deformation during the crack propagation.
• Plastic deformation that occurs during ductile
fracture, if monitored, can be useful as warning
sign to the fracture that may occur in later
stages.
• Whereas in brittle fracture the damage will
occur without any warning signal.
 Cont.
Main Factors of Fracture

• The main factors that affect the fracture of a

component are:
a). Stress concentration
b). Speed of loading
c). Temperature
d). Thermal shock
 Cont.
a). Stress concentration:
• The presence of a notch, or any sudden change in
section of a piece of material produces what is
called stress concentration.
b). Speed of loading:
• A sudden blow to the material may lead to
fracture where the same stress applied more
slowly would not.
• With a very high rate of application of stress there
may be insufficient time for plastic deformation of
a material as a result a ductile material will
behave in a brittle manner.
 Cont.
c). Temperature:
• The temperature of a material can affect its
behavior when subject to stress.
• Many metals which are ductile at high
temperatures are brittle at low temperatures.
d). Thermal shock:
• When hot water is poured into a cold glass it
causes the glass to crack which is known as
thermal shock.
• Examples:
• Boilers, Heat exchangers, Engine blocks,
Furnaces, coil springs/shock absorbers, etc
 2. Damage Due to Fatigue:
• Failures occurring under conditions of dynamic or
alternating loading are called fatigue failures.
• Mostly fatigue failures is occurred only after a
considerable period of service.
• Fatigue failure begins with a hair-line crack which
develops at a point of discontinuity in the material
(notches, groves, fillets,…). Once a small crack
develops, it propagates under load to cause failure.
• Fatigue failure is dangerous because it occurs without
any warning.
• Typical machine components subjected to fatigue are
automobile crank-shaft, aircraft landing gear, etc.
 Cont.
• Fatigue strength of materials is greatly
decreased by the presence of a corroding
medium.
• Alternating stresses tend to cause considerable
damage to any protective film formed in the
normal course of action of a corrosive medium.
• Continual damage to this film may be a source
of the further development of cracks which
accelerate fatigue failure.
 Cont.
Prevention of Fatigue Damage
• The most effective method of improving fatigue
performance is improvements in design.
• The following design guideline is effective in
controlling or preventing fatigue failure:
 Eliminate or reduce stress raisers by streamlining
the part or component.
 Avoid sharp surface tears resulting from punching,
stamping, shearing, or other processes.
 Prevent the development of surface discontinuities.
 Improve the details of fabrication and fastening
procedures.
 3. Damage Due to Creep Machine Tool Basics --

• An understanding of high temperature materials

behavior over a period of time is beneficial in
evaluating failures of component due to creep.
• Creep occurs under certain load at elevated
temperature normally above 40 % of melting
temperature of the material.
• Boilers, gas turbine engines, and ovens are some
of the examples whereby the components
experiences creep phenomenon.
• Failures involving creep are usually easy to
identify due to the deformation that occurs.
 4. Damage Due to Corrosion
Corrosion vs Rust
i. Corrosion
• Corrosion is the chemical or electrochemical
reaction that causes an engineered material to
disintegrate as a reaction to its surroundings.
• Metals are the usual materials that undergo
corrosion.
• Corrosion is a gradual process with the elements
eating away at the materials making it deteriorate
and break up because of the oxidation of the
metals as a chemical reaction to an oxidant,
usually oxygen.
 Cont.
• The discoloration of painted materials, when
paints fade due to neglect, is an example of
corrosion.
• Even without a visible oxidant, materials can still
corrode when left in the open air.
• Although corrosion is common in metals, it can
also happen to other materials such as ceramics
and polymers, but it is called by another name
which is degradation.
 Cont.
ii. Rust
•Rust, on the other hand, is a type of corrosion
which happens to iron and its alloys.
•Rust is caused by oxidation and moisture and not
by chemicals.
•This happens when impure iron comes in contact
with water or moist air and oxygen or other
oxidants.
•Other factors or oxidants that can cause rust are
salt, sulfur oxide, and carbon dioxide.
 Cont.
• Rust comes in different forms, the most common
of which is the red rust which is formed by red
oxides.
• Chlorine in water causes the formation of green
rust.
• Like most corrosive processes, rusting is a gradual
process. If the material is not treated, after some
time it will disintegrate, and everything will turn
to rust making it unusable.
• Corrosion problems are pronounced, to a varying
degree in steam generating plants, equipment's in
chemical plants, pipes, and structures.
Rusted, Pitted Camshaft Caused by high chlorides & high humidity
 Cont.
Uniform Vs Localized Corrosion
i. Uniform Corrosion
• As the name suggests, it occurs over the majority of the
surface of a metal at a steady and often predictable rate.
• Uniform corrosion can be slowed or stopped by using
the following basic facts;
1) Coat the surface with a non-conducting medium such
as paint, varnish or oil.
2) Reduce the conductivity of the solution in contact with
the metal. Wash away conductive pollutants regularly.
3) Select a metal that forms an oxide that is protective and
stops the reaction.
4) Control and consideration of environmental and
thermal factors.
 Cont.
ii. Localized Corrosion
• Localized corrosion is more severe than uniform
corrosion, the failure occurs without warning and after
a surprisingly short period of use or exposure.
• The most common kinds of localized corrosions are:
1) Galvanic Corrosion
2) Pitting Corrosion
3) Microbial Corrosion
4) Intergranular Corrosion
5) Thermogalvanic Corrosion
6) Corrosion Caused by Combined Action
7) Corrosion Fatigue
8) Fretting Corrosion
9) Stress Corrosion Cracking
10)Hydrogen Damage
 Cont.
1) Galvanic Corrosion
• This can occur when two different metals are
placed in contact with each other and is caused by
the greater potential of one metal to give up
electrons than the other.
• To prevent this problem:
• Break the electrical contact using plastic
insulators or coatings between the metals.
• Select metals close together in the galvanic
series.
• Ensure environment is dry and liquids cannot be
trapped.
 Cont.
2) Pitting Corrosion
• Pitting corrosion occurs in materials that have a
protective film.
• When a coating breaks down, the exposed metal gives up
electrons easily and the reaction initiates tiny pits.
• Pits can be crack initiators in stressed components or
those with residual stresses resulting from forming
operations. This can lead to stress corrosion cracking.
• Prevention can be achieved by:
• Selecting a resistant material
• Ensuring a high enough flow velocity of fluids in
contact with the material or frequent washing
• Control of the chemistry of fluids and use of inhibitors
• Use of a protective coating
 Cont.
3) Microbial Corrosion
• It is the degradation of materials by bacteria,
fungi or their by-products.
• It can occur by a direct interaction between the
microbes and metal.
• Prevention can be achieved by:
• Selection of resistant materials
• Frequent cleaning
• Control of chemistry of surrounding media
and removal of nutrients
• Use of biocides
 Cont.
4) Intergranular Corrosion
• This is preferential attack of the grain
boundaries of the crystals that form the metal.
• It is caused by the physical and chemical
differences between the centers and edges of the
grain.
• It can be avoided by:
• Selection of stabilized materials
• Control of heat treatments and processing to
avoid susceptible temperature range.
 Cont.
5) Thermogalvanic Corrosion
• If one part of component is hotter than another
the difference in the corrosion rate is highlighted
by the thermal gradient and local attack occurs
in a zone between the maximum and minimum
temperatures.
• Temperature changes can alter the corrosion rate
of a material and a good rule of thumb is that 10
Degree Celsius rise doubles the corrosion rate.
• The best method of prevention is to design out
the thermal gradient or supply a coolant to even
out the difference.
 Cont.
6) Corrosion Caused By Combined Action
• This is corrosion accelerated by the action of fluid
flow sometimes with the added pressure of abrasive
particles in the stream.
• The protective layers and corrosion products of the
metal are continually removed exposing fresh metal
to corrosion.
• Prevention can be achieved by:
• Reducing the flow rate and turbulence
• Use of replaceable or robust linings in susceptible
areas
• Avoiding sudden changes of direction
• Streamlining or avoiding obstructions to the flow
 Cont.
7) Corrosion Fatigue
• The combined action of cyclic stresses and a
corrosive environment reduce the life of
components below that expected by the action
of fatigue alone.
• This can be reduced or prevented by;
• Coating the material
• Good design that reduces stress
concentration
• Avoiding sudden changes of section
• Removing or isolating sources of cyclic
stress
 Cont.
8) Fretting Corrosion
• Relative motion between two surfaces in contact
by a stick-slip action causing breakdown of
protective films or welding of the contact areas
allowing other corrosion mechanisms to operate.
• Prevention is possible by:
• Designing out vibrations
• Lubrication of metal surfaces
• Increasing the load between the surfaces to
stop the motion
• Surface treatments to reduce wear and
increase friction coefficient.
 Cont.
9) Stress Corrosion Cracking
• The combined action of a static tensile stress and
corrosion which forms cracks and eventually
catastrophic failure of the component.
• Prevention can be achieved by:
• Reducing the overall stress level and designing out
stress concentrations
• Selection of a suitable material not susceptible to
the environment
• Design to minimize thermal and residual stresses
• Developing compressive stresses in the surface of
the material
• Use of a suitable protective coating
 Cont.
10) Hydrogen Damage
• A surprising fact is that hydrogen atoms are very small
and hydrogen ions even smaller and can penetrate most
metals.
• Hydrogen, by various mechanisms, embrittles a metal
especially in areas of high hardness causing blistering
or cracking especially in the presence of tensile
stresses.
• This problem can be prevented by:
• Using a resistant or hydrogen free material.
• Avoiding sources of hydrogen such as cathodic
protection, pickling processes and certain welding
processes.
• Removal of hydrogen in the metal by boiling.
 Mechanical Damage Due to Wear
Generator Preventive Maintenance - MP4
 5. Damage Due to Wear
• Wear is undesired change of surface of machine
components by the removal of little particles by
the mechanical action of a contacting solid,
liquid, or gas.
• It will change the surface topography and result
in severe surface damage.
• Wear changes the shapes of tools and dies, affect
the tool life, tool size and the quality of the parts
produced.
• Importance of wear is evident in the number of
parts and components that continually have to be
replaced or repaired.
Main Categories of Wear
 Cont.
1) Abrasive Wear
• Abrasive wear is removal of material from surfaces
by the cutting action of particles when the harder
surface press into the softer surface and when a
tangential motion is imposed.
• The process of abrasive wear is known as
microploughing, microcutting, and microcracking.
• Abrasive wear can also be called scratching,
gouging or scoring depending on the severity of
wear.
• Abrasive wear occurs under two conditions:
i. Two body abrasion
ii. Three body abrasion
 Cont.
i. Two body abrasion
• In this condition, one surface is harder than the other
rubbing surface.
• Examples in mechanical operations are grinding,
cutting, and machining.
 Cont.
ii. Three body abrasion
• In this case a third body, generally a small particle of
grit or abrasive, lodges between the two softer rubbing
surfaces, abrades one or both of these surfaces.
 Cont.

• Abrasive wear may be reduced by the

introduction of hydrodynamic or
elastohydrodynamic lubricants at various film
thickness to separate the surfaces and to wash
out any contaminant particles.
 Cont.
2) Erosive Wear
• The impingement of solid particles, or small
drops of liquid or gas often cause what is
known as erosion of materials and components.
• The erosive effects on materials at high
temperatures is important for the selection of
turbine engine materials in the aerospace
industry.
• Cavitation erosion occurs when a solid and a
fluid are in relative motion, due to the fluid
becoming unstable and bubbling up and failing
against the surface of the solid.
 Cont.
• Cavitation damage generally occurs in such fluid-
handling machines as marine propellors, dam slipways,
gates, and all other hydraulic turbines.
• Cavitation erosion roughens a surface much like an
etchant would.

Schematic of
cavitation erosion
due to impingement
of liquid bubbles.
 Cont.
3). Adhesive Wear
• The adhesive wear processes are initiated by
the interfacial adhesive junctions which form if
solid materials are in contact on an atomic
scale.
• Material is then transferred due to adhesive
joint formation which leads to rupture.
• Adhesive wear mechanism not only destroys
the sliding surfaces, but the generation of wear
particles which cause cavitation and can lead to
the failure of the component.
 Cont.
• An adequate supply of lubricant resolves the
adhesive wear problem occurring between two
sliding surfaces.

Schematic of generation of a wear particle as a result of adhesive wear process.

 Cont.
4). Fatigue Wear
• The effect of fatigue wear is especially associated
with repeated stress cycling in rolling or sliding
contacts, and is accompanied by the generation and
propagation of cracks.
• When two surfaces slide across each other, the
maximum shear stress lies some distance below the
surface, causing microcracks, which lead to failure of
the component.
• These cracks initiate from the point where the shear
stress is maximum and propagate to the surface.
 Cont.
• Surface fatigue effects are observed to occur in journal
bearings.
• Fatigue wear can be reduced by lowering contact
stress, reducing thermal cycling and improving the
quality of material.

Schematic of fatigue wear, due to the formation of surface and subsurface cracks.
 Cont.
5). Corrosive Wear or Oxidative Wear
• Corrosive wear is caused by chemical reaction
between surfaces and environment.
• In corrosive wear firstly the connecting surfaces
react with the environment and reaction
products are formed then slow destruction of
these reaction products leads to formation of
crack on the surface.
• Oxidative wear is due to rapid oxidation of
metallic surfaces at high contact temperature.
 Cont.
• Summery of Prevention of Wear Damages
• Effective lubrication between moving surfaces
considerably reduces wear.
• Surface harden components by diffusion methods such
as carburizing, carbonitriding, nitrocarburizing,
boriding and aluminizing considerably reduce wear
damages, however this process is time consuming.
• Modified by alloying, mixing, and compositing to
achieve adequate resistance to wear damage.
• Ceramics and cermets appear to be ideal wear-resistant
materials.
• Coating less wear resistive component materials with
that of a high resistive material, offers an ideal method
of protection of wear damage.
End of Chapter Three