Adarsh S, Department of Civil Engineering, VVIET

MeE MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER ENGINEERING Module 1
INTRODUCTION
Waste-water is essentially the water supply of community after it has been fouled by variety of users.
Wastewater may be defined as the combination of the liquid or water carrying waste removed from the
residences, institutions, commercial and industrial establishments.
Waste-water Engineering is defined as the branch of the environmental engineering in which the
basic principles of the science and engineering are applied for the problems of the water pollution control. The
ultimate goal of the waste water management is the protection of the environment in a manner commensurate
with the economic, social and political concerns.
Necessity for Sanitation

In every town or acity, wastes of different types such as spent water from bathroom, kitchen, lavatory
basins, house and street washings,from various industrial processes, semi liquid waste of human and animal
excreta, dry refuse of house and street sweepings, etc., are produced daily.
If proper arrangement for the collection, treatment and disposal of these wastes produced from the
town or city are not made, they will go on accumulating and create foul conditions that the safety of the
structure such as buildings, roads will be in danger due to accumulation of spent water in their foundation. In
addition to these, diseases causing bacteria will breed up in stagnant water and health of public will be in
danger. Total insanitary conditions will be developed in town or city.
The necessity of sanitation is to maintain such environment as it will not affect the public health in
general. Thus sanitation aims at the creation of such condition of living, which will not result into serious
outbreak of epidemics. In other words it is a preventive measure for the preservation of health of community.
Therefore, to overcome all these problems proper collection and treatment of sewage is required.
DEFINITION OF COMMON TERMS

Refuse
Garbage Sewage Storm water Subsoil water Sullage
Combined Crude or Domestic or Fresh Septic

sewage raw sewage sanitary sewage sewage sewage
Adarsh S, Department of Civil Engineering, VVIET Page 1

Refuse
The term „refuse‟ is used to indicate what is rejected or left as worthless. For the study of sanitary
engineering it is divided into five categories i.e. garbage, storm water, subsoil water, sullage and sewage
Garbage
The term garbage is used to indicate dry refuse and it includes decayed fruits, grass, leaves, paper
pieces, vegetables etc.
Storm water
The term storm water is used to indicate the rain water of the locality.
Sub soil water

This indicates ground water which finds entry into sewer through leaks.
Sullage
The term sullage is used to indicate the wastewater from bathrooms, kitchens, washing places, wash
basins etc. It does not include discharge from lavatories, hospitals, slaughters houses etc., which has a high
organic content.
Sewage
The term sewage is used to indicate the liquid waste from the community and it includes sullage,
discharge from latrines, urinals, industrial waste and storm water.
i) Fresh sewage: The term used to indicate the sewage which has been recently originated or produced.
ii) Crude or raw sewage: This indicates the sewage that is not treated.
iii) Domestic or sanitary sewage: This indicates the sewage mainly derived from residential or business
buildings or institutions.
iv) Combined swage: This includes the combination of sanitary sewage and storm water with or without
industrial waste.
v) Septic sewage: This indicates the sewage which is undergoing the treatment process.
Sewage Disposal
Aims and Objectives of sewage disposal
1. Proper disposal of human excreta to safe place, before it starts decompositions and may cause insanitary
condition in the locality.
2. To takeout all kinds of waste water in the locality, immediately after its production, so that mosquitoes,
flies, bacteria, etc., may not breed in it and cause nuisance.
3. Final disposal of sewage on land or in nearby water-courses after some treatment so that receiving land or
water may not get polluted and safe for its further use.
4. In unsewered areas, the treatment of sewage from individual house should be done by septic tank or other
suitable means, and the effluent should be disposed off.
5. If sewage is disposed off on the land, it should have such a degree of treatment that it may not affect the
subsoil in any way.
6. To improve the aesthetic effect of the city or town.
7. For better land use pattern and also to build houses as compact units.
Methods of sewage Disposal

The solid and a liquid waste are to be properly collected and conveyed at suitable spots for treatment and
disposal. The refuse formed in any sanitary system should be rapidly, conveniently and safely carried to its
disposal site as to maintain a clean environment. Following are the two methods used for the collections and
disposal of refuse of a locality.
1. Conservancy System
2. Water Carriage System
1. Conservancy System
This method is also called as “Dry System”. This system is in practice from very ancient times. In this
system, the waste products of society had been collected, carried and disposed off manually to a safe point of
disposal by the sweepers
Various types of refuse and storm water are collected, conveyed and disposed off separately. Garbage is
collected in dustbins placed along the roads from where it is conveyed by trucks ones or twice a day to the
point of disposal. all the non combustible portion of garbage such as sand dust clay etc are used for filling the
low level areas to reclaim land for the future development of the town. The combustible portion of the garbage
is burnt.
Human excreta or night soil are collected separately in conservancy latrines. The liquid and semi liquid
wastes are collected separately. After removal of night soil, it is taken outside the town in trucks and buried in
trenches. After 2-3 years the buried night soil is converted into excellent manure. In conservancy system, the
sullage and storm water are carried separately in closed drains to the point of disposal where they are allowed
to mix with river water without treatment.
Merits
1. It is cheaper in initial cost because storm water can pass in open drains and conservancy latrines are much
economical.
2. The quantity of sewage reaching disposal point is less.
3. The storm water goes in open drains; the sewer section will be small.
4. Night soil which is buried can be used as fertilizers after 2 to 3 years.
Demerits
1. For burying human excreta more space of land is required.
2. Building can‟t be designed as one compact unit because; latrines are to be provided away from the living
room due to foul smell.
3. There is every possibility the liquid refuse may yet get an access in the sub-soil and pollute the ground
water.

4. In the presence of conservancy system, the aesthetic appearance of the city cannot be increased.
5. Decomposition of sewage causes insanitary conditions which are dangerous to public health.
6. This system depends on the mercy of sweepers every time.
2. Water Carriage System

In this system, waste products are mixed up with sufficient quantity of water and are taken out of the city
by properly designed sewer system where they are disposed off after necessary treatment in sanitary manners.
The treated sewage effluents may be disposed off either in a running body of water such as streams or may be
used for irrigating crops. The sewage so formed in water carriage system consists of 99.9% of water and
remaining 0.1% of solid matter.
Merits
1. It is a hygienic method because all the excremental matters are collected and conveyed by water only and
no human agency is employed for it.
2. In this system, the sewage is carried through underground pipes and these pipes do not occupy floor area
on road sides or impair the beauty of the surroundings.
3. In multi storied Buildings where the water closets one above the other can be easily constructed and
connected to a single vertical pipe.
4. Land required for disposal work is less as compared with conservancy system.
5. The usual water supply is sufficient and no additional water is required in water carriage system.
6. The system does not depend on manual labour at every time except when sewers are clogged.
7. Sewage after treatment can be used for various purposes.
Demerits
1. The system is very costly in initial stages.
2. The maintenance of this system is very costly.
3. During monsoon, large volume of sewage is to be treated, where as very small quantity is to be treated in
the remaining period of year.
Comparison of conservancy and water-carriage system
Conservancy System Water-Carriage System
Very cheap in initial cost. It involves high initial cost.

Due to foul smells from the latrines, they are to be As there is no foul smell, latrines remain clean and
constructed away from living room, so building neat and hence are constructed with rooms, therefore
cannot be constructed as compact units. buildings may be compact.
The aesthetic appearance of the city cannot be
improved Good aesthetic appearance of city can be obtained.

For burial of excremental matter large area is Less area is required as compared to conservancy
required. system.
Excreta is not removed immediately hence its

Excreta are removed immediately with water, no
decomposition starts before removal, causing
problem of foul smell or hygienic trouble.
nuisance smell.
This system is fully depended on human agency

.In case of strike by the sweepers; there is danger
of insanitary conditions in city, which may cause As no human agency is involved in this system ,there
spreading of disease. is no such problem as in case of conservancy system
As sewage is disposed of without any treatment, it

Sewage is treated upto required degree of sanitation
may pollute the natural water courses
Sewerage System
The entire system of collecting, carrying &disposal of sewage through sewers is known as sewerage system.
Components of Sewerage System
Sewer
Branch Lateral Main Outfall Combined Relief Trunk sewer

or sub-main sewer sewer sewer sewer or overflow
Sewer sewer
Sewer
The underground conduits or drains through which sewage is conveyed to a point of discharge or disposal
are known as sewers.
Followings are the types of sewers used in collection of sewage
Lateral Sewer: The sewer obtaining its discharge directly from buildings is known as lateral sewer.
Branch or sub-main sewers: The sewer which obtains its discharge from relatively small area, few laterals and
delivers into main sewer is known as Branch sewer.

Main Sewer: The sewer which obtains its discharge from a few branches or sub-main sewer in known as main
sewer.
Trunk Sewer: The sewer which obtains its discharge from two or more main sewer is known as trunk sewer.
Outfall sewer: The sewer which transport sewage to the point of treatment.
Combined sewer: The sewer which carries domestic sewage and storm water in known as combined sewer.
Relief or overflow sewer: The sewer which is meant to carry the excess discharge from an existing sewer.
Classification of Sewerage System

1. Combined system
2. Separate System
3. Partially separate system
Combined System
When only one set of sewer is laid carrying both the sanitary sewage and the storm water is called as
combined system. Sewage and storm water both are carried to the treatment plant through combined sewers.
Merits
1. Size of the sewers being large, chocking problems are less and easy to clean.
2. House plumbing can be done easily and it proves economical as one set of sewers are laid.
3. Because of dilution of sanitary sewage with storm water nuisance potential is reduced and can be
easily and economically treated.
Demerits
1. Size of the sewers being large, difficulty in handling and transportation.
2. Load on treatment plant is unnecessarily increased.
3. It is uneconomical if pumping is needed because of large amount of combined flow.
4. Unnecessarily storm water is polluted.
Suitable conditions for combined system

1. Rainfall in even throughout the year.
2. Both the sanitary sewage and the storm water have to be pumped.
3. The area to be sewered is heavily built up and space for laying two sets of pipes is not available.
4. Where Effective or quicker flows have to be provided.
Separate System
In this system, two sets of sewers are laid .The sanitary sewage is carried through one set of sewers called
sanitary sewers, while the storm water is carried through another set of conduits called drains. The sewage is
carried to the treatment plant and storm water is directly discharged into the river or streams for disposal

Merits
1. Size of the sewers is small.
2. Sewage load on treatment unit is less.
3. Rivers or streams are not polluted.
4. Storm water can be discharged into rivers without any treatment.
Demerits
1. Sewers being small, cleaning is difficult.
2. Frequent choking problem will be there.
3. System proves costly as it involves two sets of sewers.
4. The use of storm sewer is only partial because during non-monsoon seasons, they will be idle and
forms the dumping places for garbage and rubbish and may get clogged.
Suitable conditions for separate sewerage systems

1. Where rainfall is uneven.
2. Where sanitary sewage is to be pumped.
3. The drainage area is steep, allowing to runoff quickly.
4. Sewers are to be constructed in rocky strata. The large combined sewers would be more expensive.
Partially Combined or Partially Separate System

Sometimes a part of storm waters especially that originating from the roofs or paved courtyards of
buildings, is allowed to be admitted into the sewers and similarly, the domestic sewage is allowed to be
admitted into the drainage. The resulting system is called as partially separate or partially combined system.
Merit
1. The sizes of sewers are not very large as some portion of storm water is carried through open drains.
2. Combines the advantages of both the previous systems.
3. Silting problem is completely eliminated.
Demerit
1. The cost of pumping is increased at the disposal point than separate system because a portion of storm
water is mixed with sanitary sewage.
2. During dry weather, the velocity of flow may be low.
3. The storm water put unnecessary load on to the treatment plants.
4. Pumping of storm water in unnecessary over-load on the pumps.

Comparison of Separate and Combined System

Separate system Combined System
The quantity of sewage to be treated is less, As the treatments of both are done, the treatment is
because no treatment of storm water is done. costly
In the cities of more intensity of rainfall, this In the cities of less intensity of rainfall, this system is
system is more suitable. suitable.
As two sets of sewer lines are to laid, this system is

Overall construction cost is higher than separate
cheaper because sewage is carried in underground
system.
sewers and storm water in open drains.
In narrow streets, it is difficult to use this system. It is more suitable in narrow streets.
Less degree of sanitation is achieved in this system,

High degree of sanitation is achieved in this system.
as storm water is disposed without any treatment.

QUANTITY OF SEWAGE FLOW AND STORM WATER FLOW

AND IT’S ESTIMATION
Quantity of Sewage
In order to find out the suitable section for the sewer, it is necessary to determine the quantity of sewage that
will flow through the sewer.
1. Sanitary sewage or Dry Weather Flow [D.W.F]
2. Storm water or Wet Weather Flow [W.W.F]
1. Sanitary sewage
Sanitary sewage is mostly the spent water of the community into sewer system with some groundwater
and a fraction of the storm runoff from the area, draining into it etc., and the industrial sewage or trade waste
coming from manufacturing units and other concerns. Dry Weather Flow (D.W.F) is the quantity of water that
flows through sewer in dry weather when no storm water is in the sewer.
It is used to assume that the rate of sewage flow, including a moderate allowance for infiltration equals
to average rate of water consumption which is 135 liter/ head /day according to Indian Standards. Rate of flow
varies throughout 24 hours and is usually the greatest in the fore-noon and very small from midnight to early
morning. For determining the size of sewer, the maximum flow should be taken as three times the D.W.F.
The total quantity of sewage generated per day is estimated as product of forecasted population at the
end of design period considering per capita sewage generation and appropriate peak factor. The per capita
sewage generation can be considered as 70 to 80% of the per capita water supplied per day. The increase in
population also result in increase in per capita water demand and hence, per capita production of sewage. This
increase in water demand occurs due to increase in living standards, betterment in economical condition,
changes in habit of people, and enhanced demand for public utilities.
Table 1: Recommended values of water consumption and sewage produced for several cities.
Sewage produced per

Sl No Population Water supply (LPCD)
capita(lit/day)
1 Less than 20,000 110 90
2 Up to 50,000 110-150 90-120
3 50,000 to 2,00,000 150 to 180 120-150
4 2,00,000 to 5,00,000 180 to 210 150-170
5 5,00,000 to 10,00,000 210 to 240 170-190
6 Above 10,00,000 240 to 270 190-200
The population data are not given; the following density can be assumed and used for different size of towns:
1) Residential area – 100 to 250 persons/ hectare.
2) Multistory apartment – 500 to 1000 persons/ hectare.
3) Industrial area - 15 to 30 persons/ hectare.

Source of Sanitary sewage

1) Water supplied to the public for domestic purpose by local authorities.
2. Water supplied to various industries for various industrial processes by local authorities.
3. Water supplied by local authority to various public places such as schools, hostels, Railway stations etc.
4. Water drawn from well by individual houses for the domestic purpose.
5. Water drawn from lakes, wells, canals by industries for their purpose.
6. Infiltration of ground water into sewer through leaky joints.
7. Unauthorized entrance of storm water during rainy season into the sewer line.
Factors Affecting sanitary sewage

1) Population
2) Rate of water supply.
3) Type of area served (Industrial, Commercial, Etc…)
4) Ground water infiltration and exfiltration
1.Population: The quantity of sanitary sewage or DWF directly depends on the population at the end of the
design period. As the population increases, the quantity of sanitary sewage also increases. The quantity of
water supply is equal to the rate of water supply multiplied by the population. There are several methods
used for forecasting the population of a community.
2.Rate of water supply: The quantity of wastewater discharged into a sewer system is less than the amount of
water supplied to the community. This is because of losses due to leakage from pipes, lawn sprinkling and
manufacturing process etc. hence the rate of consumption of both public as well as private supplies must be
taken into account. In estimation of quantity of sewage, the anticipated rate of water consumption at the
end of the design period must also be studied
3. Type of area to be served: Quantity of sanitary sewage depends upon the type of area such as Residential,
Industrial or Commercial. The quantity of sewage produced in residential area directly depends on the
quantity of water supply to that area. This type of sewage is generally expressed as litres per capita per day.
Quantity of sewage produced by an industrial area varies from industry to industry depending upon their
various industrial processes. Quantity of sewage from public and commercial places can be determined by
studying the development of such area. The rate of flow of sewage in such areas is expressed in liters per day
per sq. meter of area
4.Groundwater infiltration and exfiltration:

i. Infiltration: In case of sewers which are laid below ground water table and in water clogged areas, an
allowance should be made for the water entering the sewers through leaky joints. Infiltration represents a slow
response process resulting in increased flows mainly due to seasonally-elevated groundwater entering the
drainage system, and primarily occurring through defects in the pipe network. The quantity of ground water
infiltration depends upon the following factors such as the nature of soil,, materials of sewers, number and
conditions of sewer joints, depth of the sewer below ground water table etc

The recommended quantity of ground water infiltration in case of sewers below ground water table is as
follows
a) 250-500 L/day/man-hole
b) 500-50,000 L/day/hectare of drainage area
c) 500-5000 L/day/km length of sewer/cm diameter of sewer
ii. Exfiltration: represents losses from the sewer pipe, resulting in reduced conveyance flows and is due to leaks
from defects in the sewer pipe walls as well as overflow discharge into manholes, chambers and connecting
surface water pipes. The physical defects are due to a combination of factors including poor construction and
pipe joint fittings, root penetration, illicit connections, biochemical corrosion, soil conditions and traffic
loadings as well as aggressive groundwater.
Exfiltration losses are much less obvious and modest than infiltration gains, and are therefore much more
difficult to identify and quantify. However, being dispersed in terms of their spatial distribution in the sewer
pipe, exfiltration losses can have potentially significant risks for groundwater quality.
Design Period
The future period for which the provision is made in designing the capacities of the various components of the
sewerage scheme is known as the design period.
The design period depends upon the following:
i) Ease and difficulty in expansion,
ii) Amount and availability of investment,
iii) Anticipated rate of population growth, including shifts in communities, industries and commercial
investments,
iv) Hydraulic constraints of the systems designed, and
v) Life of the material and equipment.
Following design period can be considered for different components of sewerage scheme.
1. Laterals less than 15 cm diameter: Full development
2. Trunk or main sewers: 40 to 50 years
3. Treatment Units: 15 to 20 years
4. Pumping plant: 5 to 10 years
Variation in rate of sewage

The sewage flow, like the water supply flow, is not constant in practice but varies. The fluctuation may be
seasonal or monthly, daily and hourly. Variation occurs in the flow of sewage over annual average daily
flow. Fluctuation in flow occurs from hour to hour and from season to season as shown in figure.
The seasonal variations are due to climatic effect. The consumption of water is more in summer than
in winter and this change in consumption of water directly affect the quantity of sewage
The daily fluctuations are the outcome of certain local conditions, involving habits and customs of
people. Thus, in U.S.A. and other European countries, Monday is the washing day, as such, amount of

sewage flow would be much greater than on any other day. In India, however, Sundays or other holidays
involve activities which permit greater use of water, and hence the quantity of sewage produced is more on
Sundays or holidays
Hourly variations are because of varying rates of water consumption in different hours of the day.
Fig: Typical hourly variations in sewage flow
The first peak flow generally occurs in the late morning and is usually about 200 percent of the average flow,
while the second peak flow generally occurs in the early evening between 6 and 9 p.m. The minimum flow
will occur during the night after 12 or early hours of the morning and is generally about half of the average
flow.
The ratio between maximum and average flow on any day is called PEAKING FACTOR. This is very
important in the design of sewerage system. The sewer section which is adopted from the maximum flow
should provide self-cleansing velocity at minimum flow conditions.
Population upto 20,000 peak factor is 3,
From 20,000 to 50,000 peak factor is 2.5,
From 50,000 to 75,000 peak factor in 2.25,
And above 75,000 peak factor is 2
 Maximum daily flow = 2 times the average daily flow

 Maximum hourly flow = 1.5 times the maximum daily flow
 Maximum hourly flow = 3 times the average daily flow
 Peak sewage has been calculated with population, so certain investigated recommended empirical formula
is,

18 + 𝑃
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡
4+ 𝑃
Effects of variation of sewage on design of sewers

Due to variation in discharge, the depth of flow varies, and hence the hydraulic mean depth (r) varies. Due to
the change in the hydraulic mean depth, the flow velocity (which depends directly on r2/3) gets affected from
time to time. It is necessary to check the sewer for maintaining a minimum velocity of about 0.45 m/s at the
time of minimum flow (assumed to be 1/3rd of average flow). The designer should also ensure that a velocity
of 0.9 m/s is developed at least at the time of maximum flow and preferably during the average flow periods
also. Moreover, care should be taken to see that at the time of maximum flow, the velocity generated does not
exceed the scouring value.
2 . Quantity of Storm Water

It is also known as wet weather flow (W.W.F). When rain falls take place, small amount of water percolates
into the ground and small portion evaporates and the remaining portion overflows as storm water or flood
water. Quantity of storm water is very large compared to sanitary sewage.
The following are the factors which affect the quantity of storm water
1. Intensity of rain fall and duration
2. Characteristics of catchment area
3. Nature of soil and its degree of porosity
4. Number and sizes of open ditches
5. Weather condition
6. Wind and humidity
If rainfall intensity and duration is more, larger will be the quantity of storm water available. If the rainfall
takes place very slowly even though it continues for the whole day, the quantity of storm water available will
be less. Harder surface yield more runoff than soft, rough surfaces. Greater the catchment area greater will be
the amount of storm water. Fan shaped and steep areas contribute more quantity of storm water.
Estimation of quantity of storm water

Following two methods are generally employed for calculating the quantity of storm water for the purpose of
designing of sewers.
1. Rational method
2. Empirical formula method
In both the methods, the quantity of storm water is a function of area, intensity of rainfall and co-efficient of
run-off
1. Rational Method
This method is most precisely used to smaller areas. The method gives a reasonable estimate up to a maximum
area of 50 ha (0.5 Km2).

The storm water quantity is determined by the rational formula:

𝑪𝑰𝑨
Q=
𝟑𝟔𝟎
Where,
Q = Quantity of storm water in m3/sec
C = Coefficient of run-off
I = intensity of rainfall in mm/hr
A = Drainage area in hectares
From the above formula it is clear that for the application of rational formula the selection of the co-efficient
of run-off „C‟ and rainfall intensity „I‟ required which must be by proper judgment. Area „A‟ can be
determined by preparing a plan of a city and showing the entity arrangement of sewer line. The whole area is
divided into zones and the concentration points along with proposed sewer lines are marked.
Run-off Co-efficient
In rational method, the value of run-off co-efficient „C‟ is required. The whole quantity of rain water that falls
over to ground does not reach the sewer line or drains. The portion of it percolates into the ground, a portion
evaporates, a portion is stored in ponds and ditches and only the remaining water reaches drains and sewers.
The run-off co-efficient „C‟ which is multiplied by, quantity of total run-off to determine the quantity of rain
water which will enter the sewer. After continuous rainfall for some times ponds are filled up and the
atmosphere nearby become saturated. Therefore „C‟ depends mainly on characteristics of the ground surface
(Porosity, wetness, etc.).
Run-off co-efficient for various types of surfaces
Sl. Values of run-off

Type of surface
No. co-efficient
1 Forest 0.01 to 0.2
2 Open ground, unpaved streets 0.1 to 0.3
3 Parks, lawns and gardens 0.1 to 0.25
4 Gravel road 0.15 to 0.3
5 Bricks or block pavements with open joints 0.4 to 0.5
6 Good quality pavement of stones, bricks or blocks 0.75 to 0.85
7 Asphalt pavement in good condition 0.85 to 0.90
8 Water tight roof surfaces 0.70 to 0.95
As every locality consists of different types of surface area, therefore for calculating run off co-efficient the
following formula is used,
𝐀𝟏𝐂𝟏+𝐀𝟐𝐂𝟐+𝐀𝟑𝐂𝟑….+𝐀𝐧𝐂𝐧
C (overall runoff coefficient) =
𝐀𝟏+𝐀𝟐+...𝐀𝐧

Where
A1, A2, A3…………………………….. are different types of area
C1, C2, C3…………………………….. are run-off co-efficient respectively
Run off Co-efficient for different types of locality
Approximate average Run off

Sl.No. Type of locality
density of population co-efficient
1 Extreme sub urban area 12 to 20 0.35
2 Sub urban areas with detached houses 20 to 40 0.45 to 0.55
3 Areas with semi-detached houses 60 to 80 0.65
4 Thickly populated area 80 to 100 0.75
5 Highly congested area More than 100 0.85
From the above expression it is clear that for calculating run-off co-efficient., area of each type of surface is to
be measured and then substitute in formula. The calculation of area of each type of surface is very tedious in
practical work. Therefore run-off coefficient are chosen by inspection of locality directly depends upon density
of population.
Intensity of Rainfall
The rainfall intensity is expressed in mm/hr. The intensity of rainfall can be determined with the help of
automatic rain gauges.
The empirical formula given by British Ministry of Health is
𝟕𝟔𝟎
I= mm/hr (for t= 5 – 20 minutes)
𝒕+𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎
I= mm/hr (for t= 20-100 minutes)
𝒕+𝟐𝟎
2. Empirical formula method

For determining the runoff from very large areas, generally empirical formulae are used. All the empirical
formulas are applicable only under certain specific conditions such as slope of land, imperviousness, rate of
rainfall etc.
`
i) Burkli-Ziegler‟s Formula
𝐂𝐈𝐀 𝟒 𝑺
Q=
𝟏𝟒𝟏.𝟓𝟖 𝑨

ii) Mc. Math‟s Formula
𝐂𝐈𝐀 𝟓 𝑺
Q=
𝟏𝟒𝟖.𝟑𝟓 𝑨
iii) Fuller‟s Formula
𝐂.𝐌 𝟎.𝟖
Q=
𝟏𝟑.𝟐𝟑
iv) Fanning‟s Formula
𝟓
Q = 12.8𝐌 𝟖
v) Talbot‟s Formula
𝟏
Q = 22.4𝐌 𝟒
Q = Runoff in m3/sec
C = Coefficient of runoff
i = Intensity of rainfall in cm/hour
S = Slope of area in meter per thousand meter
A = Area of drainage in hectares
M = Area of drainage in square km
Time of Concentration
The time taken for the maximum runoff rate to develop, is known as the time of concentration, and is equal to
the time required for a drop of water to run from the farthest point of the watershed to the point for which the
runoff is to be calculated.
If a rainfall is applied to an impervious surface at a constant rate, the resultant runoff from surface would
finally reach a rate equal to the rainfall. In the beginning, only a certain amount of water will reach the outlet,
but after sometime, the water will start reaching the outlet from the entire area; and in this case, the runoff rate
would become equal to the rate of rainfall. The period after which the entire area will start contributing to the
runoff is called the time of concentration.
The time of concentration for a given storm water drain generally consists of two parts
i) Inlet time or overland flow time or time of equilibrium (Ti)

The time taken by the water to flow overland from the critical point upto the point where it enters the drain
mouth

𝑳𝟑
Ti = [𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟓 𝑯 ]𝟎.𝟑𝟖𝟓
Ti = Inlet time in hours

L= Length of overland flow in km from the critical point to the mouth of drain
H = Total fall of level from the critical point to the mouth of the drain in meters
ii) Channel flow time or gutter flow time (Tf)

The time taken by the water to flow in the drain channel from the mouth to the considered point
𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧
Tf =
𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐢𝐧 𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧
Time of concentration, Tc = Ti + Tf
CONSTRUCTION OF SEWERS
Essential requirements of a good sewer
1) Cost: The cost of the material from which sewer is made, should be moderate and reasonable
2) Durability: The material of sewer should be durable and should last long.
3) Imperviousness: Infiltration and exfiltration to sewer can be eliminated to large extent by this property. The
sewer should be impervious enough to avoid these problems. Joints in sewer line should also be impervious.
4) Resistance to corrosion: Because of the corrosive quality of sewage, resistance to corrosion is more
important. Therefore the material used for sewer should be more corrosive resistant.
5) Resistance to abrasion: Since sewage contains sand and grit particles, when flowing in the high velocity
(scouring velocity), the erosion of the sewer material may takes place. Therefore the material of the sewer
should be more resistant to abrasion.
6) Weight: To facilitate handling and transportation, the sewers should be light in weight.
7) Strength: Sewers are mostly laid underground. Hence they are likely to be subjected to heavy external
loads. The materials of sewer should be strong enough to bear such external loads in addition to the internal
stresses.

SEWER MATERIALS
Following are the various materials which are used for sewers:
1) Asbestos cement sewer
2) Brick sewer
3) Cast- iron sewer
4) Cement concrete sewer ( plain or reinforced )
5) Corrugated iron sewer
6) Stoneware sewer
7) Steel sewer
8) Plastic sewer
9) Wooden sewer
1. Asbestos Cement Sewers

These are manufactured from a mixture of asbestos fibers, silica and cement. Asbestos fibers are thoroughly
mixed with cement to act as reinforcement. These pipes are available in size 10 to 100 cm internal diameter
and length up to 4.0 m. The pipe and joints are resistant to corrosion and the joints are flexible to permit 12˚
deflection for curved laying. These pipes are used for vertical transport of water. For example, transport of
rainwater from roofs in multistoried buildings, for transport of sewage to grounds, and for transport of less
foul sullage i.e., wastewater from kitchen and bathroom.
Advantages
1) These pipes are light in weight and hence, easy to carry and transport.
2) Easy to cut and assemble without skilled labour.
3) Interior is smooth (Manning n = 0.011), thus providing excellent hydraulically efficient sewer.
Disadvantages
1) These pipes are structurally not very strong to bear the huge compressive stresses induced by the heavy
external loads.
2) These are susceptible to corrosion by sulphuric acid gas generated in sanitary waste water or by industrial
chemicals.
2. Bricks sewers
They are used for construction of large size combined sewer or particularly for storm water drains. Now a
day„s brick sewers are replaced by concrete sewers because lot of labor is involved in the construction of
brick sewers. The pipes are plastered from outside to avoid entry of tree roots and ground water through
brick joints. These are lined from inside with stone ware or ceramic block to make them smooth and
hydraulically efficient. Lining also make the pipe resistant to corrosion.
3. Cast Iron Sewers

These pipes are stronger and capable to withstand greater tensile, compressive, as well as bending stresses.
They are however likely to be acted upon by the acids contained in sewage. But if surfaces of cast-iron
sewers are coated with coal tar paint, epoxy or cement concrete, they can resist the action of acids in sewage.
Cast iron pipes are used for outfall sewers, rising mains of pumping stations, where pipes are running under
pressure. These are also suitable for sewers under heavy traffic load, such as sewers below railways and
highways. They are used for carried over piers in case of low lying areas. They form 100% leak proof sewer
line to avoid ground water contamination.
4. Corrugated iron sewers

Corrugated iron sewers are mainly used for carrying storm water only. The corrugation of the sewer reduces
the velocity of flow and consequently, for given diameter and slope, the carrying capacity of sewer is also
reduced. They are made in varying metal thickness and in diameters upto 450cm. The sewers should be
protected from the effects of corrosion by galvanization or by bituminous coatings.
5. Plain Cement Concrete or Reinforced Cement Concrete sewers

Plain cement concrete (1: 1.5: 3) pipes are available up to 0.45 m diameter and reinforcement cement pipes
are available up to 1.8 m diameter. These pipes can be cast in situ or precast pipes. Precast pipes are better in
quality than the cast in situ pipes. The reinforcement in these pipes can be different such as single cage
reinforced pipes, used for internal pressure less than 0.8 m; double cage reinforced pipes, used for both
internal and external pressure greater than 0.8 m; elliptical cage reinforced pipes used for larger diameter
sewers subjected to external pressure. Nominal longitudinal reinforcement of 0.25% is provided in these
pipes.
6. Vitrified Clay or Stoneware Sewers

These pipes are used for house connections as well as lateral sewers. The size of the pipe available is 5 cm to
30 cm internal diameter with length 0.9 to 1.2 m. These pipes are rarely manufactured for diameter greater
than 90 cm. These are joined by bell and spigot flexible compression joints.
Advantages
i) Resistant to corrosion, hence fit for carrying polluted sewage.
ii) Interior surface is smooth and is hydraulically efficient.
iii) The pipes are highly impervious.
iv) Strong in compression.
v) These pipes are durable and economical for small diameters.
vi) The pipe material does not absorb water more than 5% of their own weight, when immersed in water for
24 h.
Disadvantages
i) Heavy, bulky and brittle and hence, difficult to transport.
ii) These pipes cannot be used as pressure pipes, because they are weak in tension.
iii) These require large number of joints as the individual pipe length is small.

7. Steel sewers
These sewers are used where lightness, imperviousness and resistance to high pressure are the prime
requirements. There sewers are flexible and can absorb vibrations and shocks efficiently. There are mainly
used for trunk or outfall sewers having diameter exceeding 750mm. These are used under the situations such
as pressure main sewers, under water crossing, bridge crossing, necessary connections for pumping stations,
laying pipes over self- supporting spans, railway crossings, etc.
8. Plastic sewers
Plastic (PVC pipes) is recent material used for sewer pipes. These are used for internal drainage works in
house. These are available in sizes 75 to 315 mm external diameter and used in drainage works. They offer
smooth internal surface. The additional advantages they offer are resistant to corrosion, light weight of pipe,
economical in laying, jointing and maintenance, the pipe is tough and rigid, and ease in fabrication and
transport of these pipes.
9. Wooden sewers
In early stages these sewers were put into use. They are difficult to construct and maintain. Sewer is to be
constantly kept submerged, otherwise the alternate dryness and wetness led to wet rot. The life of sewers is
short and they are now rarely in use.
SHAPES OF SEWER
Sewers are generally circular pipes laid below ground level, slopping continuously towards the outfall. These
are designed to flow under gravity. Normally sewers of circular shape are used in all the sewerage schemes,
because of the following advantages:
i. It affords least perimeter and hence construction material required is minimum.
ii. They are easy to construct and handle.
iii. Since it has no corners, there are less chances of deposition of suspended settling matters.
iv. They possess excellent hydraulic properties.
However, sewers of non-circular shapes are used for the following reasons.
i. To develop self-cleansing velocity in the sewer, when the flow is minimum.
ii. To bring down the cost of construction.
iii. To increase the headway so that a man can enter easily for repairs and cleaning.
Following are the non-circular shapes of sewers which are commonly used
1. Basket-handle sections
2. Egg-shaped or avoid sewers
3. Horse shoe sewers
4. Parabolic sewers

5. Semi-circular sewers
6. Box or rectangular sewers
7. Semi-elliptical sewers
8. U-shaped sewers
1. Basket-handle Section: In this type of sewer, the upper portion of sewer has got the shape of a basket-
handle. The bottom portion is narrower in width than the upper portion. Small discharges flow through the
bottom narrower portion and during monsoon, the combined sewage flows in the full section.
Fig: Basket-handle Section
2. Egg-shaped or Ovoid section: This shape has got better hydraulic properties, but it is costly. Firstly due
to longer perimeter, more material for construction is required and secondly because of its odd shapes, it is
difficult to construct. This sewer requires always a good foundation and proper reinforcement to make
structurally stable. In India they are rarely used. They are most suitable in case of combined flow. The main
advantage of this sewer is that it gives a slightly higher velocity during low flow, than a circular sewer of the
same size.
Fig: Egg-shaped or Ovoid section

3. Horse-shoe section: Its top is usually semi-circular with sides inclined or vertical. The bottom may be flat,
circular or parabolic. Its height is more than width. It is mostly used for sewers in tunnels. It is used for the
construction of large sewers with heavy discharges such as trunk sewers. This shape gives increased head
room.
Fig: Horse-shoe section

4.Parabolic Section: In this form of sewers, the upper arch takes the shape of parabola. The invert of the
sewer may be flat, parabolic or elliptical. They are used for the disposal of relatively small quantities of
sewage and it is found to be economic in construction.
Fig: Parabolic Section
5. Semi-circular section: The semi-circular sewer gives a wider base at the bottom and hence, it becomes
suitable for constructing large sewers with less available headroom. Now a day these are replaced by
rectangular sewers which possesses better hydraulic properties.
Fig: Semi-circular section

6. Box or rectangular section: In olden days these sewers were constructed by laying concrete at bottom
and constructing the sides with masonry. But now a day„s masonry has been completely replaced by
concrete. These are mainly used for out fall sewers. They have got relatively high hydraulic mean depth at
large flows and therefore can have higher velocities when laid to the same slope as that of a circular or egg-
shared sewer. They are therefore most suitable for large size storm sewers. It is sometimes used to work as a
storage tank.
Fig: Box or rectangular section

7. Semi-elliptical section: This shape of sewer is more suitable for soft soils as they are more stable. This
shape is not suitable for carrying low discharges and it is normally adopted for sewers having diameter
greater than 180cm or so. This section possesses good hydraulic properties except at low depths.
Fig: Semi-elliptical section
8. U-shaped section: Trench provided at the bottom is called cunnette and such an arrangement is adopted
for a combined sewer having predominant flow of storm water. These are easy to construct. Their invert may
be flat or semi-circular. The sides are generally vertical and top may be flat or arched.
Fig: U-shaped section

JOINTS IN SEWERS
Joints are used to join various lengths of pipes to develop a sewer line. The type of joint to be adopted
depends on the pipe material, internal pressure and external loads, and many other factors. The following are
the requirements of a good sewer joint.
1. It should be water tight.
2. It should be easy to construct.
3. It should be economical.
4. Tree roots should not be able to penetrate the joint.
5. It should resist to acidic, alkaline or gaseous action of sewage.
6. It should be flexible so that due to slight settlements in sewer line, it must not get damaged.

1. Bandage joint
This joint is mostly adopted in concrete sewers. At the joint of the pipe, a hallow is scooped out from the
trench and the scooped trench is filled with cement mortar to the invert of the trench. The faces of the pipes at
the ends are quoted with mortar and are butted against each other. Now the netting is tightly wrapped around
the pipes and additional mortar is applied around the netting, to make it firmly tight.
2. Bell and Spigot joint
This joint is made mainly to join cast-iron pipes and concrete pipes below the diameter of 60cm. In this type
of joint, cement mortar of proportion 1:1 or 1:2 is inserted between the space of bell end and spigot end. In
order to maintain the alignment of sewers, gaskets or packing pieces may be placed. The mortar is filled in the
annular space formed between bell and spigot ends and the joint is finished by applying cement mortar at an
angle of about 45˚ on the outer face.
3. Collar joint
In this type of joint, the ends of sewer are plain. The ends of sewer are placed near each other and then a collar
of slightly bigger diameter is placed over the ends of sewer. The annular space between the collar and ends of
sewer is filled with cement mortar (for concrete sewer). These are used for large sewers.
4. Mechanical joint
In this type of joint, mechanical devices such as flanged rings, bolts etc. are used to join the ends of sewers
together. Such type of joint is generally used for metallic sewers such as cast-iron, steel etc.
TESTING OF SEWER LINE

It is necessary to test the sewer after its laying for water tightness before backfilling of the excavated earth.
1. Smoke Test: This test is performed for soil pipes, vent pipes laid above ground. The test is conducted
under a pressure of 2.5m of water and maintained for 15 minutes. After all trap seal have been filled with
water, the smoke is produced by burning oil waste or tar paper in combustion chamber of a smoke
machine.
2. Water Test or Test for Leakage: This test is performed for underground sewer pipes before backfilling
is done. The test should be carried out by suitably plugging the lower end of the drain and filling the
system with water. A knuckle (elbow) bend shall be temporarily jointed at the top end and a sufficient
length of vertical pipe is jointed so as to provide the required test head 1.5m of water.
Subsidence of test water in the knuckle bend may be due to

(a) Absorption of water by pipes and joints
(b) Leakages at joints etc.
The joints which leaks or sweats are repaired and the leakage pipes if any will also be replaced

3. Test for Straightness of Alignment and Obstruction: For this test, a mirror is placed in front of one end
of sewer and the image of the section is observed. If the sewer line is straight, the image should be
circular. If it is not a complete circle, then it is not straight.
For testing obstructions, by inserting a smooth steel ball at upper end and if there is no obstruction in the
sewer line, the ball will emerge out from the lower end.
VENTILATION OF SEWER
Sewage flowing in sewer has got lot of organic and inorganic matters present in it. Decomposition and
putrefaction of these matters produce sewer gases such as methane, H2S, ammonia, co2, co etc. These gases
are foul smelling, corrosive and explosive in nature. If these gases are not disposed of properly they may
create a number of difficulties. They may cause air locks in sewers and affect the flow of sewage. They may
prove to be dangerous for the maintenance squad working in sewers. They may also cause explosions and put
the sewer line out of commission. For the disposal of these gases, ventilation of sewer line is a must.
Methods of Ventilation
Following are some of the means or fittings which help in the ventilation of sewers
1. Laying sewer line at proper gradient
2. Running the sewer at half full or 2/3 depth
3. Providing manhole with gratings
4. Proper house drainage system
5. Providing the ventilating columns or shafts
Ventilating column or shaft

In order to achieve proper ventilation, ventilating column or shafts are generally placed at intervals of 150 to
300m along the sewer lines.
It consists of a vertical shaft made by joining cast iron or steel pipe lengths. A foundation block is
provided at the bottom end of the shaft in order to keep it steady in a vertical position. A cowl in provided at
the top end of shaft to allow the escape of sewer gases.
Ventilating columns are generally designed to serve two purposes together; one for ventilating the
sewer and the other for working as support for street lamps, sign boards etc. The diameter of the ventilating
column is probably kept equal to 1/3rd of the diameter of the sewer served by it.
CLEANING AND MAINTENANCE OF SEWERS

Causes of damage to sewers
1. Bad workmanship and use of low specification materials
2. Faulty design
3. Excessive super imposed load

4. Settlement due to loose foundation
5. Deterioration of sewers due to corrosion
6. Old age of the sewer
Problems in sewer maintenance

1. Clogging of sewers
2. Occupational hazards
Methods of cleaning and maintenance of sewers

Following are the most commonly adopted five methods which are employed for the cleaning and
maintenance of sewers:
1. Cleaning and flushing
2. Cleaning of catch pits
3. Inspection
4. Periodical repairs
5. Proper connections
1. Cleaning and flushing: The cleaning of large sewers is done manually. The man enters the sewers
through manholes and scraps the sides of sewer by hand. The scraped material is removed through
manholes.
The cleaning of small sewers is effected by flushing. For this purpose, the automatic flushing tanks are
sometimes installed on the sewer line. A fire-hose with nozzle may be also inserted in the sewer and
the water under pressure may be discharged through the nozzle to clean the sewer.
2. Cleaning of catch pits: The catch pits used to collect storm water are cleaned after every storm. The
catch pits contain debris, silt, sand etc. and even the water contained in catch pit is likely to give rise to
the growth of mosquitoes. A slight trace of organic matter in silt will give unpleasant odour. The oil
and grease traps are also periodically cleaned to avoid the nuisance due to unpleasant odours.
3. Inspection: The sewer and its appurtenances should be inspected at regular intervals to ascertain their
proper working. The inspection includes examination of structures, measuring rate of flow,
determining the amount of clogging, etc.
4. Periodical repairs: The damaged portions of sewers should be immediately repaired and replaced. It
includes;
i) Replacement of street inlets or catch basin covers broken by traffic
ii) Replacing broken sewer pipes and joints

iii) Plastering and painting of manholes
5. Proper connections: The connection of lateral sewers with branch sewers should be carried out by
authorized licensed plumbers only. The plumbing work of house drainage should be carefully done
and the joints should be made watertight.
Precautions to be taken while entering sewers

1. Manhole covers should be open at least half an hour before entering.
2. Test should be carried out to detect the presence of any hazardous gases inside the sewer.
3. Explosion proof electric lighting or mirrors for reflection of light should be used.
4. Any smoking or open flames should not be allowed inside the sewer.
5. First aid kit should be provided to take care of small joints.
6. Safety equipment‟s like gas mask, rubber gloves, gum boots, non-sparking tools, safety belt etc.
7. Only experienced workers should be allowed to enter the sewer for inspection. Experienced engineer
should preferably be present to direct the operations.

SEWER APPURTENANCES
INTRODUCTION
Sewage flowing in the sewer line contains a large number of impurities in the form of silt, fats, oils, rags etc.
Under normal flows they are not likely to settle and choke the sewers, but during small flows self-cleansing
velocity is not likely to develop and the chances of choking of the sewers are increased. Choking have to be
removed time to time and facilities should be provided on the sewer lines for this purpose. Therefore, for
efficient functioning and to facilitate maintenance of the sewage system, various additional structures
have to be constructed on the sewer lines. These structures are known as “sewer appurtenances”.
Following are the important sewer appurtenances:
1. Catch basins or catch pits
2. Clean-outs
3. Inlets
4. Manholes
5. Drop manholes
6. Lamp holes
7. Flushing tanks
8. Oil and Grease traps
Catch Basins or Catch Pits

Catch basins are the structures in the form of chamber which is provided along the sewer line. They are meant
for the retention of suspended grit, sludge and other heavy debris and floating rubbish from rain water which
otherwise might have entered and cause choking problems. The outlet pipe from the catch basin may be
submerged in order to prevent the escape of odour from the sewer. Catch basins provide temporary storage of
impurities contained in rain water. Hence, it requires periodical cleaning. Otherwise the organic matter
decomposes and gives out bad smell. It also then forms a breeding place for mosquitoes and cause annoyance
to the person passing or living nearby. Hence, their use is not recommended in the modern separate sewerage
systems. The present trend is to lay sewers with such a gradient that self-cleansing velocity is achieved and to
construct paved streets which contribute little debris or grit.
Fig: Catch Basin

Clean-Outs
A clean out is an inclined pipe which is connected to the underground sewer. The other end of the clean-out
pipe is brought upto ground level and a cover is placed at ground level.
The cover is taken out and the water is forced through clean-out pipe to the lateral sewer to remove the
obstacles in the sewer line. If the obstructions are large enough, a flexible rod may be inserted through the
clean-out pipe and pushed backward and forward to remove such obstacles.
Inlets
An inlet is an opening through which storm water and surface wash flowing along the streets are admitted and
conveyed to the storm water sewer or combined sewer by means of pipes.
The inlets are located or placed by the sides of roads at a distance of about 30m to 60m. The inlets are so
located that storm water is collected in a short period and there is no flooding or accumulation of huge quantity
of storm water on the roads. The inlets are connected to nearby manholes by pipe line.
Manholes
These are masonry or RCC chamber constructed at suitable intervals along the sewer line for providing access
into the sewer for the purpose of inspection, testing and cleaning, and for the removal of obstruction from
sewer line.
They are generally provided at every bend, junction, change of gradient or change of sewer diameter. As far as
possible, the sewer line between two subsequent manholes should be laid straight. Spacing between the
manholes depends mainly upon the size of the sewer line. Larger the diameter, greater will be the spacing. The
spacing of the two consecutive manholes should not exceed 300m.
Table: Size of the sewer for various spacing of manholes
Size of the sewer Spacing of manholes

Diameter up to 0.3m 45m
Diameter greater than 1.5m 300m
Classification of Manholes
Depending on depth, manholes may be classified as
1) Shallow manhole
2) Normal or Medium Manhole
3) Deep manhole

1) Shallow Manhole
It is about 0.7 to 0.9 m depth and it is constructed at the start of branch sewer or at places which are not
subjected to heavy traffic. Such a manhole is provided with light cover at top and is called an inspection
chamber.
2) Normal Manhole
It is about 1.5 m depth and it is constructed either square or rectangle in cross-section. its section does not
change with depth. These types of manholes are provided with heavy cover at its top.
3) Deep Manhole
The depth in more than 1.5 m. the section of such manhole is generally not kept same. The size in upper
portion in reduced to while providing an offset. In such manhole, steps are to be provided for the workers to
go up to bottom. Such a manhole is provided with heavy cover at its top.
Components of Manhole
A manhole consists of following components.
1. Access shaft
2. Working chamber
3. Benching
4. Side Walls
5. Steps or Ladder
6. Manhole cover or Top cover
1. Access Shaft
Upper portion of deep manhole is called as access shaft. Its minimum size should be about 0.6 X 0.75 m
for rectangular manhole and 0.6 to 0.75 m diameter for a circular manhole. Its depth depends on depth of
manhole and the height required for working chamber.
2. Working chamber
The lower portion of manhole is known as working chamber and it provides working space to carry out
cleaning and inspection of sewer line. The minimum size of working chamber for rectangular manhole is
0.9 X 1.2 m and for circular manhole it is about 1.2 m diameter. Height of working chamber should be
preferably not less than 1.8 m height.
3. Benching
The bottom or invert portion of manhole is called as benching and it is constructed by using cement
concrete. It consists of semi-circular or U-shape main channel and sides are made slope towards it.
Construction of such benching facilitates the entry of sewage from branch to main-sever which are at

different elevation. If branch and main sewer are at same level, the bottom of manhole connecting each
other is constructed by smooth curves.
Fig: Drop Manhole
4. Side wall
Side walls of the manhole are made up of brick masonry or stone masonry. Brick masonry walls are
simple to construct and are commonly adopted. They should be structurally strong to withstand the earth
pressure from the sites especially in case of manhole which are not circular in shape. The minimum
thickness of brick wall should be 22.5 cm. approximately thickness may however be computed using the
formula.
t = 10 + 4d
Where,
t = thickness of brick wall in cm
d = Depth of excavation in m
The inside and outside of the brick wall should be plastered.
5. Steps
Steps are generally provided for descending into the manhole. The step of the manhole are made up of
cast iron or concrete and are placed with horizontal centre to centre distance of about 20 cm and vertical
distance between the steps may be kept up to 30 cm. These steps should be fully embedded into walls of

manholes. For deeper manholes, ladders are provided instead of steps. The ladder gives a high sense of
security to the workers.
6. Manhole cover
The manhole is provided with cast iron cover and cast-iron frame at its top. Thickness of frame is about
20 to 25 cm and its base about 10 cm wide. It is firmly embedded in pavement. The manhole cover may
be circular or rectangular. A circular is being common. The top surface of cover is roughened so as to
avoid slipping of the persons walking over it. The top surface of cover also carries an arrow mark
indicating the direction of flow. The top level of cover should be finished with road or pavement level, so
as not to cause any inconvenience to the traffic. The weight of the cover and the frame varies between 90
to 270 kg. The lighter cover is adopted to carry lighter traffic and heavier cover for heavy traffic.
Drop Manhole
A drop manhole is a special type of manhole in a sewer line. It is constructed to provide connection between
high level branch sewers to low level main sewer. When branch sewer enter the manhole by more than 0.5 to
0.6m above main sewer, the sewage is not allowed to fall directly into manhole but sewage is brought into the
manhole of main sewer either by inclined pipe or through the vertical pipe(down pipe).
The construction of drop manhole avoids un-necessary gradient of branch sewer, thus reducing the
amount of earth excavation. The sewage trickling into manhole from directly placed branch sewer is likely to
fall on person working in the manhole. This is avoided in drop manhole.
In circular drop manhole, the branch sewer is joined to the manhole through vertical pipe. The sewage
coming from branch sewer trickles down into the vertical pipe and conveyed to a horizontal pipe which is
just placed above benching. Plug is placed at the end of branch sewer. A prolong length of branch sewer
between vertical pipe and the plug is known as an inspection arm. The plug can be used for inspecting or
cleanings of branch sewer after opening the plug.
Fig: Drop Manhole

Lamp Holes
Lamp holes are the small openings on sewers to permit the insertion of lamp into the sewer. The lamp light is
then viewed from the upstream as well as the downstream manholes. The obstructed light confirms the
obstruction in the sewers.
It consists of vertical stoneware or concrete pipe of size 22.5cm diameter and connected to the main sewer
with the help of a „TEE‟. They are especially adoptable when
i) A bend in a sewer is necessary
ii) Construction of manholes is difficult
iii) Spacing of manholes is more than the usual
Besides its principal use as an inspection device, a lamp hole can under some circumstances be used as a
flushing device.
Fig: Lamp Hole

Grease and oil traps
Grease and oil traps are those trap or chambers which are constructed in a sewerage system to remove oil and
grease from the sewage before it enters into the sewer line.
The sewage from kitchens of hotels and restaurants, and industries contains oil and grease and fats. If
these oils and greases are not removed from the sewage they will stick to the interior surface of the sewer and
tends to clog the sewer line. Sewage from garages, particularly from floor drains and wash racks, contains oil,
mud and sand.
The principle, on which oil and grease trap work, is since oil and grease being lighter than water float
on the surface of sewage, and the outlet is provided well below the surface so the water is excluded from oil
and grease. If sand also has to be excluded, dead space should also be kept at the bottom of the chamber for
sand to be deposited. The sand and silt settles at bottom and silt free water can be drained through outlet.

Fig: Grease and Oil trap
Traps
Traps may be defined as sanitary fittings, placed at the ends of the soil pipe or the sullage pipes to prevent the
passage of foul air or gases through it. But at the same time, it allows the sewage to flow through it.
Requirements of good traps

a) It should be capable of being easily cleaned
b) It should be easily fixed with the drain
c) It should be free from any inside projections which are likely to obstruct the passage of flow of sewage
d) It should be of simple construction
e) It should possess adequate water seal to fulfill the purpose of its installation
f) It should posses self-cleansing property
g) The internal and external surfaces should be of smooth finish.
Types of Traps
a) Depending upon their shapes
i. P-Trap
ii. Q-Trap
iii. S-Trap
These three types of traps as shown in above figure, essentially consists of a U-Tube, which retains water,
acting as a seal between the foul gases and the outside atmosphere. They are largely used for baths, sinks and
lavoratories.
b) Depending upon their use

i. Floor trap ( Nahni trap )
ii. Gully trap
iii. Intercepting trap
i. Floor trap: This trap is provided in the floor to collect waste water from washbasin, shower, sink and
bathroom etc. These are available in cast iron or PVC material and have removable grating (JALI) on
the top of the trap, so as to prevent the entry of solid and larger sticky matter into the drain pipe to
avoid frequent blockage. The minimum depth of water seal should be 50 mm.
ii. Gully trap: These traps are constructed outside the building to carry waste water discharge from
washbasin, sinks, bathroom etc. and are connected to the nearest building drain/sewer so that foul
gases from sewer do not come to the house. The foul sullage from baths will enter through the side
inlet and the un-foul room washings or rainwater from roof or courtyard will enter from top. The top
of the trap is covered by a C.I. grating to exclude the entry of coarse materials to avoid blockage.
iii. Intercepting traps: An intercepting trap is often provided at the junction of a house sewer and a
municipal sewer, so as to prevent the entry of the foul gases of the municipal sewer into the house
drainage system.
Principles of House Drainage

1. It is advisable to lay sewers by the side of building rather than below the building.
2. The drains should be laid straight between inspection chambers or manholes. All sharp bends and
junctions should be avoided except through chambers or manholes.
3. The house drain should be connected to the public sewer only if the level permits i.e., only when public
sewer is deeper than the house drain.
4. The entire system should be properly ventilated from the starting point to the final point of disposal.
5. The house drainage should contain enough number of traps at suitable points for efficient functioning.
6. The house drain should be disconnected from the public sewer by the provision of an intercepting trap so
as not to allow foul gases from the public sewer to enter the house drain.
7. The joints of sewers should be watertight and should be properly tested before putting the drainage line
in use.
8. The lateral sewer should be laid at proper gradient so that they will develop self-cleansing velocity.
9. The layout of drainage of system should permit easy cleaning and removal of obstructions.
10. The materials of sewer should comply with the standard requirements. They should be non-absorbent and
an earth cushioning should be provided to protect them from external loads.
11. The rain water from houses is collected from roofs and is allowed to flow freely on the road surface for
catch basins or inlets to convey it to the storm water drain.
12. The sewage formed should be conveyed as early as possible after its formation.
13. The size of lateral sewer should be such that they will not overflow at the time of maximum discharge.

Maintenance of house drainage system
For efficient working of the house drainage system it should be properly maintained and cleaned at regular
intervals. Following points should be carefully looked at:
1. Entry of undesired elements: should take extreme precautions to avoid entry of undesired elements in
the system such as grit, sand, decayed fruits, pieces of cloths, leaves, etc.
2. Flushing: advisable to flush the system once or twice in a day in order to maintain it in proper working
order.
3. Inspection: various units should be inspected at regular intervals and the obstructions if any should be
removed. Damaged pipes should also be replaced.
4. Quality of materials: Better quality materials should be used.
5. Use of disinfectants: Disinfectants should be freely used in the lavatory blocks, bathrooms, etc., to
maintain good sanitary conditions in the building.
6. Workmanship: Laying of drains and fixing of pipes should be carried out by licensed or authorized
plumbers only.
Fig: Typical Layout Plan showing House Drainage Connections

Adarsh S, Department of Civil Engineering, VVIET

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MeE MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER ENGINEERING Module 1

Necessity for Sanitation

DEFINITION OF COMMON TERMS

Garbage Sewage Storm water Subsoil water Sullage

Combined Crude or Domestic or Fresh Septic

Adarsh S, Department of Civil Engineering, VVIET Page 1

Sub soil water

Methods of sewage Disposal

Adarsh S, Department of Civil Engineering, VVIET Page 3

2. Water Carriage System

Comparison of conservancy and water-carriage system

Conservancy System Water-Carriage System

Very cheap in initial cost. It involves high initial cost.

Adarsh S, Department of Civil Engineering, VVIET Page 4

Excreta is not removed immediately hence its

This system is fully depended on human agency

As sewage is disposed of without any treatment, it

Branch Lateral Main Outfall Combined Relief Trunk sewer

Adarsh S, Department of Civil Engineering, VVIET Page 5

Classification of Sewerage System

Suitable conditions for combined system

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Suitable conditions for separate sewerage systems

Partially Combined or Partially Separate System

Adarsh S, Department of Civil Engineering, VVIET Page 7

Comparison of Separate and Combined System

As two sets of sewer lines are to laid, this system is

Less degree of sanitation is achieved in this system,

Adarsh S, Department of Civil Engineering, VVIET Page 8

QUANTITY OF SEWAGE FLOW AND STORM WATER FLOW

Sewage produced per

Adarsh S, Department of Civil Engineering, VVIET Page 9

Source of Sanitary sewage

Factors Affecting sanitary sewage

4.Groundwater infiltration and exfiltration:

Adarsh S, Department of Civil Engineering, VVIET Page 10

Variation in rate of sewage

Adarsh S, Department of Civil Engineering, VVIET Page 11

Fig: Typical hourly variations in sewage flow

 Maximum daily flow = 2 times the average daily flow

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Effects of variation of sewage on design of sewers

2 . Quantity of Storm Water

Estimation of quantity of storm water

Adarsh S, Department of Civil Engineering, VVIET Page 13

The storm water quantity is determined by the rational formula:

Run-off co-efficient for various types of surfaces

Sl. Values of run-off

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Run off Co-efficient for different types of locality

Approximate average Run off

2. Empirical formula method

Adarsh S, Department of Civil Engineering, VVIET Page 15

ii) Mc. Math‟s Formula

iii) Fuller‟s Formula

iv) Fanning‟s Formula

i) Inlet time or overland flow time or time of equilibrium (Ti)

Adarsh S, Department of Civil Engineering, VVIET Page 16

Ti = Inlet time in hours

ii) Channel flow time or gutter flow time (Tf)

Adarsh S, Department of Civil Engineering, VVIET Page 17

1) Asbestos cement sewer