BLD 312 DEGREE = STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

INTRODUCTION: - a structure may be defined as any system that has the sole function of
transmitting load and providing the needed strength and support for the main body of an object. The
structure may consist of a single element or a combination of a group of elements put together.
Although Most commonly a combination of these group of elements is what is refer to as the
structure while where a single element as a structure is termed as a member.
The study of building structure is divided into two main sections viz.

Structural analysis:- The application of mathematical model of any sort to any real structural system
must be idealized in some fashion; that is, an analytical model must be developed. In structural
analysis there has never been an analytical model, which is a precise representation of the physical
system. While the performance of the structure is the result of natural effects of loadings, the
development and thus the performance of the model is entirely under the control of the analyst. The
validity of the results obtained from applying mathematical theory to the study of the model
therefore rests on the accuracy of the model.
I. This is the process of determining the behavior of a structure under the influence of a
specified loading or a combination of actions in order to satisfy its essential requirement
of function, safety, economy and sometimes aesthetics. These responses are usually
measured by calculating the reaction, internal forces of members and the displacement of
the structure.

II. Structural design: - The first function in the design of a building is the planning carried
out by the architect to determine the arrangement and layout of the building to meet the client’s
requirements. The structural engineer then determines the best structural system or forms to bring
the architect’s concept into being. Construction in different materials and with different
arrangements and systems may require investigation to determine the most economical answer.
The architect and the engineer should work together at this conceptual design stage.

Once the building form and structural arrangement have been finalized the design problem consists
of the following:

1. Idealization of the structure into load bearing frames and elements for analysis and design
2. Estimation of loads
3. Analysis to determine the maximum moments, thrusts and shears for design

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 1

`
 4. Design of sections and reinforcement arrangements for slabs, beams, columns and walls
using the results from 3
5. Production of arrangement and detail drawings and bar schedules

Therefore Structure design is the application of structural theory to ensure that buildings and other
structures are built to support all loads and resist all constraining forces that may be reasonably
expected to be imposed on them during their expected service life, without hazard to occupants or
users and preferably without dangerous deformations, excessive sideways (drift), or annoying
vibrations. In addition to this, good design requires that this objective be achieved economically.

The strength is to ensure that the structure is capable of carrying the applied load and that of
serviceability describe the amount of behavior the structure will exhibit under this load action as in
the case of deflection, cracking and vibration that may be suffered by the structure and its user. The
condition of the complete structure must be such that the users are not alarmed by its appearance and
the finishes are not damaged. While on the order hand the final aim of design will be an economic
decision that is to design a member with the required maximum strength at a minimum cost within
the bound of specified serviceability condition.

Notwithstanding the normal condition, provision should be made in application of structural

theory to design for abnormal as well as normal service conditions. Abnormal conditions may arise
as a result of accidents, fire, explosions, tornadoes, severer-than-anticipated earthquakes, floods, and
inadvertent or even deliberate overloading of building components. Under such conditions, parts of a
building may be damaged. The structural system, however, should be so designed that the damage
will be limited in extent and undamaged portions of the building will remain stable.

These requirements can further be broken into the following criterion that governs the design
of a structure for a particular purpose may be summarized as follows.
i. Fitness for purpose
ii. Safety and reliability
iii. Durability
iv. Good value for money
v. External appearance
vi. User comfort
vii. Robustness

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 2

`
Fitness for purpose: is generally covered by the overall geometry of the structure and its
components. It should be possible to have unrestricted and unhindered use of the structure for the
purpose for which it is built.

Safety and reliability: are assured by following the code of practice for loading, materials, design,
construction and fire resistance.

Durability: is taken care of by the choice of the right materials for the purpose and also by bearing in
mind during the design process, the requirements for the proper maintenance.

Good value for money: is perhaps the most important criteria. The designer should take into account
not only the cost of materials but also the buildability, the time required to build, the cost of the
temporary structures, the cost of maintenance over the period of time and in some cases the cost of
demolishing or decommissioning

External appearance: of the structure changes over a period of time. The designer should be aware
of the effect of cracking, leaking, staining, spalling, flaking, etc. of the materials in use. The designer
should make appropriate allowances to avoid the degradation of appearance.

User comforts are influenced by the vibration of the structure due to wind, road traffic, or vibrating
machinery. Large deflection under load also cause alarm to the users. The designer should pay
adequate attention to alleviation of these anticipated discomforts.

Robustness: this comes with the chosen structural form and is determined by the additional inherent
strength of the structures as a whole to withstand accidental loading. The collapse of one key
member in the structure must not initiate global collapse. The designer must foresee the domino
effect in the structure and avoid it by careful planning.

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Structures in general can be characterized or classified according to their type of support system,
(hinged of fixed) shape (shell), structural arrangement (frame, linear) structures or its materials
(linear or non-linear structures), as given below.

A simply supported structure is that type of structure that has moment-free support at its ends i.e.
hinge end support.

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 3

`
A fixed end structure also referred to as built-in structure. This type of structure has a zero moment
at the ends, this helps to relieve moment and reduce the amount of deflection within the span of the
structure.

A canti lever is a structure which is fixed at one end but has either a simple support at one end
(propped canti-lever) or it is freely hanging. Sometimes a structure may span over more than two
supports, such structure are referred to as continues structure. The analysis of such structure is
simplified by breaking the structure into single span structure.

Elastic structure: - this is a structure that is based on its material nature that has elastic behavior i.e.
when loaded it has the ability to return to its original unloaded condition when such load is removed.
The load /displacement graph for such structure is linear. While an opposite of such structure is the
inelastic structure which lacks that ability of regaining its form after being loaded.

THE STRUCTURAL COMPONENT

The foundation: - it is the given structural system by which the load from the structure is transmitted
and redistributed to the soil in the most efficient way. They are always being referred to as the base
of the building and in analysis it is always the last element to be analyzed and design.

The slab: - it is a planar structural system that has an aerial extend that is comparably larger than its
overall thickness, they are usually constructed as horizontal plane carrying lateral loads.

The column: - these are structural element whose ratio of the overall length to the lateral dimension
is comparatively lager and are usually vertically placed. They transmit direct trust or punching and
bending moment from beams or shearing from side pressure due to wind action.
Columns are characterized by the ratio of its effective length to the least lateral dimension
referred to as the slenderness ratio to either be called a short or a long column.

The beam: - these are structural elements whose overall length is greater than its thickness or lateral
dimension; they are usually placed horizontally and tend to resist transverse action.
Beams experience bending and shearing stresses, but their thickness is determined by the
bending stresses to which they are subjected.

Other structural elements will include the roof structure which is a combination of various structural
members acting together as a single component. It is commonly refer to as truss, it is composed of

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 4

`
members that are under compression refer to as struts or those experiencing tension refer to as ties.
They are analyzed using the principle of vector addition and resolution of the various forces within
the members.

STRUCTURAL DEFORMATION
A given structure once loaded may deform by bending, shearing, buckling, elongation or twisting, or
even a combination of these deformations. Under these conditions certain forces are developed in the
structure and these forces are termed as tensile, compressive, torsion and shearing
In a reinforced concrete structure an important consideration is the transfer of stress from the
reinforcement to the concrete. In other for the transfer to be effective there must be a good bond
between the concrete and the reinforcement.

Bending: this is a situation that happens on member when they experience a moment or turning
force as a result of applied load. In a typical bending the upper portion of the beam or that section
where the force is acting will be in compression while the lower or opposite portion will experience
tension. The plane on which there exist neither tensions nor compression is called the neutral axis.
When such deformation occurs the member will develop cracks at the tension region which when
excessive can lead to the damaging of the finishes or even alarmed the user.

Shearing: - when a structural member is experiencing the transmission of lateral load from opposing
sides and along different line of action, the tendency that some part of the member will shear’’ off
some sections of the structure from the rest such a situation is refer to as shearing. There are two
major types of shear, the direct shear and the punching shear. When a beam carries vertical loads
shearing forces are developed across the section of the beam that is always closer to the supports
tending to split the beam in to two parts vertically, while in the case of concentric loading on slabs or
column footings the shearing result is punching. Punching shear stress has a magnitude that varies
directly to the magnitude of the transmitted load but inversely with perimeter of the punching
surface.

Buckling:- this is a type of deformation that occurs when there is a large relative compressive thrust
on slender structures such as columns and beams. The slenderness ratio of these structure greatly
affect the degree of buckling, the larger the slenderness ratio the greater susceptible the member is to
buckling. Other deformation will include twisting and elongation.

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 5

`
LOAD AND FORCES
The aim of structural design is to ensure that with an acceptably high probability a structure will
remain fully functional during its intended life span. The expected life time of a structure is usually
refer to its design life and is usually a period of at least 50 years. During the design life of a structure
it must be capable of safely sustaining all applied load and other stress-induced actions that are likely
to occur.

Thus it is most important to identify and quantify the various types of load which act on any
structural member. In any structural analysis, unlike in construction where it starts from the lowest
part of the structure to the top most members, in analysis it starts with the top most part of the
structure to the bottom since loads are transferred from the top to the bottom towards the centre of
gravity.

CLASSIFICATION OF LOADS
Loads cause stresses, deformations and displacements in structures. Assessment of their effects is
carried out by the methods of structural analysis. Excess load or overloading may cause structural
failure, and hence such possibility should be either considered in the design or strictly controlled.
The term load can be used synonymously as action or force, which is described as that
environmental demand or effect on a structure which tends to change or alter the state of static of a
structure. Therefore Structural loads or actions are forces, deformations or accelerations applied to
a structure or its components that give rise to the development of internal stresses in a structure and
can be either direct or indirect in nature.

Direct action are forces applied to structure by an external agent such as wind load, traffic load, and
all forms of life loads while the indirect action are the induced deformation caused as a result of
internal stresses developed within the structure such as the self-weight of the structure, temperature
variation due to environmental weather, settlement of support and expansion and shrinkage of
concrete members

Loads or actions can be classified by their variation with time. Those which have little or no
variation in magnitude over the design life of the structure are referred to as permanent actions
commonly known as dead load. While that actions which are unlikely to maintain a constant
magnitude over the design life of the structure are termed as variable action. The variable action can
either be as a result of wind action known as wind load or the gravity due to occupants of the

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 6

`
structure known as the occupancy load or live load or imposed load, they are those load that does not
form part of the structure.

Accidental action this type of force fall under the impact forces of either a falling object or vehicle
against column or any part of the structure, this type are also time variant. However unlike the usual
variable action accidental action are those which are likely to occur very often in a significant
magnitude and time.

Direct action can also be classified by their spatial variation in the area of application these are as
follows
Fixed action: - these are loads which has no freedom of movement within or on the structure such as
the self-weight, Free action on the other hand are those action which are applied either periodically
or possess some degree of acceleration such loads will include occupancy loads, furniture etc.

External loads on a structure may be classified in several different ways. In one classification, they
may be considered as static or dynamic.
Static loads are forces that are applied slowly and then remain nearly constant. One example is the
weight, or dead load, of a floor or roof system.
Dynamic loads vary with time. They include repeated and impact loads.
Repeated loads are forces that are applied a number of times, causing a variation in the magnitude,
and sometimes also in the sense, of the internal forces. A good example is an off-balance motor.
Impact loads are forces that require a structure or its components to absorb energy in a short
interval of time. An example is the dropping of a heavy weight on a floor slab, or the shock wave
from an explosion striking the walls and roof of a building.

External forces may also be classified as distributed and concentrated.

Uniformly distributed loads are forces that are, or for practical purposes may be considered,
constant over a surface area of the supporting member. Dead weight of a rolled-steel I beam is a
good example.
Concentrated loads are forces that have such a small contact area as to be negligible compared with
the entire surface area of the supporting member. A beam supported on a girder, for example, may
be considered, for all practical purposes, a concentrated load on the girder.

Another common classification for external forces labels them axial, eccentric, and torsional.
An axial load is a force whose resultant passes through the centroid of a section under consideration
and is perpendicular to the plane of the section.

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 7

`
An eccentric load is a force perpendicular to the plane of the section under consideration but not
passing through the centroid of the section, thus bending the supporting member
Torsional loads are forces that are offset from the shear center of the section under consideration
and are inclined to or in the plane of the section, thus twisting the supporting member.

Also, building codes classify loads in accordance with the nature of the source. For example:
Dead loads include materials, equipment, constructions, or other elements of weight supported in,
on, or by a building, including its own weight, that are intended to remain permanently in place.
Live loads include all occupants, materials, equipment, constructions, or other elements of weight
supported in, on, or by a building and that will or are likely to be moved or relocated during the
expected life of the building.
Impact loads are a fraction of the live loads used to account for additional stresses and deflections
resulting from movement of the live loads.
Wind loads are maximum forces that may be applied to a building by wind in a mean recurrence
interval, or a set of forces that will produce equivalent stresses.
Seismic loads are forces that produce maximum stresses or deformations in a building during an
earthquake.

Service Loads
In designing structural members, designers should use whichever is larger of the
following:
1. Loadings specified in the local or state building code.
2. Probable maximum loads, based not only on current site conditions and original usage of
proposed building spaces but also on possible future events. Loads that are of uncertain magnitude
and that may be treated as statistical variables should be selected in accordance with a specific
probability that the chosen magnitudes will not be exceeded during the life of the building. In the
absence of a local or state building code, designers can be guided by loads specified in a national
model building code or by the following data:
Loads applied to structural members may consist of the following, alone or in combination:
dead, live, impact, earth pressure, hydrostatic pressure, snow, ice, rain, wind, or earthquake loads;
constraining forces, such as those resulting from restriction of thermal, shrinkage, or moisture-
change movements; or forces caused by displacements or deformations of members, such as those
caused by creep, plastic flow, differential settlement, or sideways (drift).

Other classification can either be static or dynamic action. Imposed loads are those moveable loads
which act on the structure as it being put to use for its intended purpose.

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 8

`
To meet the requirement that design strength be higher than maximum loads, Building codes
prescribe that, for structural design, loads are increased by load factors. These load factors are,
roughly, a ratio of the theoretical design strength to the maximum load expected in service. They are
developed to help achieve the desired level of reliability of a structure [6] based on probabilistic
studies that take into account the load's originating cause, recurrence, distribution, and static or
dynamic nature.[7]

In any structural analysis and calculation of building loads, Building codes require that structures be
designed and built to safely resist all actions that they are likely to face during their service life,
while remaining fit for use.[4] Minimum loads or actions are specified in these building codes for
types of structures, geographic locations, usage and materials of construction and also considering
the nature and function for which the building will be serving i.e. considerations should be given to
the amount of load expected to be placed on the building during its life span. The BS 6399 part 1 of
1996 specified different loading for some building components

Building type floor load in kN/m2

Art gallery 4.0
Banking hall 3.0
Class room 3.0
Church 3.0
Dining hall 5.0
Factory/ workshop 5.0
Offices 2.5
Domestic house 1.5
Shops 4.0
Theatre 4.0
The above loads are assumed to cover the entire area of the building floor and the structure is
expected to safely bear such load over its entire design life. If in any case during the life of the
building its purpose is changed most especially from low weight bearing buildings to heavy weight
bearing buildings it is highly advisable that the calculation of the expected floor load is carried out to
satisfy its safety.

Therefore it is necessary to know the actual load or force acting on a structural member which tends
to change its state of rest to deformation, this is done through simple arithmetic calculation of the
various load element on the structure and multiplying them by their respective unit weight. This is
done for only those permanent actions since it is assumed that the force of action is transmitted over

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 9

`
the entire length or surface of the structure. Below are some unit weights of some building materials
in kN/m2 or kN/m3

Unit weight of building materials in kN/m2

Acoustic ceiling tiles 0.1
Asphalt 0.45
Aluminum roofing tiles 0.04
Glass 0.1
Plaster (per surface of wall) 0.3
Rafter 0.14
Sand cement screed 25mm thick 0.6
Vinyl tiles 0.05

Materials measured in kN/m3

Aluminum 24
Bricks 22
Concrete 24
Concrete blocks (light weight) 12
Concrete blocks (heavy weight) 22
Glass fibres 18
Steel 70
Timber 6

Examples: - calculate dead weight of an I sectioned concrete beam if the beam support a light weight
block wall 3m high as shown below

3000mm

230mm
200mm
600mm
300mm

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 10

`
Example2- the floor of a multi storey building consist of the following vinyl tile finish, 40mm sand
cement screed, 150mm reinforced concrete slab an acoustic suspended ceiling fixed below. Calculate
the total dead load of the floor per m2

Example 3: calculate the dead weight of two 350mm diameter cylindrical structural column 4m tall
supporting a 230mm x 450mm rectangular sectioned beam spanning 4m carrying a light weight
block wall with a uniformly distributed load of 3kN/m

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 11

`
Example 4: an overhead tank is to be constructed concrete, calculate the load carried by each column
footing at the base if the perimeter wall of the tank is 12m and the height 3m
and the concrete thickness is 300mm, the base slab of the tank is 150mm, if the tank is supported by
four square concrete columns 6m tall and a dimension 300mm

METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS.

Structures are basically analyzed in two ways:
1. the displacement methods
2. the force methods
In the displacement method attempts are made to find the amount of displacement (deflection or
rotation) experienced by a loaded structure. The values of displacement are then substituted in an
equation for the final determination of the bending moment and shearing forces. This method has an
indirect approach to structures as it involves two stages.
Unlike the displacement method, the force method is a direct approach which when applied load to
the determination of the moment and forces as a result of the loading. This can further be subdivided
into two methods depending on the material property and the level of loading, i.e. whether the
structure is analyzed by the force or the displacement methods, assumptions are made regarding the
nature of the structure’s materials (elastic or plastic) and whether it is loaded within the elastic limits
or outside the elastic range.

1. Elastic analysis (permissible stress analysis) this method when employed covers only
linearly or partially linear elastic structures that have not been loaded beyond the elastic
limit. It is based on the assumption that the permissible stress (∂p) is not exceeded and that a
loaded member deforms during loading and returns to its original dimension when the load is
removed.

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 12

`
 2. Plastic method (ultimate stress analysis) this is based on the maximum strength i.e. ultimate
stress (∂ult) attained by a loaded member. Thus it makes use of the extra strength that could
be derived after exceeding the permissible (working) stress level. This exploitation of the
extra strength of the member up to the ultimate stage (yielding stage). This method of
analysis is simpler for simple structures but cumbersome to complex structures like shell and
multi- bay or multi-storey frames.

3. Model analysis: - this is used for very important structures to compliment the theoretical
methods or they are restored to when no theoretical method exist to analyze the structure.
The method involves the construction of a scaled model and subjecting it to testing with the
anticipated loading the structure is expected to experience .model analysis is a specialist field
that requires high level of precision. Structures analyzed by this methods are
i. very expensive structures
ii. very complicated structures
iii. Those structures whose collapse can lead to disaster such as large dams, long span
bridges, nuclear plant e.t.c.

ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES
In structural analysis, structures are classified into two categories, vizs
1. Statically determinate and statically indeterminate structures.

1.4 Static Indeterminacy

The aim of structural analysis is to evaluate the external reactions, the deformed shape and internal
stresses in the structure. If this can be accomplished by equations of equilibrium, then such
structures are known as determinate structures.

Fig 1.1 statically determinate beams

A structure that can be completely analyzed by means of static alone is called a statically
determinate structure that is to say the structure can be analyzed with the three laws of static

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 13

`
equilibrium alone. In such structures there are no redundant constrains or action, the types of such
structures will include

A simple canti lever

a simply supprted beam

A simple frame

Fig. 1.2 examples of statically determinate structures

In any statically determinate structure the number of unknown internal resistance must equal 3 the
same as the number in the law of static equilibrium which state that for a body to be in a state of
static the algebraic sum of all the forces acting on it, vertical, horizontal, and moment must equal to
zero
ΣH= 0 summation of horizontal forces =0
ΣV= 0 summation of vertical forces =0
ΣM=0 summation of moment forces =0

However, in many structures it is not possible to determine either reactions or internal stresses or
both using equilibrium equations alone i.e one whose external or internal reaction cannot be
determined by the equation of static equilibrium alone for solution but will require additional
equation (known as the equation of compatibility) which may be obtained from deformation
analysis, such structures are known as the statically indeterminate structures.

Fig. 1.2b statically indeterminate beams

The indeterminacy in a structure may be external, internal or both. A structure is said to be

externally indeterminate if the number of reactions exceeds the number of equilibrium equations.
BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 14
`
Beams showed in Fig.1.3 (a) and (b) have four reaction components, whereas we have only 3
equations of equilibrium. Hence the beams in Figs. 1.3a) and (b) are externally indeterminate to the
first degree. Similarly, the beam and frame shown in Figs. 1.3(c) and (d) are externally indeterminate
to the 3rd degree.

Fg. 1.3 externally statically indeterminate structures

Fig. 1.4 internally statically indeterminate structure

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 15

`
 Fig 1.5 externally and internally indeterminate structures

The extra constrain i.e. those above the normal 3 are known as the redundant constrain, which are
not necessary as far as stability is concerned, i.e. the structure can still be stable without the
redundant, but their introduction has some structural as well as economic advantages.

Before an indeterminate structure is analyzed the degree of its indeterminacy is calculated which is
equivalent to the number of the redundant constrains. A structure that has one redundant constrain is
said to be statically indeterminate to the first degree. The degree of indeterminacy of a structure is
computed using the following relations
Degree of indeterminacy n = 3(m-j)+r-k
Where n= degree of indeterminacy or number of redundant constrains.
m =number of members in the structure
j = number of joints
r = total number of constrains at support
k= number of simple hinges (where k= b-1, and b = number of bars meeting at a hinge).

Example from the diagrams shown below find their degree of indeterminacy

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 16

`
 b c

In the analysis of a statically indeterminate structure, the knowledge of the displacements of the

structure is necessary. Knowledge of displacements is also required in the design of members.

Several methods are available for the calculation of displacements of structures. In general

deflections are small compared with the dimensions of structure but for clarity in calculation and

analysis the displacements are drawn to a much larger scale than the structure itself.

Since, displacements are small, it is assumed not to cause gross displacements of the geometry of the

structure so that equilibrium equation can be based on the original configuration of the structure, In

this section two of the very important concepts i.e., principle of superposition and strain energy

method will be introduced. It involves the use of moment area method.

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 17

`
Principle of Superposition

The principle of superposition is a central concept in the analysis of structures. This is applicable

when there exists a linear relationship between external forces and corresponding structural

displacements.

The principle of superposition may be stated as the deflection at a given point in a structure

produced by several loads acting simultaneously on the structure can be found by superposing

deflections at the same point produced by loads acting individually.

This can be illustrated with the help of a simple beam problem. Now consider a cantilever beam of

length L and having constant flexural rigidity EI subjected to two externally applied forces 1 P and 2

P as shown in the Fig. below. From moment-area theorem we can evaluate deflection below C,

which states that the tangential deviation of point c from the tangent at point A is equal to the first

moment of the area of the EI/M diagram between A and C about C. Hence, the deflection u below c

due to loads 1P and 2P acting simultaneously is (by moment-area theorem),

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 18

`
 u = A1 x1 + A2 x2 + A3 x3

Where u is the tangential deviation of point C with respect to a tangent at A. Since, in this case the

tangent at A is horizontal, the tangential deviation of point C is nothing but the vertical deflection at

C. x1, x2 and x3 are the distances from point C to the centroids of respective areas respectively.

ẍ= 2 L , ẍ2 = (L + L) ẍ3

After simplification one can write,

u = P2L3 + 5P1L3

3EI 48EI

Now consider the forces being applied separately and evaluate deflection at C in each of the case.

u22 = P2L3

3EI

Where u22 is deflection at C (2) when load 1 P is applied at C (2) itself. And,

u21= 1 PL L {L + 2 L}= 5P1L3

2 2EI 2 {2 32}

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 19

`
Where 21 is the deflection at C (2) when load is applied at u B(1) . Now the total deflection at C when

both the loads are applied simultaneously is obtained by adding u22 and u21

u = u22 + u21= P2L3 + 5P1L3

3EI 48EI

Hence it is seen from equations (2.3) and (2.6) that when the structure behaves linearly, the total

deflection caused by forces n P , P ,...., P 1 2 at any point in the structure is the sum of deflection

caused by forces n P , P ,...., P 1 2 acting independently on the structure at the same point. This is

known as the Principle of Superposition.

The method of superposition is not valid when the material stress-strain relationship is non-linear.

Also, it is not valid in cases where the geometry of structure changes on application of load.

BENDING MOMENT AND SHEAR FORCE

The unbalanced moment of the external forces about a vertical section through a beam is called the

bending moment. It is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments about the section of the external

forces that lie on one side of the section or the bending moment at any section of a beam is equal to

the moment of reaction minus the moment caused by load to the left of the section. It may be the

factor that measures the bending effect at any point of a beam’s span due to a system of loading. The

amount of bending is found by taking the moment acting to the left or the right of the point

concerned. Clockwise moments are considered positive, anti clockwise moment negative, when the

forces considered lie on the left of the section. Thus, when the bending moment is positive, the

bottom of the beam is in tension.

Shear force this is define as that tendency of a beam to deform through either vertical displacement

between the supporting ends referred to as vertical shear or along the fibres of the beam referred to a

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 20

`
horizontal shear. The magnitude of the shear at any section in the length of the beam is equal to the

algebraic sum of the vertical forces on either side of the section also can be given as the magnitude

of reaction minus the magnitude of load to the left or right of the section. The maximum shearing

force is always obtained at the greater section of the reaction.

A diagram in which the bending moment at every point along the length of a beam is plotted as an

ordinate is called a bending-moment diagram. Figure a below is the bending-moment diagram for

the beam loaded with concentrated loads only in Fig. b the bending moment at the supports for this

simply supported beam obviously is zero. Between the supports and the first load, the bending

moment is proportional to the distance from the support, since it is equal to the reaction times the

distance from the support.

The difference between bending moment and shear force is that shear force is the result of

subtracting loads from reaction while bending moment is the result of subtracting the moment of

load from the moment of reaction, the maximum bending moment is always obtained away from the

support while shear force is maximum at the support reactions. At the point of maximum bending

shear force is always zero

Example:- for the beams shown below analyse for the bending moment and shear force, and draw

the bending moment and shear force diagram.

50kN 70kN
70kN 20kN 80kN
2 2 5
2 5 3

R2 2 R2
R1 R1

70kN 20kN 80kN

1 2 3 2

R1 R2

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 21

`
Solution 1 bending moment and shear force analysis starts by computing for the values of the

supporting reaction of the structure by applying the principle of moment thus.

Taking moment at A or B

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 22

`
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REINFORCED CONCRETE

Concrete can be define as a mixture of cement paste water with sand and crushed stones, gravels or

any other inert materials. The sand and the gravels or crushed stone forms the aggregate, when these

materials are mixed it is placed in a form which is followed by the chemical reaction that takes place

known as hydration which results to the hardening of the mass.

Concrete although strong in compression is relatively weak in resisting tensile and shear stresses

which may develop within the structural members. To overcome these weaknesses, steel bars are

placed in the concrete at a proper position which provides this mass concrete the characteristic

tensile and shear properties. The result of this combination of concrete and steel bars is known as

reinforced concrete.

Structural design can be seen as that process of selecting materials for the structure and

determination of the various shapes and sizes for the structure or the proper and accurate choice of

component parts of a structure to withstand a given load.

AIMS OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN

There are 3 main aims of structural design

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 23
`
 i. under the worst loading condition the structure must be safe for society demand i.e.

security in the structure it inhabits

ii. During normal working condition the deformation of the member must not change

from the appearance, durability or performance of the structure.

iii. The structure must be economical with regard to first cost and maintenance cost.

Infact most design are implicitly and explicitly an economic decision.

DESIGN PROCEDURE.

The structural design of a project is usually broken down into the following 4 steps.

i. Selection of the type of structural form to be used and the materials out of which the

structure is to be made.

ii. Determination of the external loads that are expected to act on the structure.

iii. Calculation of the stresses and deformation that are produced in the individual

member of the structure by the external loads.

iv. Determination of the sizes of the individual members so that existing stresses and

deformations do not exceed the allowable value for the material.

DESIGN METHODS.

There are basically three methods of structural design which are

i. Elastic method:- this is also known as the permissible stress method it is the oldest of all

the three methods and has stood the test of time. This method is found to be safe to

structures design according to their elastic requirements.

In this method the ultimate strength of the material is divided by a factor of safety to

obtain the design stress which mostly falls within the elastic range of the material. It is

also known as the working stress method or the elastic theory method.

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 24

`
 ii. Load factor method:- in this method of analysis the working loads are multiply by a

factor of safety to obtain the design load. One major short coming of the load factor

method is the failure to represent adequately the behavior of members when failure is

approached

iii. Limit state method:- this method establishes the limit state of a structures and the

difference with the two above is that a design technique based on a single factor of safety

for individual characteristic load sets up a system of design coefficient which guarantees

a structure will not attain such state under the worst load combination and at a minimum

strength.

The first method is found to have some short comings as it is best suited for elastic materials but not

sufficient enough when dealing with semi plastic materials such as concrete nor is it suitable when

the formation are not proportional to the load AS IN THE CASE of slender columns or the stability

of the structure subjected to over turning. Therefore this course will be limited to the limit state

design method.

THE LIMIT STATE DESIGN METHOD.

In this method of design considerations are given to design factors which are factors employed in the

design to allow for variability in load and mechanical properties of materials. They are determined

by statistical method from numerous experiments. These factors will include.

i. Partial factor of safety in terms of loads (ɤf). The design load is obtained by multiplying

the characteristic load by an appropriate safety factor.

Design load n = characteristic load x (ɤf)

The characteristic loads are (Gk = dead load)

(Qk = live load)

(Wk = wind load)

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 25

`
 The following factors of safety given below are values as given in the CP 3 chapter 5 part

1 & 2 for the different load combination.

Load combinations ultimate limit state serviceability limit state 1.

Dead and imposed loads

ɤf for dead load 1.4 or 1.0 1.0

ɤf for live load 1.6 1.0

2. Dead load and wind load

ɤf for dead load Gk 0.9 or 1.4 1.0

ɤf for wind load Wk 1.4 1.0

3. Dead imposed and wind load

ɤf for dead load Gk 1.2 1.0

ɤf for imposed load Qk 1.2 0.8

ɤf for wind load Wk 1.2 0.8

The choice of ɤf should be such that it will produce or cause the most severe stress, example in

calculating the mid span moment for ultimate limit state for a simple beam under load combination i

ɤf 1.4 and 1.6 are used, however in calculating the max. mid span moment at the center of a three

span continues beam the factors will be 1.4gk + 1.6qk on the center span and the design load of

1.0gk on the extreme spans

1.4Gk + 1.6Qk
1.0Gk 1.0Gk

A B C D

Similarly in assessing the deflection, the arrangement of the imposed load should be such that it will

cause the largest moment. In load combination ii 0.9 is used only when the dead load contribute to

the stability and 1.4 when the dead load also contribute in the overturning of the structure.

For load combination iii the design load in the ultimate limit state is gotten by multiplying the sum

of the characteristic load by a factor of safety of 1.2 i.e.

n = 1.2(gk + qk + wk)
BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 26
`
The partial factor of safety in terms of material, the design strength of the material is obtained by

dividing the characteristic strength (fk) by the appropriate partial factor of safety for material (ɤm)

Design strength = fk

ɤm

Characteristic strength is defined as the value of the cube strength (fcu) of concrete or the yield

stress of the reinforcement (fy) below which not more than 5% of the rest will fail.

The following table below shows the values of ɤm (partial factor safety of material). This value takes

into account of

i. the importance of the limit state considered

ii. The difference between the strength of the materials tested and those of the material in

the structure.

Materials U.L.S deflection serviceability

1. Concrete 1.5 1.0 1.3

2. Steel 1.5 1.0 1.0

In limit state, boundary limits condition beyond which a structure of an element is considered to be

unfit, for use either because of inability to support the imposed load or because of excessive

deformation or local failure. This may arise in many ways but the major limit states to be considered

are those of,

1. Ultimate limit:- this reached when the structure or part of it collapsed, so at this state neither

the whole or part of it collapse under appraisal overload.

2. serviceability limit:- generally there are two most important limit state namely

(a). deflection limit:- this must not adversely affect the appearance of the structure.

(b) Cracking, local damage due to cracking must not affect appearance, efficiency and

durability of the structure. For excessive crack allows the ingress of water with the subsequent

corrosion and frost damage

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 27

`
 PURPOSE OF PARTIAL FACTOR OF SAFETY

1. the partial safety is intended to cover those variations in loading in design or construction

which are likely to occur after the designer and the contractor have each used their skill and

knowledge (design assumptions and inaccurate calculations)

2. Possible unusual increase in load beyond those considered in driving the characteristic load.

3. Inaccurate assessment of the effect of loading and unforeseen stress re-distribution within the

structure.

4. Variation in dimensional accuracy that may occur during construction.

Worked example: - a rectangular section concrete beam supports a dead load of 30kN and a live load

of 15kN. If the characteristic compressive strength of concrete is 30kN/mm2. determine its cross

sectional area using the limit state design method.

Solution load combination = dead and live load

Design load n = (gk x1.4) + (qk x 1.6)

30 x 1.4 + 15 x 1.6
42 + 24
66kN
Design stress = compressive strength = 30 =20N/mm2
ɤm 1.5
Cross sectional area = design load 66 x 103 = 3300mm2
Design stress 20

Ex.ii for the column shown below determine the minimum and maximum values of axial force N,

shear force V and bending moment as listed in cp 110, both the ultimate and the serviceability limit

state should be considered

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 28

`
 75kN

wind load wk = 7kN imposed load Qk = 75kN

dead load Gk = 50kN
3m

Solution: axial load

First loading combination
Dead and live loads
Nmax = 1.4gk + 1.6qk = (1.4 x50 + 1.6 x 75) = 190kN
Nmin = 1.0 gk = 1.0 x 50 = 50kN
Second load combination
Dead and wind loads
Nmax = 1.4gk = 1.4 x 50 = 70kN
Nmin = 0.9gk = 0.9 x 50 = 45kN
Shear force V = 1.4(7 x 3) = 1.4 x 21 = 29.40kN
Bending moment M = 1.4(7 x 3 x3/2) = 44.1kNm
Third load combination
Dead live and wind loads
Nmax = 1.2(gk + qk) = 1.2(50 +75) =150kN
Nmin = 1.2gk = 1.2 x 50 = 60kN
Shear force V = 1.2 x 7 x3 = 25.2kN
Bending mament M= 1.2(7 x 3 x 3/2) = 37.8kNm
Serviceability
1st load combination
Dead and live
Nmax = 1.0(gk + qk) = 1.0(50 + 75) = 125kN
2nd load combination
Dead and wind load
Nmax = 1.0gk = 1.0 x 50 = 50kN
Shear force V = 1.0 x 7 x 3 = 21kN
Bending moment M = 1.0 x 7 x 3 x 3/2 = 31.5kNm
3rd load combination
Dead, live and wind loads
Nmax = 1.0gk + 0.8qk = 1.0 x 50 + 0.8 x 75 = 110kN
Shear force V = 0.8(7 x 3) = 16.8kN
Bending moment M = 0.8 x 7 x 3 x 3/2 = 25.3kNm
BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 29
`
Ex. 3 the beam shown below is supported at A. the load supported by the beam are its own dead

weight uniformly distributed of 30kN/m and a live point load of 105kN at point C.

(a) Determine the reaction at A required to resist an uplift by (i) applying a factor of safety of 2

to the reaction and calculate for the working load.

(b) Using a limit state design approach with a partial factor of safety ɤf 1.4 or 1.0 for dead load

and 1.6 for live load. Check also the effect on this design if a 10% increase is made on the

live load.
105kN
30kN/m

9m B 5m C
A

Solution: ΣmB = 0
9Ra – 30 x 9 x 4.5+ 30 x 5 x 2.5 + 105 x 5 =0
9Ra – 1215 + 375 + 525 = 0
9Ra – 315 = 0
Ra = 315/9 = 35kN
Appling factor of safety of 2 to the reaction
Ra = 2(35) = 70kN
Now adding a 10% of live load
ΣmB = 0
9Ra – (30 x 9 x 45) + (30 x 5 x 2.5) + (1.1 x 105) =0
9Ra – 1215 + 375 + 577.5
Ra = 29.17kN
iii. using limit state design
dead load = 1.4 or 1.0 and live load = 1.6
design load = design load over span AB
ultimate design load = design load for BC
1.4 x 30 x 105 = 168kN
iii. ΣmB = 0
9Ra – 270 x 4.5 + 210 x 2.5 + 168 x 5

9Ra – 1215 + 525 + 840 = Ra = 16.67kN

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 30

`
BEAMS DESIGN THEORY

Beams are flexural structural elements that are defined as a slender linear structure whose length is

greater than three times its thickness that is placed horizontally designed to carry uniform or

concentrated line loads. A beam may act as a primary member in beam-column frames, or may be

used to support slabs or joist-slabs.

At every beam section subjected to bending moment the moment of resistance is equal to the

magnitude of the bending moment.

The moment of resistance of a beam section is define as the moment of the couple which is

set up at the section by the longitudinal forces created in the beam by its deflection.

Consider the beam shown below having a breath of b mm and a depth of d mm. the

bending Moment at section AB of the beam induces a maximum stress in the extreme

upper and lower fibre of the beam section of f N/mm2

consider the beam section to be composed of a series large number of thin horizontal strip

of equal , width and depth. The stress acting upon any giving strip will depend upon the

strip in the cross section, with reference to the neutral axis of the section. The load carried

by the strip will be stress x area. The system of load acting on the top half section of the

beam will have a resultant compression ‘C’ N, and a resultant pull ‘T’ N will act upon the

bottom half section

C and T are equal forces and they form a couple of moment C x ‘arm of couple’ this is

Refer to as the moment of resistance of the beam section. The total load for C or T is given

as

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 31

`
 C = f N/mm2 x bd mm2 = fbd N

2 2 4

C = T = fbd

C will act through the center of gravity of the compression load-variation triangular

Diagram and T will act through the center of gravity of the tensile diagram. Hence the

distance between C and T i.e the arm of the couple,

= [d – (1/3 x d/2) – (1 x d/2)]mm = 2/3dmm

Moment of couple = force x arm

= C or T x 2/3dmm

= fbd N x 2/3dmm

M = fbd2 Nmm

Since this moment of couple balances the bending moment at any beam section , therefore

The bending moment

B.M = fbd2 Nmm

Ex 1. A timber beam 50mm wide x 150mm deep, carries a uniformly distributed load of 4.2kN. The

effective span of the beam is 2.5m. Calculate the maximum stress induced in the timber.

M = fbd2 Nmm
6
M = Wl = 4.2 x 2.5 x 1000 kN mm = 1312.5kN mm
8 8
Therefore 1312.5 = f x 50 x 150 x 150
6

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 32

`
 f = 1312.5 x 6 x 1000 = 7N/mm2
50 x 150 x 150
(ii) calculate the safe central point load for a timber beam 50mm wide x 175 mm deep and

2.4m effective span , if the maximum permissible stress in the timber is 5.5 N/mm2

For point load M = wl M = fbd2 Nmm

4 6

Therefore wl = fbd2 Nmm

4 6
= W x 2.4 x1000 = 5.5 x 50 x175 x 175
4 6
W = 4 x 5.5x 50 x 175 x 175 = 2340N
a. x 1000 x 6

(iii) A concrete beam 150mm wide by 300mm deep has an effective span of 2m. Assuming the

density of the concrete is 24kN/m3 calculating the central point load the beam can carry in addition

to its own self weight. The maximum tensile stress in the concrete is to be limited to 0.4N/mm2

Solution: self weight of beam = [ (150 x 300 x 2) x 24] = 2.16kN

1000 1000

B.Mmax due to weight of beam = wl

8

= 2.16 x 2 x 1000 kN mm= 540kN mm

8

Moment of resistance of the beam section = fbd2

6
= 0.4 x 150 x 300 x 300 kN mm = 900kN mm
6 x 1000

Therefore (900 – 540) kN mm = 360kN mm are available for the B,M caused by the central load

Let W kN = the value of the central load

W x l = 360
4

W = 4 x 360 kN = 0.72kN = 720N

2 x 1000

Ex (iv) design a suitable concrete beam section from the following data

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 33

`
 Effective span = 3m

Load carried = 4.6 kN uniformly distributed

1.7kN point load

Working stress = 6 N/mm2

Solution: know that the maximum bending moment will occur at the center of the span for both the

load systems

Hence B.Mmax = [ 4.6 x 3 x 1000 + 1.7 x 3 x 1000 ] kN mm

8 4

= (1725 + 1275) kN mm = 3000 kN mm

From M = fbd2
6

3000 x 1000 = 6 x bd2 == bd2 = 6 x 3 000 000 = 3 000 000mm

6 6

Therefore any beam section which makes bd2 =m 3 000 000mm will be suitable. However , it is

necessary to all beams to limit the maximum deflection. And beam must be stiff as well strong. The

depth of the concrete beam should be at 22 – 3 times the its breath

ANALYSIS OF DOUBLY REINFORCED CONCRETE SECTION

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 34

`
 0.4fcu
b

d
1

fsc x/2
x Esc
h
d N.A

section fst Est

In the given diagram above it exhibits the various bending stresses as occurred in a rectangular

sectioned beam. For no axial load in the concrete section the tensile stress equal to the

corresponding force i.e. (fst = fcc + fsc)--------------------1

Taking moment about the centriod of the tensile steel bars

Mu = fcc (δ – 0.5x) + fsc(δ – δi )-----------------2

Where δi = the depth of the compression steel

Also (fcc = 0.4fcu bx)--------------3

(fsc = fsc.Asc)---------------4

(Fst = fst.Ast)----------------5

Substituting equation 2,3,4 in 1 above

Fst.Ast = (0.4fcu.bx + fsc.Asc)

Ultimate moment Mu = 0.4fcubx (δ – 0.5x) + fsc.Asc(δ – δi )--------------------------7

With x =d/2 , the concrete is developing its maximum moment resistance so 6, &7 becomes

(Fst.Ast = 0.72fcubd + fcc.Ast)------------------8

Mu = 0.15fcubd2 + fsc.Asc(δ – δi)---------------9

With the distribution of strain the tensile steel will have reached the yield. Hence

Fst = fy = 0.87fy

ɤm

substituting this value in equation 8

0.87fyAst = 0.72fcubd +fsc.Asc--------------------------10

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 35

`
It can be seen that the compression steel in the strain diagram will likewise reach the yield point

provided the ratio δi / δ < 0.2, thus the stress developed in the compression steel from the stress

strain curve it is given by

Fsc = fy

ɤm + fy/2000

the value is approximated to be 0.72fy by the code of practice although the exact value of this

expression ranges between 0.87fy to 0.72fy, for high yield steel with fy = 450N/mm 2 hence equation

8 & 9 becomes

0.87fyAst = 0.72fcubd + 0.72fyAsc------------------11

Moment = Mu = 0.15fcubd2 + 0.72fyAsc (δ – δi) ---------------12.

Example. A 300mm x 800mm rectangular sectioned beam has three 36mm steel bars in the tension

zone and two 20mm bar in the compression. If the cover to the reinforcement is 50mm determine the

ultimate moment of the section assuming the grade of concrete to be 30N/mm 2 and characteristic

strength of steel fy =450N/mm2

300

50

800

50

Therefore ultimate moment is given as

Mu = 0.15fcubd2 + 0.72fyAsc (δ – δi)

Now we first find the area of steel in compression 20mm dia

Asc = 2 x22 x ( 20)2

7 2 = 2 X 3.143 X 100

Mu = 0.15 x 30 x 300 (750)2 + 0.72 x 450 628.6 (750 – 50)

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 36

`
COLUMNS

These are slender structural members in whose length is not less than 3 times its lateral

dimension that is placed vertically and are used to transmit vertical reaction and moment

from beams and other columns. The vertical loads on columns are sometimes considered as

axial when the load is passing through the centroid of the column which can refer to as

concentric columns or where the loading is passing through the centroid is referred to as

eccentric columns. Columns primarily carry axial loads, but most columns are subjected

to moment as well as axial load. Referring to the part floor plan in the figure, the

internal column A is designed for axial load while edge columns B and corner column C

are designed for axial load and moment

Most columns are termed short columns and fail when the material reaches its ultimate

capacity under the applied loads and moments. Slender columns buckle and the

additional moments caused by deflection must be taken into account in design. A

column can be classified as either short or long columns as giving in NCP 1 as a short

column is one whose ratio of its effective length to the least dimension is less than 15, while

a long column has its effective length to the least dimension ratio is between 15 and 57. This

classification in columns is useful because of the different behavior exhibited by the columns

in relation to their slenderness ratio.

The code classifies columns first as

1. Short columns when the ratios lex/h and ley/b are both less than 15 for braced

columns and less than 10 for unbraced columns and

2. slender columns when the ratios are larger than the values given above

Where - b is the width of the column cross-section,

- h is the depth of the column cross section,

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 37

`
 - lex is the effective height in respect of the major axis

- ley is the effective height in respect of the minor axis.

In the second classification the code defines columns as braced or unbraced. The

code states that a column may be considered to be braced in a given plane if lateral

stability to the structure as a whole is provided by walls or bracing designed to resist all

lateral forces in that plane. Otherwise the column should be considered as

unbraced.

When a column is loaded it has the tendency to fail by buckling. The exact analytical

solutions are available to model the buckling behavior if the column is assumed to be

perfectly elastic. This method pf analysis lead to the Euler’s equation which may be used to

simulate the behavior of reinforced concrete elements subjected to compression.

Columns are suppose to be reinforced to have longitudinal reinforcement with a cross

sectional area that should not be at least 0.8% of the cross sectional area of an upper limit of

8% is set for longitudinal reinforcement is recommended by the code even though the

specification is not practicable because of the need for the placement and compaction of the

concrete, therefore the upper limit of 4% is recommended. As given below

100Asc/Acc = 0.4

where Asc is the area of steel in compression and

Acc is the area of concrete in compression.

the code recommend the maximum area of reinforcement should not exceed 6% of the

gross cross-sectional area of a vertically cast column except at laps where 10% is permitted. The

column section is generally square or rectangular, but circular and polygonal columns are used

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 38

`
in special cases. When the section carries mainly axial load it is symmetrically reinforced with

four, six, eight or more bars held in a cage by links.

In other to retain the effect of buckling of the longitudinal steel, transverse reinforcement

must always be provided for the longitudinal steel, transverse steel. The pitch or spacing of

the transverse reinforcement should not exceed the least of the following distance.

1. the least dimension of the column

2. twelve times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal reinforcement of the column

3. or should be 300mm

The effective length of the column is usually computed on the bases as given below.

Column type effective length

1. fully restrained at both ends in both 0.75L
direction and position

2. Fully restrained at both ends in position

and imperfectly restrained in direction
at one or both ends between 0.75L and L
depending on the
efficiency of the
directional restrain

3 properly restrained at one end in both position

and direction and imperfectly restrain in both values between L and
2L depending on the
direction at the other
end efficiency of the
imperfect restrain

The reinforcement in every reinforced concrete is given sort of protection or being

embedded in concrete to protect it against rusting, this is refer to as the concrete cover for

the reinforcement. The code recommend the cover for the longitudinal reinforcement in a

column should not be less than 40mm nor less than the diameter of the reinforcement bar or

25mm where the column cross section is less or equal to 200mm and the reinforcement of dia.

12mm

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 39

`
COLUMN DESIGN

Design of axially loaded columns is treated first. Then methods are given for design

of sections subjected to axial load and moment. Columns are designed mostly to

support axial loading which in effect cause axial compression on the column. The

permissible axial load N on a short column reinforced with longitudinal bars and

lateral ties should not exceed

N = Pcc Ac + Psc Asc

Where Pcc = permissible stress for concrete in compression

Ac = cross sectional area of concrete excluding finishing materials and area of

reinforcement

Psc = permissible compressive stress of reinforcement bars

Asc = cross sectional area of the longitudinal steel.

For short column both longitudinal steel and all the concrete assist in carrying the

load. The links prevent the longitudinal bars from buckling. The code gives the

following expression for the ultimate load N that a short braced axially loaded

column can support.

N=0.4fcuAc+0.75Ascfy

where - Ac is the net cross-sectional area of concrete in the column and

- Asc is the area of vertical reinforcement.

The expression allows for eccentricity due to construction tolerances but applies only

to a column that cannot be subjected to significant moments. An example is column a

which supports a symmetrical arrangement of floor beams. Note that for pure axial load

the ultimate capacity Nuz of a column given in clause 3.8.3.1 of the code is

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 40

`
 Nuz=0.45fcuAc+0.87fyAsc

For a long column the appropriate permissible axial load for short column is multiplied

by a factor of safety called the reduction coefficient. The reduction coefficient is a

function of the slenderness ratio. The reduction coefficient ά for varying values of the

slenderness ratio β can be obtained from the expression given below

ά = (45 - β)/30; 15 ≤ β ≤ 33

ά = (57 - β )/60; 33 ≤ β ≤ 57

Example 1. An internal column 225mm x 225mm support a symmetrical arrangement

of beams, the total reaction from the beams including the self weight of the column has

been estimated to be 550kN. Determine the amount of longitudinal reinforcement

required and the pitch and the diameter of the transverse reinforcement. Assume Pcc =

5.5N and Psc = 112N/mm2

Ac = cross sectional area of concrete = 225mm x 225mm = 50625mm 2

N = 550kN

Asc/Ac = 550 x 103 – 5.5 x 50625/50625 x 112

0.0497

Asc = 2515mm2

Checking from the table in NCP 3 provide eight 20mm dia. Bars (2513mm 2)

The pitch of the transverse reinforcement is the least of

1. 225mm

2. 12 x 20mm = 240mm

3. 300mm

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 41

`
 Therefore 225mm is required.

It is given in the code that the diameter of a transverse reinforcement should not be

less than the main reinforcement and in no case less than 6mm or one-quarter of the

diameter of the largest longitudinal bar;

. Therefore use 6mm diameter in transverse at 225mm pitch.

Example ii.
A short braced axially loaded column 300 mm square in section is reinforced with

four 25 mm diameter bars. Find the ultimate axial load that the column can carry and the pitch

and diameter of the links required. The materials are grade 30 concrete and grade 460

reinforcement.

The links are not to be less than 6 mm in diameter or one-quarter of the diameter of

the longitudinal bars. The spacing is not to be greater than 12 times the diameter of

the longitudinal bars. Provide 8 mm diameter links at 300 mm centres. The column

section is shown in Fig. 9.4. From Table 3.4 of the code the cover for mild exposure is

25 mm.

(mm) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6 28.3 56.5 84.8 113. 141.4 169.6 197. 226.2 254.5 282.7
1 9
8 50.3 100.5 150.8 201. 251.3 301.6 351. 402.1 452.4 502.7
1 9
10 78.5 157.1 235.6 314. 392.7 471.2 549. 628.3 706.9 785.4
2 8
12 113. 226.2 339.3 452. 565.5 678.6 791. 904.8 1018 1131
1 4 7

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 42

`
 16 201. 402.1 603.2 804. 1005 1206 1407 1608 1810 2011
1 2
20 314. 628.3 942.5 1257 1571 1885 2199 2513 2827 3142
2
25 490. 981.7 1473 1963 2454 2945 3436 3927 4418 4909
9
32 804. 1608 2413 3217 4201 4825 5630 6434 7238 8042
2
40 1257 2513 3770 5026 6283 7540 8796 10053 11310 12566

Table 3.1 cross sectional area (mm2) for a given bars of the same diameter

FRAME STRUCTURE

A frame is a structure built up of 3 or more members who are normally considered as

being pinned and hinge at the various joints. Any loads which are applied to the frame

are usually transmitted to it at the joint, so that the individual members are in pure

tension or compression. A very simple frame consist of three individual members

hinged at the end to form a triangle, and the only applied loading consist of a vertical

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 43

`
 load of W at the apex, there are also of course reactions at the lower corners of the

triangular frame as shown below

Under the action of the load the frame tends to deform by tending to extend the

horizontal member causing it to experience a pulling effect along its fibres there by

making it to be in tension referred to as a tie while the other two inclined members will

experience a crushing effect there by making the member to be in compression which

termed as a strut

Frame structures are usually being classified according to there stability or where there

are more members required to keep it stable, these are

A perfect frame is that type of a frame structure which has just sufficient members to

prevent it from being unstable while an imperfect is that type which has less than the

number of members which would constitute a perfect frame as shown below.

Some times frames structure are commonly referred to as truss which is a combination

of several triangles joined together in a definite pattern, a frame is referred to be having

a redundant member when it contains more than enough members required to keep it

stable, that is the frame will be stable with or without the added member. Such frames

are referred to as statically indeterminate frame known as a hyper static frame and

cannot be resolve by the equation of static alone.

A simple perfect frame consist of only three members in the form of a triangle and three

nodal points as shown below

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 44

`
 If two members are added to form another triangle then one joint is also added and for

as long as only triangles are added the frame will continue to be a perfect frame, to

determine the number pof members in any perfect frame it is given by

M = 2j-3

Where m = is the number of frames

J = number of joints

The most common type of frame is the roof truss where it contains several triangles and

all members are either in tension referred to as tie or in compression referred to as

struts. Every member in a frame structure is expected to be part taking in the load

distribution of the actual imposed load placed on it.

The load calculation in any frame structure are carried out by either the graphical

method refer to as the force diagram or by the calculation methods which shall be

discuss below.

Example 1 for the roof truss shown below calculate the forces in the members marked

2-3, 1-6, 2-6 of the frame

6kN

6kN 3 6kN

2
4
3kN 2m 2m
3kN
1.5m

30 0 300

1 5
6
8m

Example 2. for the frame truss shown below calculate the amount of forces in the members 1-

2, 2-3, 3-4.

20kN 20kN 20kN 20kN

20kN
s
3
4

3m

1 s 2
50kN 4bay at 3m each 50kN

BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 45

`
BLD 312 BUILDING DEGREE [Type text] Page 46
`