4

GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS

4.1. Introduction
The layout and other geometric features of a road have direct
influence on the initial cost of its construction and the efficiency and
eoonomy of its use by traffic. The safety of operation is also
significantly affected by geometric design. Deficiencies in geometrics
are costly to rectify later and therefore the various requirements
should be kept in view initially even where stage development is
envisaged.
4~2. Terrain Classification
Terrain classification is an important parameter governing
geometric design standards. For the purposes of thisManual, the
following classification system is adopted:
S. No, Terrain Classification Per cent cross slope of the country
1. Plain OtolO
2. Rolling >10 to 25
3. Mountainous >25 to 60
4. Steep greater than 60

4.3. Design Speeds

Design speed is a basic criterion which determines a number of
geometric design features. The design speeds recommended for
different cases are given in Table 1.
Normally “ruling design speed” should be the guiding criterion
for correlating the various design features. “Minimum design speed”
may however, be adopted in sections where site conditions (including
costs) do not permit a design based on the “ruling design speed”.
4.4. Land Width, Building Lines and Control lines
4.4.1. The recommended standards for land width are given
in Table 2.
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 20 Geometric Design Standards
TABLE 1. DESIGN Sprsps

Design speed—km/h

Rolling Mountainous Steep

R d Plain
terrain terrain terrain terrain
Classification

Ruling Mini- Ruling Mini- Ruling Mini- Ruling Mini-

design mum design mum design mum design mum
speed design speed design speed design speed design
speed speed speed speed

I. Other DistrIct 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
Roads
2. Village Roads 50 40 40 35 25 20 25 20

TABLE 2. RECOMMENDED STANDARDS FOR LA~oWIDTH

Road land width—metres

Road Plain and roiling terrain Mountainous and steep terrain

classification
Open areas Built-up areas Open areas Built-up areas

Nor- Range Nor- Range Nor- Excep- Nor- Excep-

mal mat mal tional mal tional

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1. Other District 15 15-25 15 15-20 15 12 12 9

Roads
2. Village Roads 12 12-18 10 10.15 9 9 9 9

Notes: 1. In high banks or deep cuts, the land width should be suitably in-
creased. Similarly, a higher value should be adopted in unstable or
landslide—prone areas.
2. II a road is expected to be upgraded to a higher classification in the
foreseable future, the land width should correspond to that classifi-
cation.
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Geornetro.: LDes~gnStandards 21
4.4.2. in order to prevent overcrowding and preserve sufficient
space for future road improvement, it is advisable to lay down
re~tr~ct~orL~on huilding act~\ity along the rural roads. No building
activity should be :UIowed ~dth~n a prescribed distance from the road.
This distance i~defined by a hypothetical line set back from the road
boundary, called the “Building Line”. In addition, it will be desir-
able to limit the nature of building activity for a further distance
defined by what are called “Control Lines”. Building and control
lines are illustrated in Fig. I with respect to the road centreline and
road boundary.

4.4.3. Recommended standards with regard to building and

control lines are given in Table For more details about measures
~.

for prevention of ribbon development &ong roads, reference may be

made to IRC Special Publication No. 15, “Ribbon Development
Along Highways and its Prevention”.
TABLE 3. RECOMMENDED STANDARDS FOR BUILDING LINES AND CONTROL Ln~ss
(metre)

Plain and rolling Mountainous and

terrain steep terrain

~~ification Open nreas Built-up areas Open areas ~Built.upareas

Width Width Distance bet- Distance between

between between ween Building Building Line and
Building Control Line and road boundary
Lines Lines road (setback)
(overall (overall boundary
width) width) (setback)

1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Other
District
Roads 25/300 35 3—5 3—5
2. Village
Roads 25 30 3—5 3—5 3—5

Notes: 1. ‘If the land width is equal to the width between building lines
indicated in this column, the building lines should be set back
2.5 metre from the road land boundary.
2. See Fig. I for position of building lines, control lines and setback
distance relative to the road centreline and road land boundary.

<<
22 Geometric Design Standards
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Geometric Design Standards 23
4.5. Roadway Width
The requirements of ioadway width are given in Tables 4 and 5
respectively for plain and rolling terrain, and mountainous and
steep terrain.

TAttia 4. WIDTH OF ROADWAY IN PLAIN AND RoLLiNG TERRAIN

S. Road Classification Roadway width

No. (metres)

I Other District Roads

(a) Two lane’ 9.0
(b) Single lane 7.5
2. Village Roads (single Jane) 7,5

‘Two-lane carriageways are not envisaged at this stage for rural roads.
However, there may be some cases where in view of the developments expected,
it may be desirable to provide roadway for a two-lane carriageway.

TABLE 5. WIDTH OP ROADWAY IN MOUNTAINOUS AND STEEP TERRAIN

Roadway width (metres)

No. Road Classification
Stretches other Hard rock
than hard rock stretches

1. Other District Roads 4.75 4.35

2. Village Roads 4.0 3,6

Notes: 1. The width; above are for single—lane roads, and are exclusive of
parapets and side drains.
2. In general, passing places or lay-byes 3.75 m wide and 20 m long
may be provided at the rate of two per kilometre. These should be
judiciously located after taking into consideration the available extra
width on curves and visibility.
3. On curves, the roadway width may be increased corresponding to
the carriageway widening for curvature, vide para 4.11.6,

4.6, Roadway Width at Cross-drainage Structures

4.6.1. General: Recommended roadway widths for different
types of cross-drainage structures are given in paras 4.6.2 to 4,6.4.

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 24 Geometric Design Standards

Cross-drainage structures are difficult to widen at a later stage. As

such, the roadway width for them should be decided very carefully
at the planning stage, For roads being built to lower standards
initially for some reason, or those which are expected to be upgrad-
ed iw~de~ned in the foreseeable future, it will be desirable to go in for
higher roadway at the cross-drainage structures in the initial phase
itself.

4.6.2. Culverts (upto 6 m span): In plain and rolling terrain,

the roadway width on culverts (measuredfrom outside to outside of
the parapet walls) both for ODRs and VRs should equal the normal
roadway width given in Table 4, In mountainous and steep terrain,
the clear roadway width available on the culverts (measured from
inside to inside ofparapet walls or kerbs) should be as below:

ODRs — Same as given in Table S

VRs
Minimum — As given in Table 5
Desirable — 4.25 m

4.6.3. Bridges (greater than 6 m span): At bridges constructed

for road traffic, clear width of roadway (between kerbs~should be
as under:

Desirable — 7.5 m
Where 7,5 m width / — 5,75 na
cannot be provided
Exceptional — 4.25 m

~rhere a footpath is provided for the use of pedestrians, its

width should not be less than 1.5 m.

4.6.4. Causeways and submersible bridges: Roadway width

at causeways and submersible bridges should be normally adequate
for two lanes of traffic, i.e. 7.5 m wide, unless it is specially reduced
by the competent authority.

4.7. Carriageway Width

The width of carriageway should be as indicated in Table 6.

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Geometric Design Standards 25
TABLE 6. WIDTH OF CARRIA0EWAY FOR SiNoca LANE RoADS

S. No.~ Road Classification Carriageway width (metres)

1. Other District Roads 3.75

2. Village Roads 3~O0’

•Carriageway width of more than 3.00 metre may he used judiciously,

depending upon the type and intensity di traffic, cost and other related
factors,

4.8. Camber (cross-fall)

The camber or cross-fail on straight sections of roads should
he provided as indicated in Table 7 for various surface types~

TABLE 7. CAMBER FOR DtFFERENT SURFACE Tvprs

TNo.f” Surface type Camber (per cent)

I. Thin bituminous surfacing 2.0—2.5

(I in 50 to I in 40)

2. Water~boundmacadam, gravel 2.5—3.0

(I in 40 to I in 33)

3, Earth 3.0—4.0
(i in 3310 1 in 25)

Higher values in the iange should he adopted for areas with

a high intensity of rainfall. Lower values in the ran,ae should be
used in areas with low intensity of rainfall and in well-drained
sect ions.

The cross-fall for earth shoulders should be r~nimum 3 per

cent or at least (15 per cent more than the pavement ‘amber which-
ever is higher. When the shoulder is paved, the cross-fall appropriate
to the surface should be adopted.
On superelevated sections, the shoulder slope should be of the
same magnitude and directions as the pavement slope.

<<
 26 Geometric Design Standards
4.9. Side Slopes
The side-slopes of embankments should not be steeper than
slopes safe for the type of the soil. Generally side slopes of I ~ :
should be sufficient for embanknients of normal height. Flatter
slopes of 2 : 1 may be used in case of poor embankment materials,
or where the embankment will be subject to inundation, High
embankments should be properly designed and side slopes provided
accordingly. For guidari~ein this regard reference may be made to
IR,C “Guidelines, for the Design of High Embankments”.
The side slopes for cuts in different materials may be as in
Table 8.

TABLE S. SLOPES OF CuTs IN DIFFERENT MATERIALS

S. No. Type of soil Slope

I. Ordinary soil I : I to 1/2 : 1

2. Disintegrated rock or conglomerate I /2 I to 1/4 1
3. Soft rock and shale 1/4 : I to 1/8 I
4. Medium rock 1/12: Ito 1116: 1
5. Hard rock Near vertical

4.10. Typical Cross’sections

4.10.1. A few typical cross-sections for Other District Roads
and Village Roads are shown in Figs. 2 to 4. Fig. 2 i~for plain
and rolling terrain while Figs. 3 and 4 pertain to roads in mountainous
and steep terrain.
4.10.2. At problematic locations in mountainous and steep
terrains, particularly ‘where the area is subject to heavy rainfall or
snow drift, it may he a good practice to pave the enire roadway
width,

Horizontal Alignment
4.11.
4.11.1. General guidelines: “[he alignment should be as
directional as possible and avoid abrupt turns. On new roads the
curves should be designed to have the largest practicable radius,

<<
Geometric Design Standards 27
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 28 Geometric Design Standards

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Fig. 3. Typical cross-sections for Other District Roads in mountainous and

steep terrain
(not to scale)

<<
 Geometric Design Standards 29

PARAPET 0’S ~-i —SIDE DRAIN OS.

RCADWAY ~ ~

NOTES

I. THE CROSS—SECTIONS P0* OTNER

SITUATIONS WOULD SE ON THE
SAME LINES AS FIB, 3
**
E. IN NARO ROCK STRETCHES TNt
ROADWAY MAY SE REDUCED TO
35. AND WIDTH OF SHOULDERS
TO 03.

Fig. 4. Typical cross-section for Village Roads in mountainous and

steep terrain
(not to scale)
generally not less than the ruling minimum values corresponding to
ruling design speed (see pam 4.11.4 and Table 10). However4
absolute minimum values based on minimum design speed (Table 10)
may be used where the economics of construction or site conditions
so dictate. Radii below the absolute !minimum should not ordinarily
be provided. Curves in the same direction separated by short
tangents, called broken-back curves, should be avoided. While
improving exis~ing roads, curves having radii conforming to the
absolute minimum standards may not be flattened.
The standards br different elements of horizontal alignment
are given in paras 4.Ui through 4A1.7. It may not always be
possible to meet requirements of superelevation, drainage etc. at
each and every location, especially in mountainous and steep terrain
where there may be frequent changes in alignment. In such ca~es,
compromise solutions may be adopted with due regard to safety,
economy, and other related factors,
4.lli. Horizonstil curves: In general, horizontal curves
should consist of a circular portion flanked by spiral transitions at
<<
 :30 Geometric Design Standards
both ends. Design speed, superelevation, and coefficient of side
friction affect the design of circular curves. Length of transition
curves is determined on the basis of rate of change of centrifugal
acceleratiot. and superelevation.
4,11.3. Superelevation: Superelevation to be provided on
circular curves should he such that it counteract s the centrifugal
lorce developed at three-fourths the design speed, the balance being
taken care of by side friction. On this basis, the formula for
calculating superelevation works out to:
e= V2/225R
where e— superelevation in metre per metre
V==speed in km/h and
Rmradius in metres.

The superelevation calculated from the above formula should

be limited to the following maximum values:
(a) In plain and roiling terrain where
slow-moving carts are prevalent — 7 per cent
(b) In snow-bound areas — 7 per cent
(c) In hilly areas not bound by snow 10 per cent
Fig. 5 indicates the superelevation for various design speeds on
this basis.
When the value of superelevation calculated from the above is
Hess than the minimum cross-fall required for drainage (i.e. camber)
no superelevation need be provided. Table 9 shows the radii of
TABLE 9, RADII BEYOND WHICH SUPERELEVATION [S NOT REQUIRED

Radius (melres) for camber of

Design Speed
km/h
4 per cent 3 per cent 2.5 per cent 2 per cent

20 50 60 70 90
25 70 90 110 140
30 100 130 160 200
35 140 180 220 270
40 180 240 280 350
50 280 370 450 550
65 470 620 750 950

<<
 Geometric Design Standards 31
010
i. 0 Zi. NAXI~IJM SUPERELEVATIOW POR
~0tJ’~&IP~OUS ANO STEEP TERRAIN
NC~ ~JNO BY SNOW,

0’OI

00$
\ —*..—~ ..._____

901 \.~
e~99y,MAXIuuM SuPE~ELE~ATION FOR
\ PLAIN AND ROLLING TERRA1N, AND
I MOUt4TAINOUS AND STEEP TERRAIN
‘ BOUND ev SNOW.
006

\1J
0’OS
• 225R
WHERE ~ ~ SUPERELEVATIQ~
\
a
a
\ \ v~SPEED PH NaIl
094 . \~,- —~- a
l.a
-J
l.a
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0’03 ~ ~
\\ ...-
-____

\\~
~4 \....
‘~
092
NOTE
SUPERELEVATION NEED BE PROVIDED PP
SUPERELEVATION CALCULATED IS LESS
THAN THE NORMAL PAVEMENT CAMPER
O’OI

0
tOO 400 100 BOO 1000 ‘ZOO

RACIUS IN NETRES

Fig, 5, Superelevstion r*tcs for various design speeds

<<
 32 Geometric Design Standards
horizontal curves for different camber rates beyond which the
superelevation will not be required.

The normal cambered section of the road is changed into super~

elevated section in two stages. First stage is the removal of adverse
camber in outer half of the pavement. in the second stage, super-
elevation is gradually built up over the full width of the carriageway
so that the required superelevation is available at the beginning of
the circular curve, There are three different methods for attaining
the superelevation: (i) revolving, pavement about the centreline, Qi)
revolving pavement about the inner edge of the pavement, and (iii)
revolving pavement about the outer edge. These are illustrated in
Plate Il.** For rural roads, the first method, i.e. revolving pave-
ment about the centreline, will be suitable, in most of the situations.

In developing the required superelevation, it sbould be ensured

that the longitudinal slope of the pavement edge com..pared to
centreiirie(t,e. rate of change of superelevation) is minimum 1 in 150
tbr roads in plain .and rolling terrain, and 1 in 60 in mountainous
and steep terrain.

Since vehicles have to frequently use the shoulders in the case

of single lane rontds~ the shoulder slope on superelevated sections
should be of the same magnitude a,:nd direction as the pavement
slope—see Figs. 2, 3, and 4. As such, the required supetelevation
on shoulders should b.c attained, simultaneously with the pavement
in the same manner.

4.11.4. Minimum Radius: MinimuM radius of circular curves

can he determ’ined from the equation:
V2

where V=specd in km/h

,R=radius in metres
e== su perelevation
f= coefficient of side friction.

Note **Plate 11 depicts the general case where a circular curve is flanked by
transition curves on both sides, In such cases where transition curve
isnot provided, tw.othird superelcvation may be attained on the straight
section before start of the curve and one-third on the curve,

<<
Geometric Design Standards 33

Substituting the value of 0.15 for side friction, and the permissible
maximum values of superelevation indicated in para 4.11.3, the
formula works out as below for different terrains.,

Terrain Formula
t
(a) Plain and rolling R—0,0357 V
(b) Mountainous and steep
(U Snowbound R—O.0357 V’
(ii) Other than snowbound R’=O.OSlS V’

Based on the above equations, the ruling minimum radii (corres-

ponding ruling design speeds) and the absolute minimum radii
(corresponding to minimum design speeds) for circular curves are
given in Table 10.

4.11.5. Transition curves: As far as possible, circular hori-

zontal curves should be provided with transition curves at either end,
The lengths of transition curve, required on the basis of rate of
change of centrifugal acceleration and superelevation. are given in
‘Tables 11 and 12 for plain and rolling terrain and mountainous and
steep terrain respectively.

4.11.6. Widening of carriageway on carves: The extra width

of carriageway to be provided at horizontal curves should be as per
Table 13. Widening should de effected gradually over the transition
curve so that the full widened width is available at the beginning of
the circular curve.

In general, the widening should be equally distributed on the

inner and outer sides. On hill roads, however, the widening may be
on the inside only.

4. ii .7. Laying out of horizontal curves: For working out

coordinates to lay the horizontal curves in the field, it will be
convenient to use curve tables, In this regard, reference is drawn
to IRC: 38-i970.

<<
34 Geometric Design Standards
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Geometric Desigrt Standards 35
TA3LE 11. TRANSITION LENOTHS FoI’ DIFFERENT SPEEDS AND CuRvE
RADii IN PLAIN AND ROLLIN0 TERRAIN

Transition length (metres) for design speed of

Curve Radius
(metres) *—..

65 km/h 50km/h 40km/h ~35 km/h

90 NA 75 50 40
100 NA 70 45 35
150 80 45 30 25
170 70 40 25 20
200 60 35 25 20
240 50 30 20 NR
300 40 25 NR NR
360 35 20 NR NP.
400 30 20 NP. NP.
500 25 NR NR NP.
600 20 NR NP. NR
700 20 NP. NP NR
NA—Not applicable
NR—Not required
TABLE 12. TRANSITIoN LENGThs FOR DIFFERENT S~mnsAND CURVE
RADii IN MOUNTAINOUS AND STEEP TERRAIN

Transition length (metres) fOr design speed of

Curve Radius
(metres) ‘ *

30 km/h 25 km/h 20 km/h

15 NA NA 30
20 NA 35 20
25 NA 25 20
30 30 25 IS
40 25 20 15
50 20 35 15
55 20 15 15
70 15 15 15
90 15 15 NR
120 15 NP. NR
150 15 NP. NP.
NA—Not applicable
NR—NoI required

<<
36 Geometric Design Standards
TABLE 13. EXTRA WIDTH OF PAVEMENT AT HORIZONTAL CURVES

Radius of curve (m) upto 20 21—60 >60

Extra width (m) 0.9 0,6 Nil

4.12. Vertical Alignment

4.12.1. Grades’: The gradients to he adopted for vaiious
terrain conditions are given in Table 14.

TABLE 14, GRADiENTS FOR DIFFERENT TERRAIN TYPES

S. Terrain type ‘ Ruling Limiting Exceptional

No, gradient gradient gradient
, (per cent) (per cent) (percent)

1, Plain or Rolling 3.3 5 6.7

(tin 30) (tin 2.0) (1 in 15)
2. Mountainous 5 6 7
(1 in 20) (1 in 16.7) (1 in 14.3)
3. Seep
(i) Upto 3000 in height above
mean sea level 6 7 8
(1 in 16.7) (tin 14.3) (I in 12.5)
(ii) Height greater than 3000 m
above mean sea level 5 6 7
(tin 20) (tin 16.7) (1 in 14.3)

Gradients upto ‘ruling gradient’ may be used as a matter of

course in design. The ‘limiting gradient’ may be used where the
topography of a place compels this course or where the adoption of
gentler gradients would add enormously to the cost, In such cases,
the length of continuous grade steeper than the ruling gradient
should be as short aS possible. ‘Exceptional gradients’ are meant
to be adopted only in very exceptional situations and for short
lengths (not exceeding 100 m at a stretch) and such cases should be
critically examined, In mountainous and steep terrain, successive
stretches of exceptional gradient should be separated by a minimum
length of 100 in having gentler gradient (limiting gradient or fiatter~.
The rise~’fa1lin elevation over a length of two kms should not
exceed 100 m in mountainous terrain and 120 m in steep terrain.
4.12.2. Grade compensation: At curves, the gradients should
he eased by a certain amount, usually known as the ‘grade compen-
sation’ which could be calculated from the formula:

<<
 Geometric Design Standards 31
30i~R
Grade compensation =

subject to a maximum of 75/R

where A is the radius of curve in
metres.
Grade compensation should, however, he so applied that the
gradients are not made flatter than 4 per cent,

4,12.3. Formation level. As far as possible, the formation

level ‘should he kept about 0.45 m above the adjoining country level,
in the case of flooding, it would be desirable to keep the formation
level about 0.6 m above the H.F.L. Where conditions of water-
logging exist, suitable remedial measures should be adopted vide
recommendations in IRC:34-1970, “Recommendations for Road
Construct ion in Water-logged Areas”,

4.13. Sight Distance

4.13.1, Vehicles need good visibility for stopping and over-
taking manoeuvrcs. Requirements of sight distance are laid down
in IRC: 66-1976 “Recommended Practice for Sight Distance on
Rural Highways”. While provision of overtaking or intermediate
sight distance would be desirable, the O.D.R,s and V.R,s must at
least provide for safe stopping sight distance.
4.13.2. The stopping sight distance can be calculated from
t’he following formula:
Stopping distance=Distance travelled in perception and
brake reaction time of 2.5 secs+braking
dista nce
V
=0.7 V +~347metres.
where V=design speed in km/h, and
f=coefficient of longitudinal friction between
vehicletyres and road pavement. (1 yaries
with speed, For recommended values, see
IRC: 66).

Design values based on this formula are given in Table 15.

For m,easurethent of stopping sight distance, the height of eye and
of object (i.e, obstruction) should be taken as 1.2 m and 0.15 m
(above the road level) respectively.

<<
 38 Geometric Design Standards
T*si,e 15. SAFE STOPPINO StouT DUTANcE FOR VARIOUS S~aans

Speed Safe stopping

V sight distance
(km/h) (metres)

20 20
25 25
30 30
40 45
50 60
60 80
65 90

4.14. VertIcal Curves

4.14.1. Properly designed vertical curves should be introduc-
S for safety and comfort at all grade changes exceeding 1,0 per
cent in the case of O.D.R,s and 1.5 per cent in the case of V.R,s
Suéh cases can arise due to topography, river or stream crossings,
itersections, etc. Length of the vertical curve may be determined
as explained below:
(a) Summit curves
Case (1) when the length of the curve exceeds the required stop-
ping sight distance (vide Table 1.5),
NS’
L=
where N=algebraic difference between the two grades
L=lcngth of verticaL curve in metres
S=sight distance in metres.
Case (ii) when the length ,f the curve is less than the required
stopping sight distance,
L==2S —

(b) Valley curves

The Length of valley curves should ‘be such that for night
travel the headlight beam distance is the same as the stopping sight
distance.
<<
 Geometdc Design Standards 39
C’ase (ij when the length of the curve exceeds the required stop-
ping sight distance (vide Table 15),
NS5
L — i.5o+o.o~ss
Case (ii) when the length of the curve is less than the required
stopping sight distance,

1
LLS 1.50—0.0355
N

4,14.2. Regardless of value obtained from the above equations,

the length of the vertical curve should not be less than 30 metre
in the case of O.D.R.s and 15 metre for V.R.s Combined occurrence
of valley curve and a structure (i.e. culvert/bridge etc.) calls for
careful planning so that the stretch is neither unsightly nor uncom-
fortable to traverse. For further details on vertical curves, reference
may be made to IRC Standard “Geometric Design Standards for
Rural (Non-urban) Highways”.

4.15. HaIr-Pin Bends

4.15.1. Hair-pin bends, where unavoidable, may be designed
either as a circular curve with transitions at each end, or as com-
pound circular curve. The following criteria should be adopted
normally for design:
(a) Minimum design speed 20 km/h
(b) Minimum width at apex
(i) Other District Roads 7.5 m
(ii) Village Roads 6.5 m
(c) Minimum radius for the the inner curve 14.0 m
(d) Minimum length of the transition 15.0 m
(e) Gradient Maximum I in 40
Minimum 1 in 200
(f) Superelevation I in 10

4.15.2. Inner and outer edges should be concentric with

respect to centreline of the pavement. Where a number of hair-pin
bends have to be introduced, a minimum intervening distance of
60 m should be provided between the successive bends to enable the
driver to negotiate the alignment smoothly.
4.15.3. Widening of hair-pin bends at a later date is a difficult
and costly process. Moreover, gradients tend to become sharper,
as generaLly widening can be achieved only by cutting the hill side.

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 40 Geometric Design Standards
These points should be kept in view at the planning stage, especially
where a series of hair-pin bends is involved.
415,4, Layout of a typical hair-pin bend is giVen in Figure 6.
—

~ r
* ~ £
— ~~Dtjr_____**~~__ 6 0

LON6~TUOINALSECTION

-e U”14 —
0—0 **~L’S —.

— C~RLLTLAR CURVE

S-C — SUMaJY CnVt

F-C — VVLLEY CURVE

0
a
0
aa
a SS 5
‘I

I
PLAN
—

Fig. 6. Layout of a typical hair-pin bend

(not to scale)
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