Chapter # 1

Introduction to Water Supply and Wastewater Management

Water supply system: 

Water supply system infrastructure for the collection, transmission, treatment, storage, and
distribution of water for homes, commercial establishments, industry, and irrigation, as well as
for such public needs as firefighting and street flushing. Of all municipal services, provision of
potable water is perhaps the most vital. People depend on water for drinking, cooking,
washing, carrying away wastes, and other domestic needs. Water supply systems must also
meet requirements for public, commercial, and industrial activities. In all cases, the water must
fulfill both quality and quantity requirements.

Wastewater Collection System:

Once water is used, whether it comes from kitchens, bathrooms or sinks, it is collected in large
pipes and conveyed to the Wastewater Reclamation Facility for treatment. The collection
system includes gravity sewers, force mains, and pumping equipment to move the water in the
lines from homes and businesses to the Wastewater Reclamation Facility.

It is important to understand that velocity, or speed, of the wastewater flowing through the
collection system and treatment facility plays a major role in the treatment staff's ability to
properly handle it. For example, the wastewater must flow at a velocity of at least two feet per
second to prevent excessive material from settling out in the collection system. If this happens,
blockages and sewer backups can occur.

Basic Terms:

Sewage: Sewage, or domestic/municipal wastewater, is a type of wastewater that is produced

by a community of people.

Sewer: an artificial conduit, usually underground, for carrying off waste water and refuse, as in
a town or city.

Sewerage: sewerage is the system of collection of wastewater and conveying it to the point of
disposal with or without treatment.
Water-Borne Diseases:
Waterborne diseases are illnesses caused by microscopic organisms, like viruses and bacteria
that are ingested through contaminated water or by coming in contact with feces.
Transmission of these pathogens occurs while using infected water for drinking, food
preparation, and washing clothes, among others. Many developing countries do not have
proper water treatment plants, especially in the rural areas. In some places, the availability of
water is so scarce that people have neither the time nor the money to afford the water purifiers
or other water treatment mechanisms.

Majority of water-borne diseases worldwide mainly affect children due to poor hygiene and
weak immunity. Most of these diseases are life-threatening. The knowledge of the different
types of water-borne diseases has come to the forefront with the advent of globalization over
the past few decades.

Water-Borne Diseases and their Impact to human life:

The pathogenic microorganisms, their toxic exudates, and other contaminants together, cause
serious conditions such as cholera, diarrhea, typhoid, amebiasis, hepatitis, gastroenteritis,
giardiasis, campylobacteriosis, scabies, and worm infections, to name a few.

Diarrhea

The most common of all water-borne diseases, diarrhea, mainly affects children below five
years of age. The symptoms include dizziness, dehydration, pale skin, and loss of consciousness
in severe cases

Cholera

It is mainly caused by bacteria named Vibrio cholerae via consumption of contaminated food or

drinking water. The symptoms include diarrhea, vomiting, fever, and abdominal cramps.

Typhoid

Typhoid fever is caused by Salmonella typhi bacteria transmitted via contaminated water. The
patients typically suffer from prolonged episodes of fever, loss of appetite, nausea, headache,
constipation, and loss of body weight.
Amoebiasis

It is caused by a parasite named Entamoeba histolytica. The protozoan organism is transmitted

by unknowingly consuming cysts in food, and it affects the intestine.

Hepatitis A

This condition mainly affects the liver and is caused by Hepatitis A virus. The route of
contamination is usually oral, while it also spreads through physical contact with an infected
person.

Governments of the countries with high incidence of water-borne diseases, often run health
check-up and awareness campaigns. They educate and sensitize the communities about the
risks and common precautions. Avoiding the water clogging (e.g., from rain) surrounding the
houses is an important step to prevent water-borne diseases.

Types of Drinking Water Contaminants:

The Safe Drinking Water Act defines the term "contaminant" as meaning any physical, chemical,
biological, or radiological substance or matter in water. Therefore, the law defines
"contaminant" very broadly as being anything other than water molecules. Drinking water may
reasonably be expected to contain at least small amounts of some contaminants. Some drinking
water contaminants may be harmful if consumed at certain levels in drinking water while
others may be harmless. The presence of contaminants does not necessarily indicate that the
water poses a health risk.

The following are general categories of drinking water contaminants and examples of each:

Physical contaminants primarily impact the physical appearance or other physical properties of

water. Examples of physical contaminants are sediment or organic material suspended in the
water of lakes, rivers and streams from soil erosion.

Chemical contaminants are elements or compounds. These contaminants may be naturally

occurring or man-made. Examples of chemical contaminants include nitrogen, bleach, salts,
pesticides, metals, toxins produced by bacteria, and human or animal drugs.

Biological contaminants are organisms in water. They are also referred to as microbes or

microbiological contaminants. Examples of biological or microbial contaminants include
bacteria, viruses, protozoan, and parasites.
Radiological contaminants are chemical elements with an unbalanced number of protons and
neutrons resulting in unstable atoms that can emit ionizing radiation. Examples of radiological
contaminants include cesium, plutonium and uranium.

Effects on Human Health:

If drinking water contains unsafe levels of contaminants, it can cause health effects, such as
gastrointestinal illnesses, nervous system or reproductive effects, and chronic diseases such as
cancer. Factors that can influence whether a contaminant will lead to health effects include the
type of contaminant, its concentration in the water, individual susceptibility, the amount of
water consumed, and the duration of exposure.

Drinking water quality standards:

Drinking water quality standards describes the quality parameters set for drinking water.

Despite the truth that every human on this planet needs drinking water to survive and that
water may contain many harmful constituents, there are no universally recognized and
accepted international standards for drinking water. 

The World Health Organization (WHO) Guideline for Drinking-water Quality (GDWQ) includes

the following recommended limits on naturally occurring constituents that may have direct
adverse health impact:

 Arsenic 10μg/l
 Barium 10μg/l
 Boron 2400μg/l
 Chromium 50μg/l
 Fluoride 1500μg/l
 Selenium 40μg/l
 Uranium 30μg/l

Water treatment:
Water treatment is any process that improves the quality of water to make it appropriate for a
specific end-use. The end use may be drinking, industrial water supply, irrigation, river flow
maintenance, water recreation or many other uses, including being safely returned to the
environment. Water treatment removes contaminants and undesirable components, or
reduces their concentration so that the water becomes fit for its desired end-use. This
treatment is crucial to human health and allows humans to benefit from both drinking and
irrigation use.
 Chapter # 2
Source of Water
Source of Water:

Water is a valuable natural resource that is found in different forms in the environment. It is
important to understand how water moves through the environment so that we can understand
how to manage it successfully. Fresh water is finite and vulnerable. Supplying sufficient clean,
fresh water is one of the most vital natural resource issues facing humanity. Water shortages are
becoming a global issue, due to an increasing population, economic growth and climate change.

The hydrological or water cycle:

The hydrological cycle, or water cycle, is the continuous circulation of water between oceans,
atmosphere and land. The sun and wind cause water to evaporate from land and water. Also,
plants take up liquid water and give off water vapor through pores in their leaves in a process
called transpiration. The water vapor moves high above the Earth’s surface on rising currents of
air through the atmosphere. Eventually as the water vapor reaches the cooler air higher up in the
atmosphere, it condenses to form clouds and falls back to Earth in the form of rain and snow.
Precipitation that falls on land can flow over the surface as run-off into rivers and streams, and
can also percolate through the soil into underground rocks to become groundwater.
Distribution of water resources:

About two-thirds of the Earth’s surface is covered with water. The total amount of water on
the Earth is about 1400 million km3. Of this, around 97.5% by volume is held in the oceans
and is salt water. Only 2.5% is fresh water. Figure shows the proportions of Earth’s water
found in different parts of the environment.

Sources of water:

Our main sources of water for drinking, washing, agriculture and industry are surface
water, groundwater and collected rainwater, all of which are dependent on rain and snow
falling on the Earth’s surface.

Surface water:

Rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds are widely used as water sources especially in rural areas. The
amount of available surface water depends largely on rainfall. When rainfall is limited, the
supply of surface water will vary considerably between wet and dry seasons and also between
years. One way to overcome this problem is to construct a dam across a river to create a reservoir
that provides water storage. Large surface water reservoirs may be used for hydroelectric power
generation, regulating water releases to control river flows, for recreational purposes and to
provide water for agricultural, municipal and industrial uses

Groundwater:

An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing rock. Water-bearing rocks are permeable,

meaning that liquids and gases can pass through them. Groundwater is the water contained in
aquifers. This is replenished or recharged by precipitation that percolates through the soil to the
water table, and by water seeping from streams, as well as other bodies of surface water, such as
lakes and wetlands.

Wastewater Resources:

You might not initially think of it as an option, but wastewater is another type of water source in
the world. This is the water we use for our household, manufacturing, and agricultural activities;
it’s then disposed of through our drains and local sewage systems. Because this water has already
been used, it may contain several potentially toxic elements that must be filtered out and
disposed of before the water can be used again. Unfortunately, while recycling water is a
common practice in various communities, most wastewater still gets dumped in local surface
water resources. Preventing this practice better maintains the amount of water for us to live off
of.

Factors for Selecting Water Source:

The quantity and quality of water are the main factors that need to be considered when
evaluating water sources. This section provides an overview of some of these different factors.

Water quantity

If you were selecting a new source of water for a community you would need to be sure that the
volume of water that could be supplied would be sufficient to meet the community’s needs, both
now and in the future.

Water quality

The quality of water required depends on what it will be used for. Drinking water must be clean
and safe to drink and protected from any contamination by pathogens or other pollutants. The
primary concern must be to prevent the transmission of waterborne diseases. For other water
uses such as for domestic washing or for agricultural or industrial uses, the quality is less critical.
Distance of the Source of Supply:
The source of supply must be as close as possible to the point of delivery. If the distance is less,
it will help in reducing the overall cost of the project as small-sized pipes would be used, and the
number of appurtenances required would also be less.

Topography of Surrounding Area:

The land between the source of supply and the city/society shouldn’t have high mountains, deep
valleys, or ridges. In other words, the surface shouldn’t be highly uneven as uneven topographies
would require tunnels to be constructed or a greater number of trestles for supporting the water
pipes. This will increase the overall cost.

Elevation of Water Source:

The water source must be on a higher elevation as compared to the town or city. This would
facilitate gravity flow of water. When the water sources are at a lower level, equipment like
pumps have to be used. This would increase operational and maintenance costs.
 Chapter # 3
Estimation of Water Demand

Water consumption:
In any community, water demand varies on a seasonal, daily, and hourly basis. On a hot summer
day, for example, it is not unusual for total water consumption to be as much as 200 percent of
the average demand. The peak demands in residential areas usually occur in the morning and
early evening hours (just before and after the normal workday). Water demands in commercial
and industrial districts, though, are usually uniform during the work day. Minimum water
demands typically occur in the very early or predawn morning hours. Civil and environmental
engineers must carefully study each community’s water use patterns in order to design efficient
pumping and distribution systems

These variations in the rate of demand of water are termed as:

(i) Seasonal or Monthly Variations:

The rate of demand of water varies considerably from season to season (or month to month). In
summer season the average rate of demand of water is usually 30 to 40 per cent above the annual
average rate of demand of water, because more water is required for drinking, bathing, washing
of clothes, air coolers, etc.

Average daily consumption:

So how much fluid does the average, healthy adult living in a temperate climate need? The U.S.
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine determined that an adequate daily
fluid intake is:

 About 15.5 cups (3.7 liters) of fluids a day for men

 About 11.5 cups (2.7 liters) of fluids a day for women

Peak hourly consumption:

Although some utilities' definitions vary, the electricity industry places usage periods into two
categories: on-peak hours that generally refer to the hours beginning at 7:00 a.m. until 11:00 p.m.
on weekdays, and off-peak hours that are between 11:00 p.m. and 7:00 a.m. on weekdays and all
day on Saturdays, Sundays
Commonly used values of water consumption:

Population forecasting:

Change in the population of the city over the years occurs, and the system should be designed
taking into account of the population at the end of the design period.

Factors affecting changes in population are:

• Increase due to births

• Decrease due to deaths

• Increase/ decrease due to migration

• Increase due to annexation.

Mathematical Methods:

Arithmetic Increase Method:

This method is based on the hypothesis that the Rate of Growth is Constant i.e. Population
increases at a constant rate.
Thus, a constant of growth is added periodically to the city population to get population of next
future.
This method has limited use but is most applicable for big end old cities which have stabilized.
Pf = Pi + Ka Δt
Pf = Pi + ka ( tf – ti )
Pf = Future Population Pi = Present Population
Ka = Constant = pi−pe

Δt =ti−tⅇ
Tf = Future time at Pfand Ti = Initial time at Pi
Example # 1

Pf= ?
Tf = 2030
Pi = 220,000,000
Ti = 2021
Te = 2020
Pe = 210,000,000
Solution:
By Arithmetic Increases Method:
Pf = Pi + ka Δt

Ka = pi−pe/ti−tⅇ= 10,000,000

Δt = ti−tⅇ
Pf =220,000,000+10,000,000(2030 - 2021)
Pf = 310,000,000
Geometric Increase Method:

This method is based on the assumption that Percentage growth rate isconstant.This Method
must be used with caution, as it may produce too large results when applied for rapidly grown
cities in comparatively shorttime.

Pf = lnPi + kg (tf - ti)

Pf = Future Population
Pi = Present Population
Ka=Constant=lnPi-lnPe / ti-te
Tf = Future time at Pf
Pi = Initial time at Pi
KG = lnPi - lnPe / ti-te
Example # 02:
Pf= ?
Tf = 2030
Pi = 220,000,000
Ti = 2021
Te = 2020
Pe = 210,000,000
Solution:
lnPf = lnPi + Ka (Tf -Ti)
Ka = 0.046
lnPf = 220,000,000+0.046(2030-2021)
lnPf = 19.623
Pf = 332,828,567.9

GRAPHICAL METHOD:

In this method, the populations of last few decades are correctly plotted to a suitable scale on
graph. The population curve is smoothly extended for getting future population. This extension
should be done carefully and it requires proper experience and judgment. The best way of
applying this method is to extend the curve by comparing with population curve of some other
similar cities having the similar growth condition.

Population density:
Population density is a measurement of population per unit area, or exceptionally unit volume; it
is a quantity of type number density. It is frequently applied to living organisms, most of the time
to humans. It is a key geographical term. In simple terms, population density refers to the
number of people living in an area per square kilometer.

Population density is a measurement of the number of people in an area. It is an average number.

Population density is calculated by dividing the number of people by the area.

Formula:

Population density = Number of people / Area