LOADS AND FORCES

Although we are mainly concerned with the analysis of structures it is desirable to give some
attention to the loads and forces that are expected to come on a structure.
Loads and forces are usually classified into two broads groups:
1. Dead and
2. Imposed loads and forces
For the purpose of structural analysis, any load can be idealised into concentrated loads (single
forces acting over a small area) and line loads (closely placed concentrated loads along a line ,
like a set of train loads or weight of partition wall on a floor e.t.c). distributed loads are loads
which act over an area.

DEAD LOAD
Dead loads include the weight of all permanent components of the structure, such as beams,
columns, floor slabs e.t.c and any other immovable loads that are constant in magnitude and
permanently attached to the structures. Dead load is perhaps the simplest of all loading types,
since it can be readily computed from given dimensions and known unit weight materials.
However, exact structural dimensions are not known during the initial design phase and
assumptions must first be made which may be subjected to changes later as the structural
proportions are developed.

IMPOSED LOADS AND FORCES

Imposed loads are forces that act on a structure in the used of the building or structure due to the
nature of use, activities dueto people, machinery installations, external natural forces, e.t.c.
These are
1. Live load
2. Wind load
3. Seismic forces
4. Snow load
5. Loads imposed by train
6. Soil and hydrostatic forces
7. Erection loads and

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 8. Other forces

LIVE LOAD
Live load is categorised as
1. Live load on buildings and
2. Live load on bridges
Live load on buildings :- The character of use of occupancy of a structure together with the
detail of any specific would suggest the live load on the structures, these loads include any
external loads imposed upon the structure during it service, such as the weight of stored
materials, furniture and people. The estimation of live loads based on any rational basis is still
not possible. To aid a designer, codes usually describe uniformly distributed live loads or
equivalent concentrated loads that present the minimum loads for that category of use. BS 8110
provides conservatively superimposed loads on floors and roofs.
Live load on Bridges:- Another type of live load is that of moving vehicles on highways and
railway bridges. As in case of buildings, these are the minimum specified values to be used for
the design of bridges.
In moving live loads such as those on bridges and crane gantries, the critical positions of moving
vehicles or wheel loads that produce maximum forces at various points of the structure have to
be determined. This is usually done with the help of influence lines.
WIND LOADS
Wind loads are very important in the case of tall structures and also low level light structures in
coastal areas.wind forces are based upon the maximum velocity, which in turn depends upon the
region and location. It is also depends upon the shape of structure.
EARTHQUAKE FORCES
Earthquake forces should be considered for the design of structures in areas of seismic activity.
The highly irregular or random shaking of the ground transmits acceleration to structures and the
mass of the structure resists the motion due to inertia effects. Buildings provided for
accommodating essential services which are of post-earthquake importance, such as emergency
relief stores, food grain storage structures, water works and power stations should be designed
taking into account.

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SNOW AND RAIN LOADS
Snow and rain loads affect the design of roofs the design loads corresponding to the highest
accumulation of snow can be found in IS: 875-1964 and other forms of design information. The
values are based on past weather records maintained by Meteorological Department.
If storm water is drained properly, rain does not contribute to any load on the structure.
However, structural failures have occurred when rain water got accumulated on the roofs due to
choked storm water drains. The accumulation of water causes additional load and hence
deflection which permits more water to accumulate. This progressive deflection and
accumulation of water may continue, leading to structural failure.
SOIL AND HYDROSTATIC FORCES
Structures below the ground, such as foundation pressures may be estimated according to
established theories.
The force exerted by a fluid is normal to the surface of the retaining structure. The magnitude of
the force depends on the hydrostatic pressure which is taking as P=vh where v is the unit weight
of the fluid and h is the height of the fluid retained. This linear pressure distribution occurs in
tanks, vessels and other structures under fluids.
ERECTION LOADS
All loads required to be carried by a structure or any part of it due to the placing or storage of
construction materials and erection equipment, including all loads due to operation of such
equipment, shall be considered as erection loads.
OTHER FORCES
Impact, vibrations, temperature effects, shrinkage, creep, settlement of foundations and other
such phenomena produce effects on structure, some of which may be similar to those caused by
external loads and forces. These forces may sometime be surprisingly large and should be taken
into consideration while designing.

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Static Indeterminacy

The aim of structural analysis is to evaluate the external reactions, the deformed shape and
internal stresses in the structure. If this can be accomplished by equations of equilibrium, then
such structures are known as determinate structures.

Fig 1.1 statically determinate beams

A structure that can be completely analyzed by means of static alone is called a statically
determinate structure that is to say the structure can be analyzed with the three laws of static
equilibrium alone. In such structures there are no redundant constrains or action, the types of
such structures will include

A simple canti lever

a simply supprted beam

A simple frame

Fig. 1.2 examples of statically determinate structures

In any statically determinate structure the number of unknown internal resistance must equal 3
the same as the number in the law of static equilibrium which state that for a body to be in a state
of static the algebraic sum of all the forces acting on it, vertical, horizontal, and moment must
equal to zero

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 ΣH= 0 summation of horizontal forces =0
ΣV= 0 summation of vertical forces =0
ΣM=0 summation of moment forces =0

However, in many structures it is not possible to determine either reactions or internal stresses or
both using equilibrium equations alone i.e one whose external or internal reaction cannot be
determined by the equation of static equilibrium alone for solution but will require additional
equation (known as the equation of compatibility) which may be obtained from deformation
analysis, such structures are known as the statically indeterminate structures.

Fig. 1.2b statically indeterminate beams

The indeterminacy in a structure may be external, internal or both. A structure is said to be

externally indeterminate if the number of reactions exceeds the number of equilibrium equations.
Beams showed in Fig.1.3 (a) and (b) have four reaction components, whereas we have only 3
equations of equilibrium. Hence the beams in Figs. 1.3a) and (b) are externally indeterminate to
the first degree. Similarly, the beam and frame shown in Figs. 1.3(c) and (d) are externally
indeterminate to the 3rd degree.

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Fg. 1.3 externally statically indeterminate structures

Fig. 1.4 internally statically indeterminate structure

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 Fig 1.5 externally and internally indeterminate structures

The extra constrain i.e. those above the normal 3 are known as the redundant constrain, which
are not necessary as far as stability is concerned, i.e. the structure can still be stable without the
redundant, but their introduction has some structural as well as economic advantages.

Before an indeterminate structure is analyzed the degree of its indeterminacy is calculated which
is equivalent to the number of the redundant constrains. A structure that has one redundant
constrain is said to be statically indeterminate to the first degree. The degree of indeterminacy of
a structure is computed using the following relations
Degree of indeterminacy n = 3(m-j) +r-k
Where n= degree of indeterminacy or number of redundant constrains.
m =number of members in the structure
j = number of joints
r = total number of constrains at support
k= number of simple hinges (where k= b-1, and b = number of bars meeting at a hinge).

or n= 3j – (r - m)

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Example from the diagrams shown below find their degree of indeterminacy

b c