1.

What are the parts of a basic structural member

A basic structural member typically consists of several parts, which can vary depending on the
type of member and its purpose. However, in a general sense, the following are common parts
of a basic structural member:

Material: The primary substance from which the structural member is constructed. Common
materials include steel, concrete, wood, aluminum, and various composites. The choice of
material depends on factors such as strength requirements, cost, and environmental
considerations.

Cross-Section: The shape and size of the member when viewed in cross-section. Common
cross-sectional shapes include I-beams, H-beams, channels, tubes, angles, and rectangles.
The cross-section is designed to provide the required strength and stiffness for the specific
application.

Length: The dimension that defines the member's span or height. The length of the structural
member determines its ability to resist bending, shear, and axial loads. Longer members
typically require larger cross-sections to maintain structural integrity.

End Connections: The means by which the structural member is attached to other members or
support points. Common end connections include welding, bolting, riveting, and adhesive
bonding. The type of connection used depends on the structural design and load requirements.

Flanges: In beams and some other structural shapes, flanges are the top and bottom horizontal
surfaces that resist bending loads. In an I-beam, for example, the flanges are the horizontal
plates on either side of the vertical web.

Web: In beams and some columns, the web is the vertical or diagonal component that connects
the flanges. The web helps resist shear forces and provides stability to the member.

Fasteners: Bolts, nuts, washers, and other fastening components used to join structural
members together. Properly designed and installed fasteners are critical for maintaining the
structural integrity of a building or structure.
Welds: In cases where welding is used as a method of connection, the welds themselves
become integral parts of the structural member. Welds must be designed and executed with
precision to ensure their strength and durability.

Bracing: Additional components or elements added to the structural member to increase its
stability and resistance to lateral forces, such as wind or seismic loads. Bracing can be in the
form of diagonal braces, shear walls, or other lateral support systems.

Anchors: Anchors are used to secure structural members to foundations or other support
structures. They prevent lateral movement and provide stability. Common types of anchors
include anchor bolts and post-installed anchors.

Reinforcement: In the case of reinforced concrete, additional materials such as steel bars
(rebar) or mesh are embedded within the member to enhance its strength and ductility.

2. What are the different kinds of live loads and dead loads

Dead Loads

Dead loads, also known as static loads, are the permanent or fixed loads that result from the
weight of the building itself and any permanently attached or built-in elements. These loads
remain constant and do not change over time unless modifications are made to the structure.
Dead loads typically include:

Self-Weight of the Structure: The weight of the building materials, including the walls, floors,
roof, beams, columns, and any other structural components.

Permanent Fixtures: The weight of non-removable fixtures such as plumbing systems,

electrical systems, HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) equipment, and built-in
furniture.
Exterior Cladding: The weight of exterior materials like brick, stone, siding, or curtain wall
systems.

Interior Finishes: The weight of interior finishes such as drywall, ceiling materials, flooring, and
paint.

Roofing Materials: The weight of roofing materials like shingles, tiles, or membrane systems.

Fixed Equipment: The weight of machinery, elevators, or other equipment that is permanently
installed.

Live Loads:
Live loads, also known as dynamic loads or transient loads, are temporary and variable loads
that change in magnitude and location over time. These loads are associated with the use and
occupancy of a building or structure. Live loads include:

Occupant Loads: The weight of people and their belongings, furniture, and equipment. Codes
and standards specify occupant load values for different types of spaces (e.g., offices,
residential, assembly areas).

Furniture and Moveable Equipment: The weight of items like tables, chairs, appliances, and
movable partitions that can be rearranged within a space.

Snow Loads: The weight of accumulated snow on roofs and outdoor areas, which varies with
climate and weather conditions.

Wind Loads: The force exerted by wind on the structure, including both wind pressure and
suction.

Live Loads in Specialized Spaces: For specific buildings, such as warehouses, factories, or
gyms, there may be specialized live loads, like heavy machinery, stored goods, or sports
equipment.
Temporary Loads: Loads from activities such as construction, maintenance, or equipment
repair. These are usually calculated separately during these activities.

3. What are the different kinds of live loads and dead loads

Working Stress Design (WSD):

Basis: WSD is a traditional and conservative design approach that relies on limiting the
stresses within materials and structural elements to ensure they remain below specified
allowable or working stresses.

Design Philosophy: The design is based on the assumption that materials and structures
behave elastically within their allowable limits. It aims to prevent any deformation or damage
that may occur under service loads.

Safety Factors: WSD uses safety factors or factors of safety to reduce the applied loads to a
level where they are well below the capacity of the material. These factors account for
uncertainties in material properties, loadings, and other variables.

Calculations: Engineers calculate the stresses and deflections within the structure and
compare them to allowable stresses. If the calculated stresses are less than the allowable
stresses, the design is considered safe.

Conservatism: WSD is generally more conservative, resulting in over-designed structures to

ensure safety. It tends to be less efficient in terms of material usage.

Application: WSD is commonly used for materials like concrete and steel in building design,
where the loads are relatively predictable and the consequences of failure are significant.
Ultimate Strength Design (USD):

Basis: USD is a more modern design approach that considers the ultimate capacity of a
structure to withstand loads, often taking advantage of the full capacity of materials beyond their
elastic limits.

Design Philosophy: The design is based on the premise that structures may experience plastic
deformation or material yielding before failure, and this is acceptable if it occurs under extreme
or ultimate load conditions.

Safety Factors: USD uses smaller safety factors compared to WSD because it relies on more
precise load modeling and the utilization of material strength up to its ultimate limit.

Calculations: Engineers analyze structures to determine how they will behave under extreme
loads, often using advanced techniques such as finite element analysis (FEA) or nonlinear
analysis. The design aims to ensure that structures have adequate strength and ductility to
withstand ultimate loads.

Efficiency: USD tends to result in more efficient designs with less material usage since it takes
advantage of the full strength capacity of materials when needed.

Application: USD is often used in the design of critical and high-stress structures such as
bridges, offshore platforms, and other systems where safety and reliability are paramount.
 USD(Ultimate Stress WSD(Working Stress
Design) Method Design) Method

Ultimate Stress Working Stress Design

Design(USD) Method is
define as the method of
design structural
1
members by considering
the ultimate Strength of
steel and concrete is
called USD Method.
method is define as the
method of design
structural members by
considering the allowable
Strength of steel and
concrete is called WSD
Method.

It’s primarily based on the

It’s based on the linear
2 strength concept of
theory or elastic theory.
Concrete.

Factor of Safety is Factor of Safety is not

3
considered in this design. considered in this design.

It’s Consider to Design

It’s Consider to Design
4 Critical Combination of
carrying load
load

It’s designing for elastic It’s designing to plastic

5
behavior of materials. behavior of materials

Materials strength to be Modular Ratio used for

6
used for member design member design

Stability of Structure is Stability of Structure is

7
more than WSD less than USD
 It’s a modern design It’s a pretty old design
8
method. method.

This method is used for This type of method is

mostly the biggest used for mostly small
9
structures and developed structures and
nations. undeveloped nations.

Economical Design Less economical Design

10
method. method.