1.

1 Structural Element:

any component or part of an assembly which provides necessary supporting structure to the whole or
any part of building.

Structural Element of a Building:(a) any internal or external load-bearing component of the building that
is essential to the stability of the building or

any part of it, including (but not limited to ) foundations, floors, walls, roofs, columns and beams.

(b) any component (including weatherproofing ) that forms part of the external walls or roof of the
building.

generl examples include STRUCTURAL Decking

Roof installation

Pergolas ( if Building Permit is required)

Tuck Pointing

Fencing

Retaining Walls

Patio

Bathrooms -working wet areas

Kitchens-working wet areas

Balcony

Rewiring

Electrical

Brickwork
1.2 Non-structural systems include all the elements within a building that are not part of the primary
gravity or lateral force-resisting structure, but are still required for the building to function.General
examples include

Cabinet joinery (separate contracts)

Wardrobe fit-out

Painting

Plastering

Hardware Installation

Carpeting

Tiling

Broadly, non-structural components can be divided into two categories:

Engineered systems, such as ducting, electrical distribution, piping, engineering plant and fire
suppression systems.

Architectural elements, such as suspended ceilings, internal partitions and façades

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2.1 Structural Analysis

A structure, as it relates to civil engineering, is a system of interconnected members used to support

external loads. Structural analysis is the prediction of the response of structures to specified arbitrary
external loads. During the preliminary structural design stage, a structure’s potential external load is
estimated, and the size of the structure’s interconnected members are determined based on the
estimated loads. Structural analysis establishes the relationship between a structural member’s
expected external load and the structure’s corresponding developed internal stresses and displacements
that occur within the member when in service. This is necessary to ensure that the structural members
satisfy the safety and the serviceability requirements of the local building code and specifications of the
area where the structure is located.

2.2 structural design

Structural design is a methodical investigation to get the economical specification of a structure or a

structural element to carry the predicted load safely. With the application of structural design we can
obtain required size, grade, reinforcement etc. of structural members to withstand the internal forces
calculated from the structural analysis.Structural design is a part of Structural Engineering which is a
sub-division of Civil Engineering. Structural engineers are trained to design the structural elements
accurately and supervise during construction to ensure the proper implementation of the structural
design.

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4.Limit state design (LSD) is a structural engineering design method. All actions likely to occur during a
structure’s design life are considered to ensure that the structure remains fit for use with appropriate
levels of reliability. Limit state design involves estimating the subjected loads on a structure, choosing
the sizes of members to check, and selecting the appropriate design criteria.

Limit state design requires that two principal criteria are satisfied:

Ultimate limit state (ULS).is design for the safety of a structure and its users by limiting the stress that
materials experience.

Serviceability limit state (SLS).is design to ensure a structure is comfortable and useable. This includes
vibrations and deflections (movements), as well as cracking and durability.

The purpose of limit state design is to ensure a structure performs under the maximum permissible load
and that during normal working conditions remains serviceable i.e. the appearance of the structures is
not compromised.

3 Generally Ethiopian architects are centered around sustainability, cultural sensitivity, functionality, and
practicality. The three(3) major Design Philosophies used while designing of RCC, Steel or any type of
Civil Engineering Structures to meet the above core values are:

ASD (WSD or WSM)Allowable Stress Design (ASD) also called Working Stress Design/method (WSD) is
basically Allowable Strength DesignThis method only satisfy the serviceability of the structure or
Serviceability Limit State (SLS).

ULM (USD),Ultimate Load Method (ULM) or Ultimate Strength Design (USD) or Load Factor .This method
doesn’t satisfy the Serviceability Limit State (SLS).

LRFD (LSD or LSM). Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) or Limit State Method/Design (LSM or
LSD) is The current and the most advanced method while design any civil engineering structures..Based
on this all constructions in ethiopia are made by EBCS(ethiopian building code standard)