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Faculty of Engineering, Technology, Applied Design & Fine Art

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

Jan 2018

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 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

What is the concept of sustainable human development?

Sustainable development (SD) is a process for meeting human development goals while maintaining the
ability of natural systems to continue to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services upon which
the economy and society depend.
What do you mean by sustainable development?
"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Sustainable development is defined as a process of meeting human development goals while sustaining the
ability of natural systems to continue to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services upon which
the economy and society depends. As the concept developed, it has shifted to focus more on economic
development, social development and environmental protection for future generations.
Sustainable development is the organizing principle for sustaining finite resources necessary to provide for
the needs of future generations of life on the planet. It is a process that envisions a desirable future state for
human societies in which living conditions and resource-use continue to meet human needs without
undermining the "integrity, stability and beauty" of natural biotic systems. It was suggested that "the term
'sustainability' should be viewed as humanity's target goal of human-ecosystem equilibrium (homeostasis),
while 'sustainable development' refers to the holistic approach and temporal processes that lead us to the
end point of sustainability.
Economic development is the process by which a nation improves the economic, political, and social well-
being of its people. The concept, however, has been in existence in the West for centuries. Modernization,
Westernization, and especially Industrialization are other terms people have used while discussing economic
development. Economic development has a direct relationship with the environment and environmental
issues.
Whereas economic development is a policy intervention endeavor with aims of economic and social well-
being of people, economic growth is a phenomenon of market productivity and rise in GDP. Consequently,
as economist points out, "economic growth is one aspect of the process of economic development"
A social issue is a problem that influences a considerable number of the individuals within a society. It is often
the consequence of factors extending beyond an individual's social issue is the source of a conflicting opinion
on the grounds of what is perceived as a morally just personal life or societal order. Social issues are
distinguished from economic issues; however, some issues (such as immigration) have both social and
economic aspects. There are also issues that don't fall into either category, such as warfare.
Environmental issues are harmful effects of human activity on the biophysical environment. Environmental
protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual, organizational or governmental
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levels, for the benefit of both the environment and humans. Environmentalism, a social and environmental
movement, addresses environmental issues through advocacy, education and activism.
What is Sustainable Development?
Sustainable development is an approach to development that takes the finite resources of the Earth into
consideration. This can mean a lot of different things to different people, but it most commonly refers to the
use of renewable energy resources and sustainable agriculture or forestry practices. It also entails the use
of sustainable mineral use along with many other things. The idea is to create a system that is "sustainable",
meaning one that can keep going indefinitely into the future.
Renewable energy sources like wind power and solar power are excellent examples of development
strategies that are sustainable. Their sustainability is defined by their reliance upon infinitely available
resources that are naturally occurring, constant and free to access. These factors mean that these resources
will be indefinitely accessible by humans, which makes them sustainable resources.
Sustainable development doesn't always refer to environmental sustainability or other green topics.
Sustainable development also needs to take economic and social sustainability into account in order to fit
within the parameters of sustainable development.
Why is Sustainable Development Important?
Sustainable development is a difficult subject to pin down since it encompasses so many different things.
Due to the complexity of this subject, it's important to look at the importance of sustainable development in a
holistic way that approaches the issue rationally.
The Value of Sustainable Development
It's no secret that people are living longer and that the global population is on the rise. In fact, the United
Nations projects that there will be more than 10 billion people living on the Earth by the year 2100. This
explosion in population is perhaps one of the greatest reasons why sustainable development is so important.
Protect Technological Resources
The people coming into this world are coming into an increasingly technological age, where more people
than ever are relying on technology for nearly every aspect of their lives. Of course, these technologies are
not built out of thin air and good intentions. They require a significant array of minerals and other inputs simply
to be manufactured. This doesn't account for the amount of resources required to develop them in the first
place.
Provide Basic Human Needs
A rising population will also make use of the bare essentials of life such as food, water, and shelter. The
provision of these essentials is based almost entirely around having an infrastructure that can sustain them
for the long-term. If energy is continually developed on finite fossil fuels instead of sustainable options, the
cost and environmental toll of supplying even basic needs can become staggering.

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Agricultural Necessity

Agriculture will have to catch up with that growing population as well, figuring out ways to feed around 3 billion
more people than it currently does. If the same unsustainable tilling, seeding, watering, spraying and
harvesting methods are used into the future, they can become very costly as fossil fuel resources run
out. Sustainable agriculture practices like crop rotation and effective seeding practices can help to promote
high yields while protecting the integrity of the soil as it produces food for larger amounts of people.
Accommodate City Development
As populations rise, cities will need to become larger to accommodate the influx of new residents. If these
cities are developed non-sustainably, they will become more and more expensive to build and maintain over
time. This is because the resources being used to develop the cities will be finite fossil fuels that will only get
more expensive as they run out over time. The higher volume of these fuels required to produce energy for
this larger population will also negatively impact the air quality of cities. If cities use sustainable development
practices, they can conceivably make way for new housing and business developments indefinitely.
Control Climate Change
Climate change is another issue that can be at least partially remedied through sustainable development.
Sustainable development practices would mandate a lower use of fossil fuels, which are not sustainable and
which produce greenhouse gases. As the population rises, more people will be requiring more energy and
will be putting an even greater strain on the world climate.
Provide Financial Stability
Sustainable development can also produce more financially sustainable economies throughout the world.
Resource-poor economies will gain access to free and accessible energy through renewables while also
having the opportunity to train workers for jobs that won't be displaced by the basic reality of finite resources.
Jobs built around the "old" model of unsustainable development simply have no place in economies of the
future. This has nothing to do with politics or ethics, but rather the bare mechanics of how economies price

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out finite resources over time. Industries built around a reliance upon a resource that will not be accessible
into the future will ultimately fail, leaving sustainable development as the only option moving forward.
Sustain Biodiversity
Biodiversity suffers through overconsumption and unsustainable development practices. Beyond the basic
ethical quandary presented by this fact, there is the further concern that these species are a part of a food
web that humans rely on.
For example, if unsustainable agricultural practices are used in regard to pesticides, bees and other
pollinators could be negatively impacted. Without bees, at least 19 major food crops would suffer and nearly
50% of the food in most grocery stores would be non-existent. Also, unsustainable development pollutes the
oceans, which are home to a significant amount of algae species that humans rely on for a significant amount
of the oxygen they breathe.

Speaking Plainly on Sustainable Development

In the end, there is no argument beyond a political one when it comes to sustainable development.
Sustainable development is cleaner, has the potential to be more efficient, has long-term potential and is is
the only way forward for a growing world economy. People already use a huge amount of the Earth's non-
renewable resources to live their everyday lives. As more people join them, more of these resources are
needed and the faster these resources are depleted. Over enough time, sustainable development will no
longer be an option for people who want to feel good about their choices. It will be the only available option
for cities and regional development. It's simply a matter of time until there is no option. The question is
whether humans have the will to make the transition toward sustainability on their own terms or if they will
simply be forced to make a rapid transition when all of the other options finally run out.
Benefits of Sustainability
The benefits of adopting sustainable development as the central organizing principle are:
Future proofing

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Allowing decisions to be future-proofed, protecting your organization by meeting the needs of current and
future generations;
Promoting innovation
Helping promote innovation and new thinking in the development of sustainable goods and services, setting
your organization apart as a leader and allowing you to take advantage of future opportunities;
Cutting costs
Promoting resource savings, energy efficiency and waste reduction and generating bottom-line cost savings
that can be used to fund other services;
Enhancing reputation
Safeguarding and enhancing the reputation of your organization locally, nationally and internationally;
Making better decisions
Aiding consistency of decision-making across the board so that all decisions are based on a comprehensive
view of economic, social and environmental considerations;
Being more effective
Promoting joined-up working within (and between) organizations, moving away from working in silos,
generating cost-savings and efficiencies and having more effective joined-up delivery to communities,
citizens and customers.
What are the four principles of sustainability?
The fours principles of sustainability are to limit use of Earth's inherent resources, to minimize waste, to
cultivate land wisely, and to provide quality work environments. These steps are meant to aid our society in
achieving a more stable way of living.
The first step is to eliminate or at least decrease the rate at which humans extract resources from the earth.
The second step is to decrease the production of plastics and other non-biodegradable products that create
waste. The third step is to more consciously and efficiently use the land in regards to agriculture and animal
cultivation. The last step is to create better working conditions for all workers, so that they may more
successfully provide for themselves.
Why is sustainability important?
Sustainability is important because it ensures people have water and resources, and adopting its practices
protects the environment and human health. The doctrine of sustainability aims to maintain the conditions in
which nature and humans can survive by appropriately utilizing the natural components of the environment
Sustainability relates to the choices individuals and government entities make and how those choices affect
the future. For example, polluting water supplies or wasting water reduces the availability of clean,
uncontaminated water for future generations.

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Sustainability within the soil supply is also crucial. Without properly caring for soil that produces plant life,
food and natural surroundings for animals and humans, the soil loses the quality to encourage new growth
for crops and natural sources of food.
Sustainability also ensures the existence of species. For example, if clean water and non-polluted soil are
scarce, the risk of species extinction increases. A lack of resources not only affects species but also the
social, environmental and economic conditions of the population as a whole.
Residents and corporations can work to promote sustainability through practices that include recycling, a
reduction of air and water pollution, and a shift toward green practices to preserve natural resources for future
generations.
What are disadvantages of sustainable development?
There are several disadvantages to sustainable development. One of them is that it is normally more costly
to create goods and services in an environmentally safe way than in a non-sustainable and harmful manner
Sustainable development means development of an economy in a way that doesn't deplete natural
resources. Unfortunately, it can be incredibly difficult to do this, and in many countries, it is practically
impossible.
According to Eco-Vitality, the costs to run operations for sustainable development are much higher than the
costs of non-environmentally friendly methods. For example, fishing indiscriminately may waste most of the
catch, but it is far less expensive in the short run than using selective fishing methods. Not only is the cost of
sustainable development activities higher, but organizing, monitoring and administrative costs are all factors
that come into play when it comes to sustainable development.
Another disadvantage to sustainable development is the fact that in developing countries, starting a company
is very difficult. A new company can be frail, and any limitations that the company encounters, whether it is
a limit on resources, transportation, loss of personnel or even fluctuations in the market, can cause the
downfall of the company.
For several companies, the problem is not that sustainable development is impossible, but it is less rewarding
financially and it requires more work, which can be more than the company can handle for its survival.
Why is sustainable development important?
Sustainable development is a worthy principle that can be applied at every level of society, as it demands
that we meet the needs of our generation without compromising the needs of the next. Sustainable
development is fiscally responsible, drives intellectual and technological innovation, and demonstrates
humanity's pursuit of excellence.
Whether it's a matter of international public policy, city planning or designing a dream home, sustainable
development means catering a project to meet the immediate needs of the current generation while
incorporating long-term planning into the design.

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Sustainable development makes financial sense. Taking a long-term view on investments of time and money
produces more benefit over the life of a project. It is often tempting to choose an inexpensive temporary fix
rather than investing more for an innovative permanent solution, as it requires a smaller initial investment.
However, striving for solutions that have long-term benefits encourages technological innovation, which
drives engineers and entrepreneurs to develop and market technology that is literally next-generation.
Sustainable solutions could change the landscape of fields such as energy policy, health care, transportation
and housing. Each of these areas demands attention to address local, immediate needs, but simultaneously
each continues to demand attention into the future. Through sustainable development, long-term plans can
address both proximal and distal issues in these areas.
What are some examples of sustainable development?
Examples of sustainable development include crop rotation, sustainable construction practices, solar energy,
wind energy and efficient water fixtures. The common element among sustainable development practices is
that they don't deplete the resources in use.
Crop rotation, such as alternating wheat with local crops, prevents soil from becoming too saturated with salt
or becoming infertile due to a loss of minerals. Another sustainable farming practice is growing crops beside
or beneath local crops, such as growing coffee plants in a forest instead of fields solely composed of coffee
plants. Comparable sustainable practices in cities include the use of green spaces, which reduce
temperatures caused by an overabundance of concrete, glass and metal and which minimize excess water
runoff during storms.
Wind and solar energy provide sustainable sources of energy, as they cannot be depleted like fossil coal or
gas. While the potential for wind energy is limited by location, modern solar panels make solar energy
practical almost anywhere.
Sustainable construction practices include the incorporation of sustainable energy, including solar, wind and
geothermal energy, and the significant use of recycled lumber, plastic and metal. Lumber grown with
sustainable farming practices also satisfies sustainable construction needs.
Efficient water fixtures reduce water use, which significantly reduces the energy used in heating and
transporting water.
Renewable Energy Technologies
Renewable energy technologies are Biomass; Geothermal; Hydrogen; Hydropower; Ocean; Solar Energy
and Wind.
Renewable energy technologies enable us to create electricity, heat and fuel from renewable sources. Solar,
wind, hydro, wave, heat-exchange, tidal, wave and bioenergy technologies are all powered by the sun,
directly or indirectly.

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Solar, wind, hydro, wave, heat-exchange, tidal, wave and bioenergy technologies are all powered by the sun,
directly or indirectly.
Tidal and wave energy technologies are also powered by the moon. Geothermal technologies are powered
by deep heat from the Earth's core.
Bioenergy technologies allow us to convert the solar energy stored in plants, food wastes, farm wastes, forest
wastes, sewage, and algae into heat, electricity and fuel, using a variety of approaches.
These technologies allow us to heat and cool our buildings, generate electricity, and to travel by land, sea,
and potentially also by air without generating dangerous greenhouse gases and other forms of pollution
Renewable energy technologies produce sustainable, clean energy from sources such as the sun, the wind,
plants, and water. According to the Energy Information Administration, in 2007, renewable sources of energy
accounted for about 7% of total energy consumption and 9.4% of total electricity generation in the United
States. Renewable energy technologies have the potential to strengthen our nation's energy security,
improve environmental quality, and contribute to a strong energy economy.
What is the Sustainability?
Sustainable energy includes energy forms able to meet the growing needs of humans without compromising
future demands, while renewable energy sources are widely available, naturally replenished and have low
environmental impact. Some sustainable energy sources are not renewable because of their pollution and
other environmental concerns
According to Reference.com, in the broadest sense, sustainable energy stretches to include fossil fuels as a
transitional source as long as energy providers develop new ways to meet future needs before such sources
are no longer available. However, fossil fuels are not renewable due to their limited availability and their
environmental impact. Even the narrower sense of sustainable energy includes nuclear energy as it is
available for the time frame relevant to the human race. Nuclear energy is not renewable. Due to its
environmental impact, political challenges and potential for use in terrorism, nuclear energy remains
controversial.
There are choices available which show promise and fit the criteria for sustainable and renewable energy.
Wind, solar, geothermal, hydropower, hydrogen and biomass energy forms continue to develop, offering
minimal impact on the environment and energy for the foreseeable human future. While renewable energy
sources require an initial investment, the increasing cost of fossil fuels and concern about global warming
are increasing investor interest in them.
Why should more renewable energy sources be used?
Renewable energy sources should be used more because they are more reliable and have a substantially
lower impact on the environment than nonrenewable energy sources. Common renewable energy sources
include solar power, wind power, hydropower and geothermal power

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All energy used by humans is simply energy transferred from one form to one that is more useful. For
example, the energy from gasoline combustion powers the engine of a car. Renewable energy is generally
the best type of energy, but often more expensive. Also, not all renewable energy sources are created
equally. Solar power in certain regions of the world is more reliable than others, and also varies during
different parts of the year
Biomass Technology Basics
Humans have used biomass for thousands of years. Biomass is any organic material that has stored sunlight
in the form of chemical energy. Wood is a well-known example of biomass: it can be burned for heat or
shaped into building materials. There are many additional types of biomass that can be used to derive fuels,
chemicals, and power—such as plants, agricultural and forestry residues, organic components of garbage
(municipal solid waste), and algae. This broad diversity of suitable biomass has resulted in increased
research and development of technologies to produce fuels, products, and power at an industrial scale.
According to the Energy Information Administration, 23% of all renewable energy consumed in the United
States was biomass-based in 2014.

The processes that scientists and engineers use to break down biomass into these products vary based on
the type of biomass (or feedstock) and its intended end-use.
BIOFUELS
Ethanol
 Ethanol is an alcohol used as a blending agent with gasoline to increase octane and cut down carbon
monoxide and other smog-causing emissions. The most common blend of ethanol is E10 (10% ethanol,
90% gasoline). Some vehicles, called Flexible Fuel Vehicles, are designed to run on E85, an alternative
fuel with much higher ethanol content than regular gasoline. Roughly 97% of gasoline in the U.S. contains
some ethanol.
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 Today, most ethanol is made from starches and sugars, but scientists are continuing to develop
technologies that would allow for the use of cellulose and hemicellulose, the non-edible fibrous material
that constitutes the bulk of plant matter. The common method for converting biomass into ethanol is
called fermentation. During fermentation, microorganisms (e.g., bacteria and yeast) metabolize sugar
and produce ethanol as a waste product.
Biodiesel
 Biodiesel is made by combining alcohol with vegetable oil, animal fat, or recycled cooking grease. It can
be used as an additive (typically 20%) to reduce vehicle emissions or in its pure form as a renewable
alternative fuel for diesel engines.
Renewable Hydrocarbon "Drop In" Fuels
 Petroleum fuels, such as gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel contain a complex mixture of hydrocarbons
(molecules of hydrogen and carbon), which are burned to produce energy. Hydrocarbons can also be
produced from biomass sources through a variety of biological and thermochemical processes.
 Biomass based renewable hydrocarbon fuels are nearly identical to the petroleum-based fuels they are
designed to replace—so they're compatible with today's engines, pumps, and other infrastructure.
Currently, commercial-scale production of renewable hydrocarbon biofuels in the United States is in the
demonstration and pilot stage.
Biofuel Conversion Processes
 Biomass can be converted to liquid or gaseous biofuels using a variety of thermal, biological and chemical
processes.
 The conversion of biomass solids into liquid or gaseous biofuels is a complex process. Today, the most
common conversion processes are biochemical- and thermochemical-based. However, researchers are
also exploring photo biological conversion processes.
Biochemical Conversion Processes
In biochemical conversion processes, enzymes and microorganisms are used as biocatalysts to convert
biomass or biomass-derived compounds into desirable products. Cellulose and hemicellulose enzymes break
down the carbohydrate fractions of biomass to five- and six-carbon sugars in a process known as hydrolysis.
Yeast and bacteria then ferment the sugars into products such as ethanol. Biotechnology advances are
expected to lead to dramatic biochemical conversion improvements.
Thermochemical Conversion Processes
Heat energy and chemical catalysts can be used to break down biomass into intermediate compounds or
products. In gasification, biomass is heated in an oxygen-starved environment to produce a gas composed
primarily of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.

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In pyrolysis, biomass is exposed to high temperatures in the absence of air, causing it to decompose.
Solvents, acids, and bases can be used to fractionate biomass into an array of products including sugars,
cellulosic fibers, and lignin.
Photo biological Conversion Processes
Photo biological conversion processes use the natural photosynthetic activity of organisms to produce
biofuels directly from sunlight. For example, the photosynthetic activities of bacteria and green algae have
been used to produce hydrogen from water and sunlight
BIO POWER
Bio power is the production of electricity or heat from biomass resources. With 10gigawatts of installed
capacity, bio power technologies are proven options in the United States today.
Bio power technologies include direct combustion, co-firing, gasification, and anaerobic digestion.
Direct Combustion
Most electricity generated from biomass is produced by direct combustion using conventional boilers. These
boilers primarily burn waste wood products from the agriculture and wood-processing industries. When
burned, heat from the wood produces steam, which spins a turbine. The spinning turbine then activates a
generator that produces electricity.
Co-Firing
Co-firing involves replacing a portion of the fossil-based fuel in high-efficiency coal-fired boilers with
renewable biomass. Co-firing has been successfully demonstrated in most standard boiler technologies,
including pulverized coal, cyclone, fluidized bed, and spreader stoker units. Co-firing biomass can
significantly reduce the sulfur dioxide emissions of coal-fired power plants and is a least-cost renewable
energy option for many power producers.
Gasification
Through gasification, biomass is heated in an environment that enables the solids to be converted into a
synthesis gas, which can then be burned in conventional boilers or used in turbines to produce electricity.
Anaerobic Digestion
In anaerobic digestion, organic matter is decomposed by bacteria in the absence of oxygen to produce
methane and other byproducts that form a renewable natural gas
BIO PRODUCTS
In addition to electricity and fuels, biomass can be used to create valuable chemicals and materials, known
as bio products. These bio-based chemicals and materials can serve as renewable alternatives to many of
the products derived from petroleum or natural gas, such as plastics, fertilizers, lubricants, and industrial
chemicals. They also often require less energy during production and produce fewer greenhouse gases than
their petroleum-based equivalents.

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Manufacturing bio products from biomass involves a variety of industrial techniques. Many of these processes
are similar to those used in the production of biofuels. Biomass is first broken down into relatively stable
chemical building blocks, which are then converted into a wide range of marketable products using a
combination of biological, thermal, and chemical processes
BIOMASS RESOURCES
Biomass resources that are used directly as a fuel, or converted to another form or energy product that are
available on a renewable basis are commonly referred to as feed stocks.
Biomass Feed stocks
Biomass feed stocks include dedicated energy crops, agricultural crops, forestry residues, algae, biomass
processing residues, municipal waste, and animal waste.
Dedicated Energy Crops
Dedicated energy crops are non-food crops that can be grown on marginal land specifically to provide
biomass. These break down into two general categories. Herbaceous energy crops are perennials that are
harvested annually after taking 2 to 3 years to reach full productivity. These include such grasses as switch
grass, miscanthus (also known as elephant grass or e-grass), bamboo, sweet sorghum, tall fescue, kochia,
wheat grass, and others.
Short-rotation woody crops are fast-growing hardwood trees that are harvested within 5 to 8 years of planting.
These include hybrid poplar, hybrid willow, silver maple, eastern cottonwood, green ash, black walnut, sweet
gum, and sycamore.
Agricultural Crops
Agricultural crops include currently available commodity products such as cornstarch and corn oil, soybean
oil and meal, wheat starch, and vegetable oils. They generally yield sugars, oils, and extractives, although
they can also be used to produce plastics as well as other chemicals and products.
Agriculture Crop Residues
Agriculture crop residues include biomass materials, primarily stalks and leaves, which are not harvested or
removed from fields in commercial use. Examples include corn stover (stalks, leaves, husks, and cobs),
wheat straw, and rice straw.
Forestry Residues
Forestry residues include biomass not harvested or removed from logging sites in commercial hardwood and
softwood stands as well as material resulting from forest management operations such as pre-commercial
thinning and removal of dead and dying trees. Examples include tree tops, limbs, and other woody material.
Aquatic Plants
There are a variety of aquatic biomass resources, such as algae, giant kelp, other seaweed, and marine
micro flora. Algae are a diverse group of primarily aquatic organisms, often fast growing and able to live in

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freshwater, seawater, or damp oils. They may be unicellular and microscopic or very large, as in the giant
kelps. Certain algae produce hydrogen and oxygen, while others manufacture hydrocarbons and other
products.
Biomass Processing Residues
Biomass processing yields byproducts and waste streams that are collectively called residues and have
significant energy potential. For example, the processing of wood for products or pulp produces unused
sawdust, bark, branches, and leaves/needles. These residues can then be burned for heat and energy, or
converted into additional bio products. Because these residues are already collected at the point of
processing, they can be convenient and relatively inexpensive sources of biomass for energy.
Municipal Waste
Any organic matter, including sewage, industrial, and commercial wastes, from municipal waste collection
systems. Plant-derived organic material makes up a significant fraction of residential, commercial, and
institutional post-consumer waste. However, municipal waste does not include agricultural and wood wastes
or residues.
Animal Waste
Animal wastes from farms and animal-processing operations are a complex mixture of organic materials that
can pollute the environment if left unprocessed. Through biochemical conversion processes like anaerobic
digestion, these wastes can be used to make many products, including energy.
Biomass Resources Map
Some biomass feed stocks, such as municipal waste, are found throughout the United States. Others, such
as energy crops, are concentrated in the eastern half of the country. As technologies develop to more
efficiently process complex feed stocks, the biomass resource base will expand.
GEOTHERMAL TECHNOLOGY
Geothermal technologies use the clean, sustainable heat from the Earth. Geothermal resources include the
heat retained in shallow ground, hot water and rock found a few miles beneath the Earth's surface, and
extremely high-temperature molten rock called magma located deep in the Earth.
Heat from the earth—geothermal energy—heats water that has seeped into underground reservoirs. These
reservoirs can be tapped for a variety of uses, depending on the temperature of the water. The energy from
high-temperature reservoirs (225°-600°F) can be used to produce electricity. There are currently three types
of geothermal power plants:
Dry Steam
Dry steam plants use steam from underground wells to rotate a turbine, which activates a generator to
produce electricity. There are only two known underground resources of steam in the United States: The

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Geysers in northern California and Old Faithful in Yellowstone National Park. Because Yellowstone is
protected from development, the power plants at The Geysers are the only dry steam plants in the country.
Flash Steam
The most common type of geothermal power plant, flash steam plants use water at temperatures of more
than 360ºF. As this hot water flows up through wells in the ground, the decrease in pressure causes some of
the water to boil into steam. The steam is then used to power a generator, and any leftover water and
condensed steam is returned to the reservoir.
Binary Cycle
Binary cycle plants use the heat from lower-temperature reservoirs (225°-360°F) to boil a working fluid, which
is then vaporized in a heat exchanger and used to power a generator. The water, which never comes into
direct contact with the working fluid, is then injected back into the ground to be reheated.
HYDROGEN TECHNOLOGY
Hydrogen is the simplest and most abundant element in the universe. It is a major component of water, oil,
natural gas, and all living matter. Despite its simplicity and abundance, hydrogen rarely occurs naturally as a
gas on Earth. It is almost always combined with other elements. It can be generated from oil, natural gas,
and biomass or by splitting water using renewable solar or electrical energy.
Once hydrogen is produced as molecular hydrogen, the energy present within the molecule can be released,
by reacting with oxygen to produce water. This can be achieved by either traditional internal combustion
engines, or by devices called fuel cells. In a fuel cell, hydrogen energy is converted directly into electricity
with high efficiency and low power losses.
Hydrogen, therefore, is an energy carrier, which is used to move, store, and deliver energy produced from
other sources.
HYDROPOWER TECHNOLOGY
Hydropower technologies use flowing water to create energy that can be captured and turned into electricity.
Both large- and small-scale power producers can use hydropower technologies to produce clean electricity.
SOLAR ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
Did you know that the amount of sunlight that strikes the earth's surface in an hour and a half is enough to
handle the entire world's energy consumption for a full year? Solar energy has amazing potential to power
our daily lives thanks to constantly-improving technologies.
Solar energy systems come in all shapes and sizes. Residential systems are found on rooftops across the
United States, and businesses are also opting to install solar panels to offset their energy costs. Utilities, too,
are building large solar power plants to provide cleaner energy to all customers connected to the grid.
There are two main types of solar energy technologies—photovoltaic (PV) and concentrating solar power
(CSP). You're likely most familiar with PV, which is utilized in panels. When the sun shines onto a solar panel,

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photons from the sunlight are absorbed by the cells in the panel, which creates an electric field across the
layers and causes electricity to flow.
The second technology is concentrating solar power, or CSP. It is used primarily in very large power plants
and is not appropriate for residential use. This technology uses mirrors to reflect and concentrate sunlight
onto receivers that collect solar energy and convert it to heat, which can then be used to produce electricity.
WIND ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
Wind energy technologies use the energy in wind for practical purposes such as generating electricity,
charging batteries, pumping water, and grinding grain. Wind energy is a result of the sun’s uneven heating
of the atmosphere, the earth’s irregular surfaces (mountains and valleys), and the planet's revolution around
the sun, which all combine to create wind.
Most wind energy technologies can be used as stand-alone applications, connected to a utility power grid, or
even combined with a photovoltaic system. For multi-megawatt sources of wind energy, a large number of
turbines are usually built close together to form a wind farm that provides grid power. Several electricity
providers use wind farms to supply power to their customers.
Stand-alone turbines are typically used for water pumping or communications. However, homeowners and
farmers in windy areas can also use small wind systems to generate electricity. Learn more about small wind
electric systems from Energy Saver.

OCEAN ENERGY TECHNOLOGY

The ocean can produce two types of energy: thermal energy from the sun's heat, and mechanical energy from
the tides and waves.
Oceans cover more than 70% of Earth's surface, making them the world's largest solar collectors. The sun's
heat warms the surface water a lot more than the deep ocean water, and this temperature difference creates
thermal energy. Just a small portion of the heat trapped in the ocean could power the world.
Ocean thermal energy is used for many applications, including electricity generation. There are three types
of electricity conversion systems: closed-cycle, open-cycle, and hybrid. Closed-cycle systems use the

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ocean's warm surface water to vaporize a working fluid, which has a low-boiling point, such as ammonia. The
vapor expands and turns a turbine. The turbine then activates a generator to produce electricity. Open-cycle
systems actually boil the seawater by operating at low pressures. This produces steam that passes through
a turbine/generator. And hybrid systems combine both closed-cycle and open-cycle systems.
Ocean mechanical energy is quite different from ocean thermal energy. Even though the sun affects all ocean
activity, tides are driven primarily by the gravitational pull of the moon, and waves are driven primarily by the
winds. As a result, tides and waves are intermittent sources of energy, while ocean thermal energy is fairly
constant. Also, unlike thermal energy, the electricity conversion of both tidal and wave energy usually involves
mechanical devices.
A barrage (dam) is typically used to convert tidal energy into electricity by forcing the water through turbines,
activating a generator. For wave energy conversion, there are three basic systems: channel systems that
funnel the waves into reservoirs; float systems that drive hydraulic pumps; and oscillating water column
systems that use the waves to compress air within a container. The mechanical power created from these
systems either directly activates a generator or transfers to a working fluid, water, or air, which then drives a
turbine/generator.
GREEN POWER
Green power is electricity that is generated from resources such as solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, and
low-impact hydro facilities. Conventional electricity generation, based on the combustion of fossil fuels, is the
nation's single largest industrial source of air pollution. The increasing availability of green power enables
electricity customers to accelerate installation of renewable energy technologies. As more green power
sources are developed - displacing conventional generation - the overall environmental impacts associated
with electricity generation will be significantly reduced.
Benefits of Green Power
Choosing green power offers a number of benefits to businesses and institutions, including:
 Environmental stewardship - Many innovative organizations are establishing environmental
commitments to make their operations and practices sustainable. Choosing green power is a simple
step towards creating a more sustainable organization.
 Public image - Green power can help improve an organization's public image by demonstrating
environmental stewardship.
 Customer loyalty - Demonstrating environmental stewardship through green power may help
increase an organization's customer and investor loyalty.
 Employee pride - Employees prefer to work for companies that give back to their communities and
to the environment.

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 Power portfolio management - Because some green power sources have no fuel costs, green
power can help protect your power portfolio from volatile prices of fossil-fuel-generated electricity.
 Power reliability - On-site renewable generation can be a more reliable source of power than power
distributed through the electric grid.
Green Power Options
Green power is available in four basic forms, the availability of which partially depends upon the status of
electric utility restructuring in the state where the purchase is being made.
Blended Products
Also known as "percentage products," blended products allow customers, primarily in states with competitive
electricity markets, to switch to electricity that contains a percentage of renewable energy. The renewable
energy content of blended products can vary from 2 percent to 100 percent according to the renewable
resources available to utilities or marketers.
Block Products
Block products allow customers served by monopoly utilities to choose green power from the electric grid in
standard units of energy at a fixed price, which is converted to a premium and added to their regular electric
bill. Customers decide how many blocks they want to purchase each month.
Green Tags or Renewable Energy Certificates
Green tags allow customers to purchase the renewable attributes of a specific quantity of renewable energy.
Green tags are sold separately from electricity and can be purchased for a location anywhere in the U.S. In
this way, a customer can choose green power even if the local utility or marketer does not offer a green power
product. One green tag typically represents the renewable attributes associated with one megawatt hour of
green power.
On-Site Renewable Generation
Customers can install their own renewable energy generating equipment at their facility. On-site renewable
generation can increase power reliability, provide stable electricity costs, and help manage waste streams.
Furthermore, in many states, excess green power generated on-site can be returned to the electric grid, in
effect allowing customers to obtain credit from their utility. (This is also known as "net-metering.")
BENEFITS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY USE
Renewable energy—wind, solar, geothermal, hydroelectric, and biomass—provides substantial benefits for
our climate, our health, and our economy.
Each source of renewable energy has unique benefits and costs; this page explores the many benefits
associated with these energy technologies. For more information on their potential impacts — including
effective solutions to mitigate or avoid them entirely.
 Little to no global warming emissions
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 Improved public health and environmental quality
 A vast and inexhaustible energy supply
 Jobs and other economic benefits
 Stable energy prices
 A more reliable and resilient energy system
Environmental: Renewable energy technologies are clean sources of energy that have a much lower
environmental impact than conventional energy technologies.
Energy for the future: Renewable energy never runs out. Other sources of energy are finite and will
someday be depleted.
Jobs and the economy: Most renewable energy investments are spent on materials and workmanship to
build and maintain the facilities, rather than on costly energy imports. Renewable energy investments are
usually spent within the U.S.; frequently in the same state; and often in the same county. This means your
energy dollars stay home to create jobs and to fuel local economies, rather than going overseas. Meanwhile,
renewable energy technologies developed and built in the U.S. are being sold overseas, improving the U.S.
trade deficit.
Energy security: In the last few decades, our nation has increased its dependence on foreign oil supplies
instead of decreasing it. This impacts more than just our national energy policy. Our nation�s energy
security continues to be threatened by our dependency on fossil fuels. These conventional energy sources
are vulnerable to: political instabilities; trade disputes; embargoes and other disruptions
Who Benefits
 Homeowner: By using renewable energy and energy-efficient technologies in your home and
automobile, you'll help the environment and may save more money in the long run
 Small business owner: You can reduce your utility bills and impact on the environment by using
renewable energy and energy-efficient technologies. There are also small business opportunities in clean
energy.
 Student or teacher: You can benefit from learning about renewable energy and energy-efficient
technologies, and how they can help our environment and replace fossil fuels, which are being depleted.
 Electricity provider: There are many renewable energy technologies available for electricity production,
as well as ways you and your customers can save money through energy efficiency.
 Inventor: There are opportunities available to inventors of renewable energy or energy-efficient
technologies.

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Little to no global warming emissions
Human activity is overloading our atmosphere with carbon dioxide and other global warming emissions, which
trap heat, steadily drive up the planet’s temperature, and create significant and harmful impacts on our health,
our environment, and our climate.
Electricity production accounts for more than one-third of U.S. global warming emissions, with the majority
generated by coal-fired power plants, which produce approximately 25 percent of total U.S. global warming
emissions; natural gas-fired power plants produce 6 percent of total emissions. In contrast, most renewable
energy sources produce little to no global warming emissions.
According to data aggregated by the International Panel on Climate Change, life-cycle global warming
emissions associated with renewable energy—including manufacturing, installation, operation and
maintenance, and dismantling and decommissioning—are minimal.
Compared with natural gas, which emits between 0.6 and 2 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-
hour (CO2E/kWh), and coal, which emits between 1.4 and 3.6 pounds of CO2E/kWh, wind emits only 0.02
to 0.04 pounds of CO2E/kWh, solar 0.07 to 0.2, geothermal 0.1 to 0.2, and hydroelectric between 0.1 and
0.5. Renewable electricity generation from biomass can have a wide range of global warming emissions
depending on the resource and how it is harvested. Sustainably sourced biomass has a low emissions
footprint, while unsustainable sources of biomass can generate significant global warming emissions.
Increasing the supply of renewable energy would allow us to replace carbon-intensive energy sources and
significantly reduce U.S. global warming emissions. For example, a 2009 UCS analysis found that a 25
percent by 2025 national renewable electricity standard would lower power plant CO2 emissions 277 million
metric tons annually by 2025—the equivalent of the annual output from 70 typical (600 MW) new coal plants.
In addition, a ground-breaking study by the U.S. Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy
Laboratory explored the feasibility and environmental impacts associated with generating 80 percent of the
country’s electricity from renewable sources by 2050 and found that global warming emissions from electricity
production could be reduced by approximately 81 percent.
Improved public health and environmental quality
Generating electricity from renewable energy rather than fossil fuels offers significant public health benefits.
The air and water pollution emitted by coal and natural gas plants is linked to breathing problems, neurological
damage, heart attacks, and cancer. Replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy has been found to reduce
premature mortality and lost workdays, and it reduces overall healthcare costs. The aggregate national
economic impact associated with these health impacts of fossil fuels is between $361.7 and $886.5 billion,
or between 2.5 percent and 6 percent of gross domestic product (GDP).

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Wind, solar, and hydroelectric systems generate electricity with no associated air pollution emissions.
While geothermal and biomass energy systems emit some air pollutants, total air emissions are generally
much lower than those of coal- and natural gas-fired power plants.
In addition, wind and solar energy require essentially no water to operate and thus do not pollute water
resources or strain supply by competing with agriculture, drinking water systems, or other important water
needs. In contrast, fossil fuels can have a significant impact on water resources. For example, both coal
mining and natural gas drilling can pollute sources of drinking water. Natural gas extraction by hydraulic
fracturing (fracking) requires large amounts of water and all thermal power plants, including those powered
by coal, gas, and oil, withdraw and consume water for cooling.
Biomass and geothermal power plants, like coal- and natural gas-fired power plants, require water for cooling.
In addition, hydroelectric power plants impact river ecosystems both upstream and downstream from the
dam. However, NREL's 80 percent by 2050 renewable energy study, which included biomass and
geothermal, found that water withdrawals would decrease 51 percent to 58 percent by 2050 and water
consumption would be reduced by 47 percent to 55 percent.
A vast and inexhaustible energy supply
Throughout the United States, strong winds, sunny skies, plant residues, heat from the earth, and fast-moving
water can each provide a vast and constantly replenished energy resource supply. These diverse sources of
renewable energy have the technical potential to provide all the electricity the nation needs many times over.
Estimates of the technical potential of each renewable energy source are based on their overall availability
given certain technological and environmental constraints [8]. In 2012, NREL found that together, renewable
energy sources have the technical potential to supply 482,247 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity annually
(see Table 1). This amount is 118 times the amount of electricity the nation currently consumes. However, it
is important to note that not all of this technical potential can be tapped due to conflicting land use needs, the
higher short-term costs of those resources, constraints on ramping up their use such as limits on transmission
capacity, barriers to public acceptance, and other hurdles.
Today, renewable energy provides only a tiny fraction of its potential electricity output in the United States
and worldwide. But numerous studies have repeatedly shown that renewable energy can be rapidly deployed
to provide a significant share of future electricity needs, even after accounting for potential constraints [9].

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Source: “U.S. Renewable Energy Technical Potentials: A GIS -Based Analysis”, National Renewable Energy Laboratory. July 2012
Jobs and other economic benefits
Compared with fossil fuel technologies, which are typically mechanized and capital intensive, the renewable
energy industry is more labor-intensive. This means that, on average, more jobs are created for each unit of
electricity generated from renewable sources than from fossil fuels.
Renewable energy already supports thousands of jobs in the United States. For example, in 2011, the wind
energy industry directly employed 75,000 full-time-equivalent employees in a variety of capacities, including
manufacturing, project development, construction and turbine installation, operations and maintenance,
transportation and logistics, and financial, legal, and consulting services [10]. More than 500 factories in the
United States manufacture parts for wind turbines, and the amount of domestically manufactured equipment
used in wind turbines has grown dramatically in recent years: from 35 percent in 2006 to 70 percent in 2011.
Other renewable energy technologies employ even more workers. In 2011, the solar industry employed
approximately 100,000 people on a part-time or full-time basis, including jobs in solar installation,
manufacturing, and sales; the hydroelectric power industry employed approximately 250,000 people in 2009
and in 2010 the geothermal industry employed 5,200 people.
Increasing renewable energy has the potential to create still more jobs. In 2009, the Union of Concerned
Scientists conducted an analysis of the economic benefits of a 25 percent renewable energy standard by
2025; it found that such a policy would create more than three times as many jobs as producing an equivalent
amount of electricity from fossil fuels—resulting in a benefit of 202,000 new jobs in 2025.
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In addition to the jobs directly created in the renewable energy industry, growth in renewable energy industry
creates positive economic “ripple” effects. For example, industries in the renewable energy supply chain will
benefit, and unrelated local businesses will benefit from increased household and business incomes.
In addition to creating new jobs, increasing our use of renewable energy offers other important economic
development benefits. Local governments collect property and income taxes and other payments from
renewable energy project owners. These revenues can help support vital public services, especially in rural
communities where projects are often located. Owners of the land on which wind projects are built also often
receive lease payments ranging from $3,000 to $6,000 per megawatt of installed capacity, as well as
payments for power line easements and road rights-of-way. Or they may earn royalties based on the project’s
annual revenues. Similarly, farmers and rural landowners can generate new sources of supplemental income
by producing feed stocks for biomass power facilities.
UCS analysis found that a 25 by 2025 national renewable electricity standard would stimulate $263.4 billion
in new capital investment for renewable energy technologies, $13.5 billion in new landowner income biomass
production and/or wind land lease payments, and $11.5 billion in new property tax revenue for local
communities.
Renewable energy projects therefore keep money circulating within the local economy, and in most states
renewable electricity production would reduce the need to spend money on importing coal and natural gas
from other places. Thirty-eight states were net importers of coal in 2008—from other states and, increasingly,
other countries: 16 states spent a total of more than $1.8 billion on coal from as far away as Colombia,
Venezuela, and Indonesia, and 11 states spent more than $1 billion each on net coal imports.
Stable energy prices
Renewable energy is providing affordable electricity across the country right now, and can help stabilize
energy prices in the future.
The costs of renewable energy technologies have declined steadily, and are projected to drop even more.
For example, the average price of a solar panel has dropped almost 60 percent since. The cost of generating
electricity from wind dropped more than 20 percent between 2010 and 2012 and more than 80 percent since
1980. In areas with strong wind resources like Texas, wind power can compete directly with fossil fuels on
costs. The cost of renewable energy will decline even further as markets mature and companies increasingly
take advantage of economies of scale.
While renewable facilities require upfront investments to build, once built they operate at very low cost and,
for most technologies, the fuel is free. As a result, renewable energy prices are relatively stable over time.
UCS’s analysis of the economic benefits of a 25 percent renewable electricity standard found that such a
policy would lead to 4.1 percent lower natural gas prices and 7.6 percent lower electricity prices by 2030.

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In contrast, fossil fuel prices can vary dramatically and are prone to substantial price swings. For example,
there was a rapid increase in U.S. coal prices due to rising global demand before 2008, then a rapid fall after
2008 when global demands declined. Likewise, natural gas prices have fluctuated greatly since 2000.
Using more renewable energy can lower the prices of and demand for natural gas and coal by increasing
competition and diversifying our energy supplies. An increased reliance on renewable energy can help
protect consumers when fossil fuel prices spike.
In addition, utilities spend millions of dollars on financial instruments to hedge themselves from these fossil
fuel price uncertainties. Since hedging costs are not necessary for electricity generated from renewable
sources, long-term renewable energy investments can help utilities save money they would otherwise spend
to protect their customers from the volatility of fossil fuel prices.
A more reliable and resilient energy system
Wind and solar are less prone to large-scale failure because they are distributed and modular. Distributed
systems are spread out over a large geographical area, so a severe weather event in one location will not
cut off power to an entire region. Modular systems are composed of numerous individual wind turbines or
solar arrays. Even if some of the equipment in the system is damaged, the rest can typically continue to
operate.
For example, in 2012 Hurricane Sandy damaged fossil fuel-dominated electric generation and distribution
systems in New York and New Jersey and left millions of people without power. In contrast, renewable energy
projects in the Northeast weathered Hurricane Sandy with minimal damage or disruption.
The risk of disruptive events will also increase in the future as droughts, heat waves, more intense storms,
and increasingly severe wildfires become more frequent due to global warming. Renewable energy sources
are more resilient than coal, natural gas, and nuclear power plants in the face of these sorts of extreme
weather events.
For example, coal, natural gas, and nuclear power depend on large amounts of water for cooling, and limited
water availability during a severe drought or heat wave puts electricity generation at risk. Wind and solar
photovoltaic systems do not require water to generate electricity, and they can help mitigate risks associated
with water scarcity.
THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY
The Advantages of Renewable Energy
One major advantage with the use of renewable energy is that as it is renewable it is therefore sustainable
and so will never run out.
Renewable energy facilities generally require less maintenance than traditional generators. Their fuel being
derived from natural and available resources reduces the costs of operation.

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Even more importantly, renewable energy produces little or no waste products such as carbon dioxide or
other chemical pollutants, so has minimal impact on the environment.
Renewable energy projects can also bring economic benefits to many regional areas, as most projects are
located away from large urban centres and suburbs of the capital cities. These economic benefits may be
from the increased use of local services as well as tourism.
The Disadvantages of Renewable Energy
It is easy to recognize the environmental advantages of utilizing the alternative and renewable forms of
energy but we must also be aware of the disadvantages.
One disadvantage with renewable energy is that it is difficult to generate the quantities of electricity that are
as large as those produced by traditional fossil fuel generators. This may mean that we need to reduce the
amount of energy we use or simply build more energy facilities. It also indicates that the best solution to our
energy problems may be to have a balance of many different power sources.
Another disadvantage of renewable energy sources is the reliability of supply. Renewable energy often relies
on the weather for its source of power. Hydro generators need rain to fill dams to supply flowing water. Wind
turbines need wind to turn the blades, and solar collectors need clear skies and sunshine to collect heat and
make electricity. When these resources are unavailable so is the capacity to make energy from them. This
can be unpredictable and inconsistent. The current cost of renewable energy technology is also far in excess
of traditional fossil fuel generation. This is because it is a new technology and as such has extremely large
capital cost.
Non-Renewable Energy
Non-renewable fossil fuels (crude oil, natural gas, coal, oil shales and tar sands) currently supply Australia
with more than 95 percent of our electrical energy needs. Non-renewable energy is energy produced by
burning fossil fuels such as coal. They are non-renewable because there are finite resources of fossil fuels
on the planet. If they are continually used, one day they will run out.
The Source of Fossil Fuels
Just as plants do today, those living millions of years ago converted the sun's light energy into food (chemical)
energy through the process of photosynthesis. That 'solar' energy was and is transferred down the food chain
in animals. This energy provides living things with the energy to grow and live. When living organisms die the
energy contained within them as chemical energy is trapped.
It is estimated that the total amount of energy gained from fossil fuels since the start of civilization is equivalent
to the same amount of energy we receive every 30 days from the sun.
Fossil fuels are formed by the burying, and subsequent pressure and heating, of dead plant and animal
matter or biomass (organic matter), over millions of years. This is how coal, oil and natural gas are formed.
The trapped energy can be released and utilized when the fuels are burnt.

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The Advantages of Fossil Fuels
There are a few major advantages with non-renewable energy. Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and gas are
abundant in Australia so this means they are a relatively cheap fuel and readily available. Australia has
enough fossil fuel resources to last for hundreds of years. Also very large amounts of electricity can be
generated from fossil fuel.
An Example of a Typical Coal-Fired PowerStation
A typical coal-fired power station generates electricity by burning coal in a boiler that heats up water, which
is converted into superheated steam. This steam drives a steam turbine that in turn drives a generator that
produces electricity. A single coal-fired power station unit can power many thousands of houses as well as
large industry.

The Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels are non-renewable and will eventually run out because we are using them much faster than they
can be restored within the earth. Burning fossil fuels produces photochemical pollution from nitrous oxides,
and acid rain from sulphur dioxide. Burning fuels also produce greenhouse gases including vast amounts of
carbon dioxide that may be causing the phenomenon of global warming that the planet is currently
experiencing.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE VEHICLE LIFE CYCLE
Production and Destruction
Cars consume a lot of energy before they ever make it to the open road. Automotive production leaves a
giant footprint because materials like steel, rubber, glass, plastics, paints, and many more must be created
before a new ride is ready to roll.
Similarly, the end of a car’s life doesn’t mark the end of its environmental impact. Plastics, toxic battery acids,
and other products may stay in the environment. Fortunately, junkyard pile-ups are becoming much smaller
than they were in the past. About three-quarters of today’s average car, including the bulk of a steel frame,
can be recycled.
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Production, recycling, and disposal costs to the environment are difficult to quantify and largely beyond the
control of most consumers. They are also relatively minor. Most of an automobiles’ environmental impact,
perhaps 80 to 90 percent, will be due to fuel consumption and emissions of air pollution and greenhouse
gases that climate scientists say are driving global warming. Fortunately, the level of that impact is very much
under the control of the driver.
Fuel Costs
Petroleum products raise environmental red flags even before they are burned. Extracting them from the
earth is an energy-intensive process that can damage local ecosystems. Shipping fuels can also consume a
lot of energy, and creates an occasional environmental disaster such as an oil spill. As world demand rises,
and unconventional fuel sources, such as oil sands, become more economically viable, the ecological
impacts of petroleum extraction might also increase dramatically. That’s one more reason why fuel efficiency
is so important.
Vehicle Emissions and Air Quality
Vehicles are America’s biggest air quality compromisers, producing about one-third of all U.S. air pollution.
The smog, carbon monoxide, and other toxins emitted by vehicles are especially troubling because they
leave tailpipes at street level, where humans breathe the polluted air directly into their lungs. That can make
auto emissions an even more immediate health concern than toxins emitted high in the sky by industrial
smokestacks.
When a car’s engine is running, several different types of gasses and particles are emitted that can have
detrimental effects on the environment. Of particular concern to the environment are carbon dioxide, a
greenhouse gas; hydrocarbons -- any of more than a dozen volatile organic compounds, some of which are
known carcinogens; nitrogen oxides; sulfur oxides; and particulate matter, tiny particles of solids, such as
metal and soot. Other emissions that affect human health and create smog include ozone and carbon
monoxide. The good news is that despite the increase of vehicles on the road, air quality today is actually
better than it was in the 1970s, thanks to the 1970 Clean Air Act. In fact, lead emissions from cars have been
almost completely eradicated because of the phasing out of leaded gasoline.
Effects on the Environment
Vehicle emissions can affect the environment in several ways. Cars emit greenhouse gasses, such as carbon
dioxide, which contribute to global warming. (See Reference 2, page 13) Some air pollutants and particulate
matter from cars can be deposited on soil and surface waters where they enter the food chain; these
substances can affect the reproductive, respiratory, immune and neurological systems of animals. Nitrogen
oxides and sulfur oxides are major contributors to acid rain, which changes the pH of waterways and soils
and can harm the organisms that rely on these resources.

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Effects on the Ozone Layer
The ozone layer helps to protect life on earth from the sun’s ultraviolet rays, but human activities have
contributed to the accelerated depletion of this protective shield. Substances that contribute to ozone
depletion usually have high concentrations of chlorine or bromine atoms and include chlorofluorocarbons, or
CFCs, halons, methyl bromide, carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform. Vehicle emissions contain few
chlorine- or bromine-heavy substances, and therefore have little effect on ozone depletion. Even though they
are not good for human health, hydrocarbons are recognized by the EPA as having no ozone depletion
potential.
Vehicle Fluids
Vehicles contain many different fluids, including motor oil, antifreeze, gasoline, air-conditioning refrigerants,
and brake, transmission, hydraulic and windshield-wiper fluids. In most cases, these fluids are toxic to
humans and animals, and can pollute waterways if they leak from a vehicle or are disposed of incorrectly.
Many vehicle fluids are exposed to heat and oxygen while an engine is running, and undergo chemical
changes. These fluids also pick up heavy metals from engine wear and tear, making them even more toxic
to the environment. Most vehicles manufactured before 1994 use CFC-12 as a coolant; CFC-12 is no longer
produced in the U.S. because of its detrimental effect on the ozone layer. Alternative refrigerants are
available, but some still have an impact on the ozone layer if they escape your car’s air-conditioning system.
Drive Less.
It may seem obvious, but leaving your car in the garage a bit more often is the best way to reduce its
environmental impact. Carpool when you can, try public transportation, or break out your bike when the sun
is shining. Every mile you don’t drive makes a difference.

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