Chemistry Holiday Homework

Submitted By:
Name: Pratik Raj
Class: XI/B Roll No.: 25
Adm. No.: 2021/XI/88

Teacher’s Signature Remarks: ____________

Water purification, process by which undesired chemical
compounds, organic and inorganic materials, and biological
contaminants are removed from water. That process also
includes distillation (the conversion of a liquid into vapour
to condense it back to liquid form) and deionization
(ion removal through the extraction of dissolved salts). One
major purpose of water purification is to provide clean
drinking water. Water purification also meets the needs of
medical, pharmacological, chemical, and industrial
applications for clean and potable water. The purification
procedure reduces the concentration of contaminants such
as suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses,
and fungi. Water purification takes place on scales from the
large (e.g., for an entire city) to the small (e.g., for
individual households). Most communities rely on natural
bodies of water as intake sources for water purification and
for day-to-day use. In general, these resources can be
classified as groundwater or surface water and commonly
include underground aquifers, creeks, streams, rivers,
and lakes. With recent technological
advancements, oceans and saltwater seas have also been
used as alternative water sources for drinking and domestic
use.
Determining water quality

Historical evidence suggests that water treatment was

recognized and practiced by ancient civilizations. Basic treatments for water purification
have been documented in Greek and Sanskrit writings, and Egyptians used alum for
precipitation as early as 1500 BCE.In modern times, the quality to which water must be
purified is typically set by government agencies. Whether set locally, nationally, or
internationally, government standards typically set maximum concentrations of harmful
contaminants that can be allowed in safe water. Since it is nearly impossible to examine
water simply on the basis of appearance, multiple processes, such as physical, chemical,
orbiological analyses, have been developed to test contamination levels. Levels of organic
and inorganic chemicals, such as chloride, copper, manganese, sulfates, and zinc,
microbial pathogens, radioactive materials, and dissolved and suspended solids, as well
as pH, odour, colour, and taste, are some of the common parameters analyzed to assess
water quality and contamination levels. Regular household methods such as boiling water
or using an activated-carbon filter can remove some water contaminants. Although those
methods are popular because they can be used widely and inexpensively, they often do
not remove more dangerous contaminants. For example, natural spring water
from artesian wells was historically considered clean for all practical purposes, but it came
under scrutiny during the first decade of the 21st century because of worries
over pesticides, fertilizers, and other chemicals from the surface entering wells. As a result,
artesian wells were subjected to treatment and batteries of tests, including tests for the
parasite Cryptosporidium.
Not all people have access to safe drinking water. According to a 2017 report by
the United Nations (UN) World Health Organization (WHO), 2.1 billion people lack access
to a safe and reliable drinking water supply at home. Eighty-eight percent of the four
billion annual cases of diarrhea reported worldwide have been attributed to a lack of
sanitary drinking water. Each year approximately 525,000 children under age five die from
diarrhea, the second leading cause of death, and 1.7 million are sickened by
diarrheal diseases caused by unsafe water, coupled with inadequate sanitation and
hygiene.
Process

Most water used in industrialized countries is treated at water treatment plants. Although
the methods those plants use in pretreatment depend on their size and the severity of the
contamination, those practices have been standardized to ensure general compliance with
national and international regulations. The majority of water is purified after it has been
pumped from its natural source or directed via pipelines into holding tanks. After the
water has been transported to a central location, the process of purification begins.

Pretreatment

In pretreatment, biological contaminants, chemicals, and other materials are removed

from water. The first step in that process is screening, which removes large debris such as
sticks and trash from the water to be treated. Screening is generally used when purifying
surface water such as that from lakes and rivers. Surface water presents a greater risk of
having been polluted with large amounts of contaminants. Pretreatment may include the
addition of chemicals to control the growth of bacteria in pipes and tanks
(prechlorination) and a stage that incorporates sand filtration, which helps suspended
solids settle to the bottom of a storage tank.
Preconditioning, in which water with high mineral content (hard water) is treated
with sodium carbonate (soda ash), is also part of the pretreatment process. During that
step, sodium carbonate is added to the water to force out calcium carbonate, which is one
of the main components in shells of marine life and is an active ingredient in agricultural
lime. Preconditioning ensures that hard water, which leaves mineral deposits behind that
can clog pipes, is altered to achieve the same consistency as soft water.
Prechlorination, which is often the final step of pretreatment and a standard practice in
many parts of the world, has been questioned by scientists. During the prechlorination
process, chlorine is applied to raw water that may contain high concentrations of natural
organic matter. This organic matter reacts with chlorine during the disinfection process
and can result in the formation of disinfection by- products (DBPs), such as
trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, chlorite, and bromate. Exposure to DBPs in drinking
water can lead to health issues. Worries stem from the practice’s possible association
with stomach and bladder cancer and the hazards of releasing chlorine into
the environment.
Other purification steps

After pretreatment, chemical treatment and refinement can occur. That process
includes coagulation, a step in which chemicals are added that cause small particles
suspended in the water to clump together. Flocculation follows, which mixes the water
with large paddles so that coagulated particles can be brought together into larger clumps
(or “floc”) that slowly settle on the bottom of the tank or basin.
After the majority of the suspended particles have settled, water exits the flocculation
basin and then enters a sedimentation basin. Sedimentation basins move treated waters
along through the purification process while allowing remaining particles to settle. Sludge
forms that appear on the floor of the tank are removed and treated. From that basin,
water is moved to the next step, filtration, which removes the remaining suspended
particles and unsettled floc in addition to many microorganisms and algae.
Disinfection is the final step in water purification. During that step, harmful microbes, such
as bacteria, viruses, and protozoa, are killed through the addition
of disinfectant chemicals. Disinfection usually involves a form of chlorine, especially
chloramines or chlorine dioxide. Chlorine is a toxic gas, resulting in some danger from
release associated with its use. To avoid those risks, some water treatment plants
use ozone, ultraviolet radiation, or hydrogen peroxide disinfection instead of chlorine.
Other purification methodologies include ultrafiltration for specific dissolved
substances, ion exchange to remove metal ions, and fluoridation to prevent tooth decay.
In certain areas of the world that do not have access to water treatment
plants, alternative methods of purification must be used. Those methods include boiling,
granular activated-carbon filtering, distillation, reverse osmosis, and direct contact
membrane distillation.
Industrial water purification

In addition to drinking and domestic uses, industries also consume significant amounts of
water. Chemical, petroleum, food processing, and textile industries, for example, require
water for manufacturing, processing, heating, cooling, washing, rinsing, and other
applications. Such industrial systems require treated water, and the lack of appropriate
purification can lead to issues such as scaling, corrosion, deposition, bacterial growth
within piping or processing equipment, and poor product quality. In addition to
conventional water treatment processes, industrial water purification may also involve
specialized techniques such as electrodeionization, ion exchange, membrane
systems, ozone treatment, evaporation, and ultraviolet irradiation. Technologies selection
depends upon the raw water quality and the intended industrial use.
Saline water purification

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The vast majority of communities rely on freshwater resources for drinking and domestic
water supplies. However, with shrinking freshwater reserves and rising water demands
complicated by natural factors such as droughts, floods, and climate change impacts,
several countries have begun to utilize oceans and inland seas as alternative water
sources. Desalination technologies that remove salts and minerals from seawater are
emerging to produce potable water suitable for drinking and domestic purposes. Reverse
osmosis, vacuum distillation, multistage flash distillation, freeze-thaw, and electrodialysis
are gaining importance for saltwater purification. Such processes usually involve higher
energy consumption and are comparatively more expensive than conventional freshwater
treatment processes. Numerous efforts are under way to make desalination methods cost-
effective and economically viable.
System configurations and improvements

The size and capacity of water treatment systems vary widely, ranging from simple
household units to small facilities that serve manufacturing industries to large-scale
centralized water treatment plants dedicated to cities and towns. Selection of specific
treatment processes depends upon factors such as intake water quality, degree of
purification required, intended water use, flow capacity requirements, government
regulations, available capital, and the operations and maintenance costs involved.
Treated water is distributed to consumers via water distribution systems involving pipes,
pumps, booster stations, storage tanks, and associated appurtenances. In an effort to
meet stringent environmental regulations and to satisfy the rising water demands of
growing populations, many water treatment plants have employed smart technologies to
increase operations reliability. Water sustainability improvements, which can increase the
energy efficiency of a plant and reduce its carbon footprint, often include the optimization
of chemical use, a minimization of waste generation, and the use of solar or wind energy.
Additionally, with the advancement of sophisticated technologies, water treatment
processes have incorporated complex instrumentation and process control systems. Use of
online analytical instruments, supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems,
and dedicated software have resulted in automation and computerization of treatment
processes with the provision for remote operations. Such innovations can improve system
operations significantly to achieve consistent water quality with minimal supervision,
especially in larger system configurations.