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Faculty of Engineering, Technology, Applied Design & Fine Art

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

IMPACTS OF WASTEWATER & DOMESTIC SEWAGE TO ENVIRONMENT

Jan 2018
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 IMPACTS OF WASTEWATER AND DOMESTIC SEWAGE TO ENVIRONMENT
2.1 What is wastewater?
Wastewater refers to all effluent from household, commercial establishments and institutions, hospitals,
industries and so on. It also includes storm water and urban runoff, agricultural, horticultural and
aquaculture effluent.
Effluent refers to the sewage or liquid waste that is discharged into water bodies either from direct sources
or from treatment plants. Influent refers to water, wastewater, or other liquid flowing into a reservoir, basin
or treatment plant.
Sewage is also wastewater. It is wastewater originating from toilets and bathroom fixtures, bathing,
laundry, kitchen sinks, cleaners, and similar dirty water that is produced in households and public places.
Water used to irrigate turf and gardens, swimming pools, roof drainage, surface runoff and storm water
are all wastewater but not classified as sewage.
In simple terms, wastewater is all the dirty water from municipal sources (poop, urine and faecal sludge).
This includes black water, gray water and yellow water. All dirty water from all the schools, restaurants,
commercial establishments, hospitals, farms, floodwater and all the possible dirty water you can think of
is considered wastewater. Some wastewater contain hazardous dissolved toxins and chemicals, whiles
others contain particles, sediments and suspended matter of all sizes.
Agriculture (irrigation, livestock watering and cleaning, aquaculture) uses about 69% to 90% of global
fresh water use, and the bulk of it is returned to the soil, waterways or discharged with added nutrients
and contaminants.

2.1.1 Types of wastewater

Wastewater comes in three main types namely Black water, Gray water and Yellow water.
Black water
This is wastewater that originates from toilet fixtures, dishwashers and food preparation sinks. It is made
up of all the things that you can imagine going down the toilets, bath and sink drains. They include poop,

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 urine, toilet paper and wipes; body cleaning liquids, anal cleansing water and so on. They are known to
be highly contaminated with dissolved chemicals, particulate matter and is very pathogenic.
Gray water
This is wastewater that originates from non-toilet and food fixtures such as bathroom sinks, laundry
machines, spas, bathtubs and so on. Technically it is sewage that does not contain poop or urine. Gray
water is treated very differently from Black water and is usually suitable for re-use.
Yellow water
This is basically urine collected with specific channels and not contaminated with either black water or
gray water.
2.1.2 Sources of wastewater
Domestic Sewage
This includes all wastewater generated by home dwellings, public restrooms, hotels, restaurants, motels,
resorts, schools, places of worship, sports stadiums, hospitals and other health centers, apartments and
the like. They all produce high volumes of wastewater.
Non-sewage
These include water from floods (storm water), runoff (rain water running through cracks in the ground
and into gutters), water from swimming pools, water from car garages and cleaning centers. They also
include Laundromats, beauty salons, commercial kitchens, energy generation plants and so on.
Wastewater is also generated from agricultural facilities. Water used for cleaning in animal farms, washing
harvested produce and cleaning farm equipment.
2.1.3 How is wastewater harmful?
In certain parts of the world, especially in developing countries, wastewater is pumped directly into the
sea or into fresh water bodies without any form of treatment. In other parts of developed countries, lack
of adequate wastewater treatment infrastructure, maintenance and outdated systems heavily compromise
wastewater treatment efforts. The effects of this (either treated or partly treated) can be classified in the
following:
Water pollution:
Fresh water bodies and marine waters into which wastewater is discharged may be polluted and rendered
unsafe for human use. Depending on what is discharged, aquatic life may be harmed too.
Water security:
There is water scarcity in many places in the world. Wastewater discharged on lands can leach into
underground water tables and potentially contaminate aquifers and underground water. If discharged in
freshwater bodies, it may render water sources unsuitable for use.

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 Ecosystem services:
All ecosystems are connected and they all ultimately depend on water. Similarly, all water (surface and
underground) is connected. This means careless wastewater discharge can have some serious ripple
effect. One common effect of wastewater is the eutrophication of fresh water bodies and oceans. If one
part of the ecosystem chain is destroyed, it can upset its entire food chain.
Agriculture / Fisheries / Tourism:
Wastewater for irrigation may contain unsuitable chemicals and higher concentrations of nutrients needed
for crops. This can result in delayed and under yielding. Wastewater used for animal farming may also
contain harmful things and chemicals dissolved in them. Animals may die, and there is a chance that
humans that eat such animals may be harmed too. In some places, faecal sewage is discharged directly
into the sea. The discharge contains pathogens and harmful dissolved chemicals which can affect fishing
in that area. The smell and such behavior does not encourage tourism to that area.
Health of urban and rural populations:
Wastewater is a big health issue, as it carries and transports a myriad of diseases and illnesses. It is
believed that about 2.2 million people die each year (globally) from diarrheal disease. (WHO) At least 1.8
million children under five years die every year due to water related disease, or one every 20 seconds
(WHO, 2008).
2.1.4 Management of wastewater
Smart waste water management is key to poverty reduction. It will sustain ecosystem services; improve
food security, health and ultimately the economy.
Good wastewater management efforts will enforce existing policies and introduce new and relevant
policies, funding, and legislation, encourage voluntary agreements, engage private and public sectors and
expand education on the issue.
These five areas must be emphasized:
1. Preventive practices:
Laws, policies and advocacy should be designed to encourage all stakeholders to reduce the
generation of wastewater. This will reduce the volume of wastewater that we have to eventually
deal with.
2. Capture the wastewater immediately:
Appropriate technology and practices must be laid to capture wastewater straight from its source
and directed to the right places for treatment. This part will involve significant investment, but the
long-term benefits will be worth it. It may involve laying different underground pipes to carry
different types of wastewater.

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 3. Treatment:
In many rural dwellings all over the world, the sun, vegetation, soils and bacteria are able to take
care of wastewater naturally if discharged into the environment with little or no treatment. It is
possible because the volumes are very small. In urban centers the amounts of wastewater
produced is staggering and simply impossible for nature to take care of. This is why we need to
treat wastewater using appropriate and relevant technology before discharging into the
environment.
4. Recycle and re-use water:
This involves the use of physical, biological and chemical principles to remove contaminants from
wastewater. The type of wastewater will determine the kind of principle to apply. Water recycle,
reuse and reclaim are often used to mean the same thing. An example is water that is used over
and over again for cooling purposes in an energy plant. Another example is to capture gray water
(those from sinks, shower and laundry drains) and reused for landscaping, construction and
concrete mixing purposes.
5. Education, Awareness, Advocacy and Stewardship:
Stakeholders should provide a friendly background for the development of new ideas and
technologies to managing the issue. Each person and all groups of people should be adequately
informed about the threat and the need to reduce wastewater and welcome the potential in
managing them with socially and culturally appropriate methods and technology.
2.1.5 Wastewater is a resource
Wastewater is a huge resource that if harnessed properly, can bring a lot of health and economic benefits,
increase food production, reduce poverty, enhance fishing, tourism, rural and urban livelihoods. Here are
a few points to note:
Irrigation and Agriculture:
Storm water, urban runoff and effluent from animal farms can be captured for irrigation and other farming
needs. This kind of wastewater is usually high in nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, micronutrient
and organic matter) and farmers love it. They are able to save on fertilizer cost and also preserve surface
and underground water that they would have otherwise used.
In the agricultural countries, 31% of reclaimed water is used for crop or landscape irrigation. Note that
sludge from treatment sites are also used in composting sites and also sent to rural agricultural fields.
Energy and Construction:
The waste materials (sludge) collected from a treatment plant can be biodegraded in a controlled
environment and then combusted (burnt at high temperatures) to release Methane (A gas similar to
natural gas). This can be used in boilers at homes and in buildings, as well as for cooking and heating
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 purposes. Note that this digester kind of biodegrading can contain contaminants and so the process has
to be done properly. The sludge from treatment plants can also be combusted to produce electricity.
Note that there are different types of sludge. Sludge could be faecal (from human and animal poop flushed
down the drains) and regular sludge, from rubbish and garbage that get into drains and sewage systems.
Faecal sludge is high in contaminants and must be treated well before discharge.
Household:
Smart thinking by rural and urban dwellers can offer some real benefits to households too. For example,
water use in the kitchen can be collected and used to water flowers and lawns. A couple of gallons each
day means a significant saving on water by the end of the year! Families can also reduce the amount of
wastewater they produce by smart use of bathrooms.
2.1.6 Facts of wastewater
1. Water related diseases:
Globally, two million tons of sewage, industrial and agricultural waste is discharged into the
world’s waterways and at least 1.8 million children under five years-old die every year from water
related disease, or one every 20 seconds.
2. Wastewater treatment
In busy cities, 100,000 miles of sanitary sewers and more than 900 wastewater treatment plants
manage the approximately 4 billion gallons of wastewater generated every day by the state’s
citizens, businesses and visitors, according to the 2012 “This engineered wastewater
infrastructure serves their ratepayers and customers and visitors very well in their mission to
protect public health and the environment,” the report card noted in an excerpt.
3. Daily wastewater processing:
Most homes and businesses send their wastewater to a treatment plant where many pollutants
are removed from the water. Wastewater treatment facilities in the United States process
approximately 34 billion gallons of wastewater every day.
4. Global wastewater treatment:
Globally, only 20% of wastewater produced receive proper treatment. (UNESCO 2012).
Treatment capacity typically depends on the income level of the country, thus treatment capacity
is 70% of the generated wastewater in high-income countries, compared to only 8% in low-income
countries.
5. Car wash water use
On the average, a self-serve facility uses 20 gallons of water per vehicle with 3-5 gallons of water
loss through evaporation and carryout. Tunnel car wash facilities can wash from 100 to 1,000
cars a day, using an average of 80 gallons of water per car.
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 6. The Great Lakes Sewage Dump:
A study by Sierra Legal found that more than 90 billion litres of untreated sewage were dumped
into the Great Lakes each year. That’s the same as dumping over 100 Olympic swimming pools
of raw sewage into the Great Lakes, every day.
2.1.7 Wastewater Pollution
Pollution Entering Waters
Wastewater effluents are released to a wide variety of receiving environments: lakes, ponds, streams,
rivers, estuaries and oceans. Effluents released from wastewater systems do contain pollutants of
concern since even advanced treatment systems are unable to remove all pollutants and chemicals.
Furthermore, some sewer collection and treatment systems are combined with storm water collection
systems that can become overloaded during heavy rainfalls, resulting in the release of partially treated or
even untreated effluents. The solid material (biosolids and sludges) collected during treatment is disposed
of on land, incinerated or sent to landfills. Treatment of wastewater also releases emissions to air mostly
in the form of carbon dioxide and methane.
The Effect of the Release of Wastewater Pollutants on Ecosystems and Human Health
Releases to surface waters
Several environmental and health impacts resulting from insufficient wastewater treatment have been
identified in the scientific literature and actions need to be taken to reduce these impacts. These impacts
can include negative effects on fish and wildlife populations, oxygen depletion, beach closures and other
restrictions on recreational water use, restrictions on fish and mudfish harvesting and consumption and
restrictions on drinking water consumption.
Some examples of pollutants that can be found in wastewater and the potentially harmful effects these
substances can have on ecosystems and human health include:
(i) decaying organic matter and debris can use up the dissolved oxygen in a lake so fish and other
aquatic biota cannot survive;
(ii) excessive nutrients, such as phosphorus and nitrogen (including ammonia), can cause
eutrophication, or over-fertilization of receiving waters, which can be toxic to aquatic organisms,
promote excessive plant growth, reduce available oxygen, harm spawning grounds, alter habitat
and lead to a decline in certain species;
(iii) chlorine compounds and inorganic chloramines can be toxic to aquatic invertebrates, algae and
fish;
(iv) bacteria, viruses and disease-causing pathogens can pollute beaches and contaminate shellfish
populations, leading to restrictions on human recreation, drinking water consumption and shellfish
consumption;
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 (v) metals, such as mercury, lead, cadmium, chromium and arsenic can have acute and chronic toxic
effects on species;
(vi) other substances such as some pharmaceutical and personal care products, primarily entering
the environment in wastewater effluents, may also pose threats to human health, aquatic life and
wildlife;
Releases to Air
The process of collection and treatment of wastewater also results in the release of certain volatile
chemicals into the air. The chemicals typically released in the largest volume include; methane, carbon
dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, mercaptans, chlorine (if used in the treatment process) and
various other chemicals can be released to a smaller extent.
Releases to Land
The process of removing both inorganic and organic suspended solids from the wastewater results in
large quantities of solid waste. In typical treatment facilities, the inorganic solids (grit, debris) and other
non-biodegradable materials are sent to landfill. Many secondary treatment facilities collect the organic
solids and process them in a digester to recover methane gas for energy production. Once the organic
solids have been completely digested (no further methane production), various options are available to
the treatment facility. These solid wastes can be land applied as a soil fertilizer/conditioner, incinerated
for further energy recovery, sent to landfill, or to deep well injection.
2.1.8 How does waste water affect the environment?
Wastewater can contain endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) that, when released in the environment,
may negatively affect fish populations. Two of the primary dangers include feminization and disruption of
fish populations.
Wastewater treatment plants are designed to rid wastewater of pathogens, waste particles and nutrients,
but potential EDCs are more difficult to eliminate. These chemicals end up in wastewater through a variety
of ways, as they are present in pharmaceutical products, detergents, soaps, plastics, food and personal
care products such as perfume.
2.1.9 How can you maintain a clean environment?
Although there are many different ways to keep the environment clean, some useful tips include:
(i) avoiding the use of harmful pesticides and cleaning chemicals in the home,
(ii) reducing carbon footprints and
(iii) recycling different trash items
(iv) avoid buying plastic water bottles
Cleaning products, such as oven cleaners, bleach, drain cleaners and detergents, contain chemicals that
can adversely affect the air and water sources in the environment. An alternative to using these products
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 is to make "green" cleaners with ingredients that include vinegar, plain water and baking soda. Recycling
paper and plastic items can greatly reduce the trash amounts in a home. Similarly, electronic devices
should be taken to a recycling center because they can contain toxic ingredients, including mercury.
Reducing carbon footprints can lead to less air pollution. Carbon footprints are the amount of carbon
compounds and byproducts that are emitted into the air. Instead of buying plastic water bottles, people
can use water filters to avoid amassing large amounts of plastic waste material.
2.1.10 What are the causes of water pollution?
Around half of all ocean pollution is caused by sewage and waste water. Each year, the world generates
400 billion tons of industrial waste, much of which is pumped untreated into rivers, oceans, and other
waterways
How do we pollute the water?
Many substances that are hazardous to human health can enter water supplies. Chemical waste from
factories is sometimes dumped into rivers and lakes, or directly into the ground. Pesticides (chemicals
that kill insects) applied to farmland enter surface water and groundwater, often in large quantities.
What is a waste of water?
Wastewater, also written as waste water, is any water that has been adversely affected in quality by
anthropogenic influence. Wastewater can originate from a combination of domestic, industrial,
commercial or agricultural activities, surface runoff or storm water, and from sewer inflow or infiltration.
Why do we have to treat wastewater?
Wastewater treatment. The major aim of wastewater treatment is to remove as much of the suspended
solids as possible before the remaining water, called effluent, is discharged back to the environment. As
solid material decays, it uses up oxygen, which is needed by the plants and animals living in the water.
Wastewater treatment is a process to convert wastewater- which is water no longer needed or suitable
for its most recent use - into an effluent that can be either returned to the water cycle with minimal
environmental issues or reused.
2.2. Impact of domestic sewage to the environment
2.2.1 What is domestic Pollution?
Domestic Pollution is the pollution caused to the earth by domestic use.
 Sewage originating primarily from kitchen, bathroom, and laundry sources.
 Waste from food preparation, dishwashing, garbage, toilets, baths, showers, and sinks, etc.
Sewage is the term used for wastewater that often contains faeces, urine and laundry waste. Sewage
disposal is a major problem in developing countries as many people in these areas don’t have access to
sanitary conditions and clean water. Untreated sewage water in areas without access to sanitary
conditions can contaminate the water, which can result with diseases.
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2.2.2 What is sewage?
Wastewater from your shower, bathtub, washing machine, dishwasher, kitchen sink and toilet is all
considered sewage - it isn't just from the toilet. Interestingly, sewage is actually 99.8% water.
A typical 4-person household produces around 400–500 litres of sewage every day.
Liquid waste from business and industry – also known as trade waste – is considered sewage or
wastewater as well.
"Sewerage" on the other hand refers to the system of pipes, pumping stations and treatment facilities that
collect and treat sewage.
2.2.3 Domestic Problem
Domestic sewage contains a wide variety of dissolved and suspended pollutants. The main organic
materials are food and vegetable wastes. Plant nutrients come from chemical soaps, washing powders,
etc. Domestic sewage is also very likely to contain disease-causing bacteria, which can travel on any
waste. The various substances that we use for keeping our houses clean add to water pollution because
they contain harmful chemicals. Many detergents and washing powders have phosphates which are used
to soften the water, and do many more things. These and other chemicals contained in washing powders
affect the health of all forms of life in the water.
2.2.4 Effects of Domestic Pollution
Bathers are at increased risk of catching any illness from bacteria and viruses in the sewage effluent.
Shellfish breathe water through their gills, but have to strain to trap microscopic plants and animals for
food. If the water was contaminated with disease-causing bacteria, these could be consumed as food by
shellfish. When eaten raw or somewhat cooked, these shellfish can make people sick. Certain fish in
contaminated waters can develop high levels of toxic substances. When these foods are taken in
frequently over a lifetime, they may increase the risk of unwanted health effects. Detergents can cause
liver and kidney damage, while sewage water carries diseases that may be extremely harmful to the
human body, and all of the sea life around the area.

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2.2.5 How does sewage affect river ecosystems?
We all know that flooding is a needed event for healthy aquatic ecosystems. But flooding can also lead to
negative consequences for rivers — due to human development. In Kampala a combination of events
nearly flooded Kampala streets with sewage and required an emergency discharge of raw but diluted
sewage into the Nakivubo Channel for hours. While it appears the discharge of sewage to the Rivers was
short-lived, there was still a need to warn local citizens of the potential health threat. But we also wanted
to know what kind of impact sewage has on river and lake ecosystems and wanted to share this
information with you.
2.2.6 Effects of sewage in freshwater ecosystems
Dumping sewage into water bodies, such as rivers or lakes, creates a human health hazard but can also
negatively disrupt the river and lake ecosystems. The sewage contaminates the water, spreads disease,
and leads to environmental degradation (WQM 2004). Here is a list of effects of untreated sewage
disposal into freshwater ecosystems:
1. Increased organic matter (from the sewage) breaking down in the river reduces the amount of
dissolved oxygen in the water body as the decomposition process uses up the available dissolved
oxygen. Fish and other aquatic life need that dissolved oxygen in the water to live.
2. Sewage heightens the levels of nutrients, increasing the bioavailability of nutrients, which can
increase productivity of plankton near the sewage outfall and increase the chance of algal blooms.
3. Contaminants present in the sewage might be toxic for some already existing phytoplankton.
4. Sewage can increase the turbidity and amount of suspended sediments. This effect reduces light
available for plant growth, can smother in-stream habitats, and damage fish gills and respiratory
structures of other species (WQM 2004).
5. Sewage (and storm water runoff) can introduce pesticides, other chemicals, and heavy metals into
the water column. It may also introduce fine sediments, which have the potential to (bio) accumulate
within animal tissues and have long-term toxic effects. Sewage and run off may increase acidity,
such as from acid sulphate soils which kill fish and crustaceans, because fish red-spot disease,
damage or cause death of oysters, and interact with sediments to release heavy metals (WQM
2004).
6. Industrial effluents (often a complex mixture of chemicals) can negatively affect fish by impairing
growth and reproduction and by reducing immune competence. These effects have the potential to
impact fish populations.
7. Microbial pathogens introduced by sewage into surface or groundwater can threaten public health,
as well as affect ecosystem health and function.

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 8. Sewage can release water that is either warmer or cooler than the receiving water body. Because
aquatic life has optimal temperature ranges within which it lives, too warm or too cool water
temperatures can harm the aquatic life. For example, cold waters reduce ecosystem productivity,
eliminate temperature-sensitive biota, and decrease survival of eggs, larvae of fish and aquatic
insects (WQM 2004).
9. Release of sewage can degrade vegetation and soil by depositing harmful chemicals in bottom
sediment, for example.
10. With sewage comes water that has some degree of chlorine or similar agent. The chlorine or other
disinfectant react with organic matter (such as what's in sewage) to create different end-products,
such as chloroform or haloketons, which can be harmful in either the short or long term. These
reactions happen faster in warmer water.
Release of untreated sewage into freshwater bodies is sometimes necessary. Yet, it not only creates a
human health risk but damages the health of the receiving water bodies in over short or long time periods.
Our responsibility to ecosystems means we should have the capacity to deal with our own waste rather
than expecting the rest of the ecosystem to do it for us.
2.2.7 What is the meaning of raw sewage?
Raw sewage is mainly water containing excrement, industrial release and debris such as sanitary towels,
condoms and plastic. Excrement is the major source of harmful microorganisms, including bacteria,
viruses and parasites.
2.2.7.1 What causes sewage?
A sewage spill can be caused when wastewater treatment plants or pump-stations experience a
mechanical fault such as loss of electrical power. Broken or blocked sewer mains can also cause sewage
spills. Sewage may enter the waterway directly from the point of rupture or overflow, or through storm
water drains.
2.2.7.2 What are the domestic sewage?
Domestic sewage is the primary source of pathogens (disease-causing microorganisms) and putrescible
organic substances. Because pathogens are excreted in feces, all sewage from cities and towns is likely
to contain pathogens of some type, potentially presenting a direct threat to public health.
2.2.7.3 What is sewage water pollution?
Sewage and Wastewater. Domestic households, industrial and agricultural practices produce wastewater
that can cause pollution of many lakes and rivers. Sewage is the term used for wastewater that often
contains faeces, urine and laundry waste.

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 Sewage treatment is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater, primarily from
household sewage. It includes physical, chemical, and biological processes to remove these
contaminants and produce environmentally safe treated wastewater (or treated effluent).
2.2.7.4 What is a sewage disposal?
Sewage disposal is the process in which sewage is transported through cities and inhabited areas to
sewage treatment plants, where it is then treated to remove contaminants to produce environmentally-
safe waste.
2.3 Impact of Hazardous Substances to the Environment
Exposure to chemicals commonly used in workplaces can lead to a variety of short and long term health
effects such as poisoning, skin rashes and disorders of the lung, kidney and liver. A quarter of all Victorian
employees regularly use hazardous substances such as chemicals, flammable liquids and gases in their
work. A hazardous substance can take many forms – gas, powder, liquid, solid or dust. The product may
be pure or diluted. Manufacturers and importers of hazardous substances are legally obliged to include
warning labels and Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) with their products. This information offers advice
on safe handling practices. Many industrial, agricultural and medical organizations use hazardous
substances. The degree of hazard depends on the concentration of the chemical.
Common hazardous substances in the workplace include:
 Acids; Caustic substances; Disinfectants; Glues; Heavy metals, including mercury, lead, cadmium
and aluminium; Paint; Pesticides; Petroleum products and Solvents.
2.3.1 Possible side effects
Health effects depend on the type of hazardous substance and the level of exposure (concentration and
duration). A hazardous substance can be inhaled, splashed onto the skin or eyes, or swallowed. Some of
the possible health effects can include:
 Poisoning; Nausea and vomiting; Headache; Skin rashes, such as dermatitis; Chemical burns; Birth
defect; Disorders of the lung, kidney or liver; Nervous system disorders; Irritation; Sensation; Cancer.
They can also cause diseases of certain organs such as the skin, lungs, liver, kidneys and nervous
system.
2.3.2 Labels and Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
Manufacturers and importers of hazardous substances are required by law to provide warning labels and
MSDS with their products.
Employers must ensure that the MSDS for each hazardous substance used in the workplace is available
to workers, and that a central register of hazardous substances is established. The warning label on a
product might feature cautionary words such as ‘corrosive’, ‘poison’ or ‘hazardous’
The MSDS lists important information on handling the product safely, including:
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  Potential health effects
 Precautions for use
 Safe storage suggestions
 Emergency first aid instructions
 Contact numbers for further information.
2.3.3 Reducing exposure
Suggestions on reducing exposure to hazardous substances in the workplace include:
 Where possible, perform the task without using hazardous substances.
 Where possible, substitute hazardous substances with less toxic alternatives.
 Hazardous substances should be isolated from workers in separate storage areas.
 Storage areas should be separately ventilated from the rest of the workplace.
 Workers should be thoroughly trained in handling and safety procedures.
 Personal protection equipment such as respirators, gloves and goggles should be worn.
 The workplace should be regularly monitored with appropriate equipment to track the degree of
hazardous substance in the air or environment.
 Workers should be consulted regularly to maintain and improve existing safety and handling practices.
2.3.4 How does hazardous waste affect the environment?
Hazardous waste is poisonous to life forms and affects the environment by debilitating plants and animals,
interrupting their growth cycles and even leading to extinction. By harming the environment, hazardous
waste threatens humans. The environmental ramifications of hazardous waste deplete natural resources
and can contaminate people as well.
Exposure to hazardous waste is extremely harmful to humans, plants and animals. It is especially
dangerous for young, fledgling life forms. Fetuses, whether human or animal, are in a process of rapid
development. The introduction of chemicals interferes with biological formation, resulting in malfunctioning
organs and limbs.
Hazardous waste stunts plant growth, much of which is useful to humans for consumption or
manufacturing. In addition, the elimination of plant life reduces the natural food supply for animals. Thus,
hazardous waste exposure can potentially destroy an entire ecosystem.
The presence of hazardous waste in the environment is often the result of inadequate disposal. Improperly
maintained landfills are a major issue. Although they appear to be isolated from contact with people or
resources, they can still contaminate the surrounding environment. Waste in landfills sits for years or even
generations. It emits gases that are both foul-smelling and toxic. It produces a liquid known as leachate,
which can travel to water supplies such as rivers, lakes and the ocean
Some common ways a person may be exposed to hazardous chemicals include:
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 Water. Exposure can occur when people drink contaminated groundwater or surface water, or
accidentally ingest it while swimming or showering. Direct skin contact also is an exposure pathway that
occurs during activities like swimming and showering. For more information about water and hazardous
chemicals.
Soil, Sediment, or Dust. People can be exposed to hazardous chemicals in soil, sediment, or dust if they
accidentally ingest it, breathe it in, or have direct skin contact. Children are highly susceptible to these
exposure pathways. In their daily activities, children have a tendency to have frequent hand-to-mouth
contact and introduce non-food items into their mouths. For more information about hazardous
substances.
Air. Exposure can occur when people breathe in hazardous chemical vapors or air that is contaminated
by hazardous chemicals or dust.
Food. People can be exposed to hazardous chemicals through the food they eat. Food contamination
can occur if the food has come into contact with hazardous chemicals. It can also occur further down the
food chain such as through eating contaminated fish
Exposure, the chemical getting into or on your body, has to occur to make you sick or cause adverse
health effects, or have any effect on your health. If you are not exposed to the chemical, it cannot make
you sick. Also, even if exposure has occurred, adverse health effects may not occur.
2.3.4.1 What is a hazardous substance?
A hazardous substance can be any substance, whether solid, liquid or gas, that may cause harm to your
health. Hazardous substances are classified on the basis of their potential health effects, whether acute
(immediate) or chronic (long-term)
2.3.4.2 What is a hazardous waste?
Hazardous waste is waste that is dangerous or potentially harmful to our health or the environment.
Hazardous wastes can be liquids, solids, gases, or sludge. They can be discarded commercial products,
like cleaning fluids or pesticides, or the by-products of manufacturing processes.
2.3.4.3 What is the definition of a substance hazardous to health?
In The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002 (COSHH), for example, they are
those substances classified as toxic, very toxic, corrosive, harmful or irritant. Biological agents and dusts
in substantial concentrations are also classified as hazardous substances.
2.3.4.4 How are dangerous goods classified?
Types of substances classified as dangerous goods include explosives, flammable liquids and gases,
corrosives, chemically reactive or acutely (highly) toxic substances.

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2.3.4.5 What is the difference between dangerous goods and hazardous substances?
Hazardous substances are classified based only on health effects (whether they are immediate or long
term), while dangerous goods are classified according to their immediate physical or chemical effects,
such as fire, explosion, corrosion and poisoning, affecting property, the environment or people.
2.4 Impact of Natural Disasters to the Environment
Natural disasters are extreme, sudden events caused by environmental factors that injure people and
damage property. Earthquakes, windstorms, floods, and disease all strike anywhere on earth, often
without warning.
2.4.1 Natural Type Disaster
Agriculture diseases and pests, Damaging winds, Drought and water shortage, Famines, Emergency
diseases (pandemic influenza), Earthquakes, Extreme heat waves, Floods and flash floods, Hailstones,
Hurricanes and tropical storms, Landslides and debris flow, Thunderstorms and lightning, Tornadoes,
Tsunamis, Typhoons, Cyclones, Wildfire and Tundra fires, Winter and ice storms, Sinkholes, Volcanic
Eruptions, Bushfire, Severe storms.
2.4.2 Man-Made Disaster
Bombings, Arson, Mass shootings, Terrorism, Nuclear emergencies, Chemical emergencies, Mass food
and water contamination
2.4.3 Biological related Disaster
Epidemic pest attacks, Cattle epidemic, Food poisoning, Swine fever epidemic, Bird flu and epidemic.
2.4.4 Accident related Disaster
Forest fires, Unban fires, Village fires, Oil spills, Building collapse, Serial bomb blasts, Air, road, rail
accidents.

Hurricanes in action Soil Erosion by Tsunami

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2.4.5 How do hurricanes affect people?
Hurricanes mostly affect people through the damage they cause. They can completely wipe out homes,
schools, hospitals, government administration buildings, and infrastructure such as phone lines, energy,
water systems and roads
Hurricane winds can do a lot of the damage, but storm surges, waves, river floods and rain can also cause
a lot of destruction. The total damage depends on a number of factors, such as the size of the storm, its
intensity and the angle of approach.
Falling buildings can cause injury or death, but many hurricane impacts take place after the storm is over.
Damaged or destroyed infrastructure can have negative economic effects on a community, which often
last for years after the storm has passed
2.4.6 The Devastating Impact of Natural Disasters
2.4.6.1 Natural Disaster Facts and Statistics
 According to a 2014 report by the United Nations, since 1994, 4.4 billion people have been affected
by disasters, which claimed 1.3 million lives and cost US$2 trillion in economic losses.
 Low- and lower-middle-income countries are disproportionately affected by natural disasters. In the
same 20-year period, 33 percent of countries that experienced disasters were low- to lower-middle
income, but 81 percent of people who died in disasters lived in these countries.
 Women and children in developing countries are often the most vulnerable demographic groups after
natural disasters.
 8 out of 10 of the world’s cities most at risk to natural disasters are in the Philippines.
 Natural disasters affect the number of people living below the poverty line, increasing their numbers
by more than 50 percent in some cases. The problem is getting worse; up to 325 million extremely
poor people are expected to live in the 49 most hazard-prone countries by 2030.
Millions of people are affected by natural disasters every year, and their impact can be calamitous. From
the destruction of buildings to the spread of disease, natural disasters can devastate entire countries
overnight. Tsunamis, earthquakes and typhoons do not just wreak havoc on land; they also disrupt
people's lives in both densely populated cities and remote villages.
2.4.6.2 Hazard vs. Disaster
Earthquakes, floods, hurricanes and volcano eruptions are all types of natural hazards, but when do they
become natural disasters? The difference is the events’ effects on people. When a typhoon strikes a
populated island in the Philippines, destroying homes and lives, it becomes a disaster. People living in
poverty are even more vulnerable to natural disasters because they have fewer resources or people to
turn to when trying to rebuild their homes and livelihoods.

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2.4.7 Why Are Developing Countries More Vulnerable to Natural Disasters?
Developed countries are better prepared to handle the impact of disasters as well as the aftermath. In
developing nations, natural disasters trap people in a cycle of poverty because they do not have the
resources to rebuild their homes and meet other basic needs, making them less able to recover in the
long run. Certain factors present in poverty environments will turn a natural hazard into a disaster:
 Poorly constructed buildings
 Poor sanitation
 Rapid population growth/high density population
 Limited resources for disaster response and rebuilding
 Lack of economic safety nets
2.4.7.1 Human Factors and the Severity of Natural Disasters
There are several human factors that influence the severity of a natural disaster. Even within the same
region, different people have different levels of vulnerability to natural hazards.
Wealth: People living in poverty cannot afford adequate housing or infrastructure. They are unable to
acquire resources needed before and after a disaster strikes.
Education: Education increases awareness about avoiding or reducing the impact of disasters. A better-
educated population will have more professionals trained to prepare for catastrophic natural events.
Governance: Governments can set policies and establish infrastructure to reduce vulnerability to
hazards. Some governments have more resources available to dedicate to disaster risk reduction.
Technology: Technology allows us to forecast weather, significantly reducing vulnerability.
Age: Children and the elderly are more vulnerable because they have less physical strength and weaker
immune systems. Children and the elderly are more dependent on others for survival but may not have
anyone to depend upon after disaster strikes.
Gender: Women are more likely to be poorer and less educated than men, making them more vulnerable
to hazards.
2.4.8 The Human Impact of Natural Disasters
2.4.8.1 Displaced Populations
One of the most immediate effects of natural disasters is population displacement. When countries are
ravaged by earthquakes or other powerful forces of nature, many people have to abandon their homes
and seek shelter in other regions. A large influx of refugees can disrupt accessibility of health care and
education, as well as food supplies and clean water.
2.4.8.2 Health Risks
Aside from the obvious immediate danger that natural disasters present, the secondary effects can be
just as damaging. Severe flooding can result in stagnant water that allows breeding of waterborne bacteria
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 and malaria-carrying mosquitos. Without emergency relief from international aid organizations and others,
death tolls can rise even after the immediate danger has passed.
2.4.8.3 Food Scarcity
After natural disasters, food often becomes scarce. Thousands of people around the world go hungry as
a result of destroyed crops and loss of agricultural supplies, whether it happens suddenly in a storm or
gradually in a drought. As a result, food prices rise, reducing families’ purchasing power and increasing
the risk of severe malnutrition or worse. The impacts of hunger following an earthquake, typhoon or
hurricane can be tremendous, causing lifelong damage to children’s development.
2.4.8.4 Emotional Aftershocks
Natural disasters can be particularly traumatic for young children. Confronted with scenes of destruction
and the deaths of friends and loved ones, many children develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD),
a serious psychological condition resulting from extreme trauma. Left untreated, children suffering from
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can be prone to lasting psychological damage and emotional
distress.
Child-Centered Spaces, or CCSs, help families cope with their new reality following a disaster; they allow
parents to seek water, food and shelter while their children are in a safe place with supervision. Also,
children can talk about the traumatic things they saw and experienced during the disaster, allowing them
to gradually recover. In the Philippines, Child Fund and our local partner organizations were able to start
setting up Child-Centered Spaces only four days after Super Typhoon Haiyan struck in November 2013,
affecting nearly 1 million people.
Rebuilding takes all kinds of forms after a disaster strikes a community, but we all can help. Through Child
Fund’s Emergency Action Fund, your donation allows us to help communities quickly after disasters occur.

Humanitarian assistance being provided to people affected by natural or man-made disasters, with
particular attention to the most vulnerable people. And once the most urgent needs are taken care of, we
set out to work with affected communities to rebuild homes and livelihoods, and strengthen their capacity
to manage future disasters.
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2.4.9 What are some effects of human activities on the environment?
Some of the effects of human activities on the environment include global warming, habitat destruction,
land degradation, overpopulation, pollution and resource depletion. These effects are a result of human
activities such as intensive farming, overexploitation of minerals and natural resources, industrialization,
deforestation, illegal dumping of waste materials, poor disposal of waste materials and overfishing.
Industrialization and intensive farming are huge contributors to air, soil and water pollution. Greenhouse
gases in large amounts, such as carbon dioxide and methane, cause the Earth’s temperatures to rise, a
phenomenon known as global warming.
According to a report by the scientists are 95 percent certain that high levels of greenhouse gases are the
cause of global warming, which leads to climate change. Extreme weather conditions such as heavy
snowfall, heavy rainfall, heat waves and drought are all effects of global warming.
Poor disposal of waste products poses a serious risk to human health and the world’s ecosystems. It also
causes soil and water contamination, as well as air pollution. Contaminated water causes infections,
transmits diseases and pollutes ecosystems.
Effects such as land degradation and habitat destruction are a result of deforestation. Species become
endangered and at risk of becoming extinct. Deforestation also contributes to soil erosion and can cause
flooding. It also affects indigenous communities, culturally and physically.
2.4.10 What is the impact of human activities on the environment?
Human activities have impacted the environment more than any other species, including deforestation,
natural resource depletion, reduced biodiversity, and pollution of the air, land and water. Humans have
been impacting the environment for thousands of years; however, since the industrial revolution in the
1800s, the impact has drastically increased due to increased population, industrial manufacturing and
agricultural practices.
As the human population has grown, the need for more land has caused an increase in the cutting down
of forest lands for habitation and farming. The result has been an increase in soil erosion, an increase in
species extinction from habitat loss, and a reduction of oxygen supplied by the trees, as well as lower
amounts of carbon dioxide being removed from the atmosphere.
Much of the land that has been cleared is used for agriculture to feed Earth's growing population. To
increase output farmers have turned to chemical fertilizers and defoliants that pollute the soil and
watersheds. Increased production of limited types of crops and livestock for food has reduced the amount
of different plant and animal species on the planet.
Industrial and personal use of fossil fuels has dramatically increased the amount of air pollution in the
atmosphere while systematically using up the supply of the non-renewable resources such as coal, oil
and natural gas.
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2.5 Impact of distilling local gin (Waragi) to the Environment
The discharge of Waragi effluent carries a lot of organic material, which consumes oxygen at the same
time is hot when discharged eventually killing all the life in the river. The cooling and disposal of the sludge
is done directly into the river.
2.5.1 Ecosystem destruction
There is encroachment, degradation (due to open fires from boiling Waragi during dry spells) and
destruction of vital ecosystems through bush burning, river bank cultivation and wetland encroachment,
massive destruction of forests to provide wood, inadequate awareness and excessive pollution as some
of the major challenges facing catchment conservation.
2.6 Causes of Lake’s shorelines receding
The speed at which lake’s shoreline is receding increases in the dry spells.
 Rate of water loss from the lake e.g. Lake Wamala, is attributed to continuous evaporation
exceeding water input from direct rainfall, any period of lower than average rainfall will be followed
by a corresponding decrease in Lake depth and surface area shrinkage.
 The soil from the crop fields is washed into the lake by rains, resulting in silting of lakes gradually,
parts of the lake dry up as its surface area reduce thus lake’s edge also reduce.
 Cutting of trees in forest and converting wetlands into farmland up to lake shorelines has led to
the silting of breeding grounds for fish and loss of water reservoirs for lakes.
2.6.1 Effects of lake’s shorelines receding
 low fish harvest due to lost fish breeding grounds because of bush fires;
 loss of swamp sponge mechanism along lake shorelines;
 land degradation due to agricultural activities;
 destruction of ecosystems (especially fish breeding grounds);
 close down of water pumping stations located on lakes and rivers as delivery pipes suck in mud
as water levels reduce causing clean water supply scarcity;
 failure of hydroelectricity power dams to generate electricity due to water levels reduction;
2.6.2 Environmental regulations
Environmental laws bar people from settling or carrying out agricultural activities within 200metres from
the shorelines of lakes, but legal requirement is largely unenforced.
2.6.3 Way forward
 vacate the wetlands and catchment areas of lakes and rivers in Uganda;
 gazette all fish breeding grounds for protection;

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 provide alternative sources of energy to prevent the cutting down of trees for charcoal and
improve the livelihoods of people to reduce dependence on lakes and land for a living;

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