Structural design
Introduction
Structural design is the methodical investigation of the
stability, strength and rigidity of structures. The basic
objective in structural analysis and design is to produce a
structure capable of resisting all applied loads without
failure during its intended life. The primary purpose of a
structure is to transmit or support loads. If the structure is
improperly designed or fabricated, or if the actual applied
loads exceed the design specifications, the device will
probably fail to perform its intended function, with possible
serious consequences. A well-engineered structure greatly
minimizes the possibility of costly failures.
Structural design process
A structural design project may be divided into three
phases, i.e. planning, design and construction.
Planning: This phase involves consideration of the
various requirements and factors affecting the general
layout and dimensions of the structure and results in the
choice of one or perhaps several alternative types of
structure, which offer the best general solution. The
primary consideration is the function of the structure.
Secondary considerations such as aesthetics, sociology,
law, economics and the environment may also be taken into
account. In addition there are structural and constructional
requirements and limitations, which may affect the type of
structure to be designed.
Design: This phase involves a detailed consideration of
the alternative solutions defined in the planning phase and
results in the determination of the most suitable
proportions, dimensions and details of the structural
elements and connections for constructing each alternative
structural arrangement being considered.
Construction: This phase involves mobilization of
personnel; procurement of materials and equipment,
including their transportation to the site, and actual on-site
erection. During this phase, some redesign may be required
if unforeseen difficulties occur, such as unavailability of
specified materials or foundation problems.
Philosophy of designing
The structural design of any structure first involves
establishing the loading and other design conditions, which
must be supported by the structure and therefore must be
considered in its design. This is followed by the analysis
and computation of internal gross forces, (i.e.
thrust, shear, bending moments and twisting moments), as
well as stress intensities, strain, deflection and reactions
produced by loads, changes in temperature, shrinkage,
creep and other design conditions. Finally comes the
proportioning and selection of materials for the members
and connections to respond adequately to the effects
produced by the design conditions.
The criteria used to judge whether particular
proportions will result in the desired behavior reflect
accumulated knowledge based on field and model tests, and
practical experience. Intuition and judgment are also
important to this process.
The traditional basis of design called elastic design is
based on allowable stress intensities which are chosen in
accordance with the concept that stress or strain
corresponds to the yield point of the material and should
not be exceeded at the most highly stressed points of the
structure, the selection of failure due to fatigue, buckling or
brittle fracture or by consideration of the permissible
deflection of the structure. The allowable
– stress method has the important disadvantage in that it
does not provide a uniform overload capacity for all parts
and all types of structures.
The newer approach of design is called the strength
design in reinforced concrete literature and plastic design
in steel-design literature. The anticipated service loading is
first multiplied by a suitable load factor, the magnitude of
which depends upon uncertainty of the loading, the
possibility of it changing during the life of the structure and
for a combination of loadings, the likelihood, frequency,
and duration of the particular combination. In this approach
for reinforced-concrete design, theoretical capacity of a
structural element is reduced by a capacity-reduction factor
to provide for small adverse variations in material
strengths, workmanship and dimensions. The structure is
then proportioned so that depending on the governing
conditions, the increased load cause fatigue or buckling or
a brittle-facture or just produce yielding at one internal
section or sections or cause elastic-plastic displacement of
the structure or cause the entire structure to be on the point
of collapse.
Design aids
The design of any structure requires many detailed
computations. Some of these are of a routine nature. An
example is the computation of allowable bending moments
for standard sized, species and grades of dimension timber.
The rapid development of the
computer in the last decade has resulted in rapid adoption
of Computer Structural Design Software that has now
replaced the manual computation. This has greatly
reduced the complexity of the analysis and design process
as well as reducing the amount of time required to finish
a project.
Standard construction and assembly methods have
evolved through experience and need for uniformity in
the construction industry. These have resulted in standard
details and standard components for building
construction published in handbooks or guides.

Design codes
Many countries have their own structural design codes,
codes of practice or technical documents which perform
a similar function. It is necessary for a designer to become
familiar with local requirements or recommendations in
regard to correct practice. In this chapter some examples
are given, occasionally in a simplified form, in order to
demonstrate procedures. They should not be assumed to
apply to all areas or situations.

Design of members in direct tension

and compression

Tensile systems
Tensile systems allow maximum use of the material
because every fibre of the cross-section can be extended
to resist the applied loads up to any allowable stress.
As with other structural systems, tensile systems
require depth to transfer loads economically across a
span. As the sag (h) decreases, the tensions in the cable
(T1 and T2) increase. Further decreases in the sag would
again increase the magnitudes of T1 and T2 until the
ultimate condition, an infinite force, would be required to
transfer a vertical load across a cable that is horizontal
(obviously an impossibility).
A distinguishing feature of tensile systems is that
vertical loads produce both vertical and horizontal
reactions. As cables cannot resist bending or shear, they
transfer all loads in tension along their lengths. The
connection of a cable to its supports acts as a pin joint
(hinge), with the result that the reaction (R) must be
exactly equal and opposite to the tension in the cable (T).
The R can be resolved into the vertical and horizontal
directions producing the forces V and H. The horizontal
reaction (H) is known as the thrust.
The values of the components of the reactions can be
obtained by using the conditions of static equilibrium and
resolving the cable tensions into vertical and horizontal
components at the support points.