Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 510e523
Review
Encapsulation of
polyphenols e
a review
Zhongxiang Fanga,b,* and
Bhesh Bhandaria
a
School of Land, Crop and Food Sciences,
The University of Queensland, Brisbane,
Qld 4072, Australia
b is aggregates, which have many cores embedded in a matrix
School of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science,
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, China
(School of Land, Crop and Food Sciences, The
University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld 4072,
Australia. Tel.: D61 7 33469187;
e-mail: z.fang2@uq.edu.au)
Research on and the application of polyphenols, have recently
attracted great interest in the functional foods, nutraceutical and
pharmaceutical industries, due to their potential health benefits
to humans. However, the effectiveness of polyphenols depends
on preserving the stability, bioactivity and bioavailability of the
active ingredients. The unpleasant taste of most phenolic com-
pounds also limits their application. The utilization of encapsu-
lated polyphenols, instead of free compounds, can effectively
alleviate these deficiencies. The technologies of encapsulation
of polyphenols, including spray drying, coacervation, liposome
entrapment, inclusion complexation, cocrystallization, nanoen-
capsulation, freeze drying, yeast encapsulation and emulsion,
are discussed in this review. Current research, developments
and trends are also discussed.
Introduction
Microencapsulation, developed approximately 60 years
ago, is defined as a technology of packaging solids, liquids,
or gaseous materials in miniature, sealed capsules that can
release their contents at controlled rates under specific con-
ditions (Desai & Park, 2005; Vilstrup, 2001). The packaged
materials can be pure materials or a mixture, which are also
called coated material, core material, actives, fill, internal
* Corresponding author.
0924-2244/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2010.08.003
phase or payload. On the other hand, the packaging mate-
rials are called coating material, wall material, capsule,
membrane, carrier or shell, which can be made of sugars,
gums, proteins, natural and modified polysaccharides,
lipids and synthetic polymers (Gibbs, Kermasha, Alli, &
Mulligan, 1999; Mozafari, 2006)
Microcapsules are small vesicles or particulates that may
range from sub-micron to several millimeters in size
(Dziezak, 1998). Many morphologies can be produced for
encapsulation, but two major morphologies are more com-
monly seen (Fig. 1): one is mononuclear capsules, which
have a single core enveloped by a shell, while the other
(Schrooyen, van der Meer, & De Kruif, 2001). Their spe-
cific shapes in different systems are influenced by the pro-
cess technologies, and by the core and wall materials from
which the capsules are made.
Various techniques are used for encapsulation. In gen-
eral, three steps are involved in the encapsulation of bioac-
tive agents: (i) the formation of the wall around the material
to be encapsulated; (ii) ensuring that undesired leakage
does not occur; (iii) ensuring that undesired materials are
kept out (Gibbs et al., 1999; Mozafari et al., 2008). The
current encapsulation techniques include spray drying,
spray cooling/chilling, extrusion, fluidized bed coating, co-
acervation, liposome entrapment, inclusion complexation,
centrifugal suspension separation, lyophilization, cocrystal-
lization and emulsion, etc. (Augustin & Hemar, 2009;
Desai & Park, 2005; Gibbs et al., 1999).
The main objective of encapsulation is to protect the
core material from adverse environmental conditions,
such as undesirable effects of light, moisture, and oxygen,
thereby contributing to an increase in the shelf life of the
product, and promoting a controlled liberation of the encap-
sulate (Shahidi & Han, 1993). In the food industry, the
microencapsulation process can be applied for a variety
of reasons, which have been summarized by Desai and
Park (2005) as follows: (i) protection of the core material
from degradation by reducing its reactivity to its outside en-
vironment; (ii) reduction of the evaporation or transfer rate
of the core material to the outside environment; (iii) mod-
ification of the physical characteristics of the original mate-
rial to allow easier handling; (iv) tailoring the release of the
core material slowly over time, or at a particular time; (v) to
mask an unwanted flavor or taste of the core material; (vi)
dilution of the core material when only small amounts are
 Z. Fang, B. Bhandari / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 510e523
Wall material Wall material
Core material Core material
Fig. 1. Two major forms of encapsulation: mononuclear capsule (left)
and aggregate (right).
required, while achieving uniform dispersion in the host
material; (vii) to help separate the components of the mix-
ture that would otherwise react with one another. Food in-
gredients of acidulants, flavoring agents, sweeteners,
colorants, lipids, vitamins and minerals, enzymes and
microorganisms, are encapsulated using different technolo-
gies (Desai & Park, 2005).
Recently, research and application of polyphenols have
been areas of great interest in the functional foods, nutra-
ceutical and pharmaceutical industries (Manach, Scalbert,
Morand, Rémésy, & Jiménez, 2004; Scalbert, Manach,
Morand, Rémésy, & Jiménez, 2005). Polyphenols consti-
tute one of the most numerous and ubiquitous groups of
plant metabolites, and are an integral part of both human
and animal diets which possess a high spectrum of biolog-
ical activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, an-
tibacterial, and antiviral functions (Bennick, 2002; Haslam,
1996; Quideau & Feldman, 1996). A large body of preclin-
ical research and epidemiological data suggests that plant
polyphenols can slow the progression of certain cancers, re-
duce the risks of cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative
diseases, diabetes, or osteoporosis, suggesting that plant
polyphenols might act as potential chemopreventive and
anti-cancer agents in humans (Arts & Hollman, 2005;
Scalbert, Johnson, & Saltmarsh, 2005; Scalbert, Manach
et al., 2005; Surh, 2003).
Unfortunately, the concentrations of polyphenols that
appear effective in vitro are often of an order of magnitude
higher than the levels measured in vivo. The effectiveness
of nutraceutical products in preventing diseases depends
on preserving the bioavailability of the active ingredients
(Bell, 2001). This is a big challenge, as only a small propor-
tion of the molecules remain available following oral ad-
ministration, due to insufficient gastric residence time,
low permeability and/or solubility within the gut, as well
as their instability under conditions encountered in food
processing and storage (temperature, oxygen, light), or in
the gastrointestinal tract (pH, enzymes, presence of other
nutrients), all of which limit the activity and potential
health benefits of the nutraceutical components, including
polyphenols (Bell, 2001). The delivery of these compounds
therefore requires product formulators and manufacturers
to provide protective mechanisms that can maintain the ac-
tive molecular form until the time of consumption, and de-
liver this form to the physiological target within the
organism (Chen, Remondetto, & Subirade, 2006). Some
physicochemical characteristics and food properties of the
511
major polyphenols from different plant sources are present
in Table 1, which shows their limited stability and condi-
tioned solubility. Another unfortunate trait of polypheonls
is their potential unpleasant taste, such as astringency
(Table 1), which needs to be masked before incorporation
into food products (Haslam & Lilley, 1988).
The utilization of encapsulated polyphenols instead of
free compounds can overcome the drawbacks of their insta-
bility, alleviate unpleasant tastes or flavors, as well as im-
prove the bioavailability and half-life of the compound in
vivo and in vitro. There have been a number of recent re-
views or mini-reviews on the encapsulation of foods or
food ingredients (Augustin & Hemar, 2009; Desai &
Park, 2005; de Vos, Faas, Spasojevic, & Sikkema, 2010;
Flanagan & Singh, 2006; Gouin, 2004; Jafari, Assadpoor,
He, & Bhandari, 2008; Khaled & Jagdish, 2007;
McClements, Decker, Park, & Weiss, 2009; Mozafari,
2005; Mozafari, 2006; Mozafari et al., 2008; Peter &
Given, 2009). This review focuses on the encapsulation
of the more widely used polyphenols, discussing their
effectiveness, variations, developments and trends.
Spray drying
Spray drying encapsulation has been used in the food in-
dustry since the late 1950s. Because spray drying is an eco-
nomical, flexible, continuous operation, and produces
particles of good quality, it is the most widely used micro-
encapsulation technique in the food industry and is typi-
cally used for the preparation of dry, stable food additives
and flavors (Desai & Park, 2005). For encapsulation pur-
poses, modified starch, maltodextrin, gum or other sub-
stances are hydrated to be used as the wall materials. The
core material for encapsulation is homogenized with the
wall materials. The mixture is then fed into a spray dryer
and atomized with a nozzle or spinning wheel. Water is
evaporated by the hot air contacting the atomized material.
The capsules are then collected after they fall to the bottom
of the drier (Gibbs et al., 1999). The typical shape of spray
dried particles is spherical, with a mean size range of
10e100 mm (Fig. 2).
One limitation of the spray-drying technology is the lim-
ited number of shell materials available, since the shell ma-
terial must be soluble in water at an acceptable level (Desai
& Park, 2005). Maltodextrins are widely used for encapsula-
tion of flavours (Bhandari, 2007), which are also used for
polyphenol encapsulation. The ethanol extracts of black car-
rots, which contain a high level of anthocyanins
(125
17.22 mg/100 g), have been spray dried using malto-
dextrins as a carrier and coating agents (Ersus & Yurdagel,
2007). High air inlet temperatures (>160e180  C) caused
greater anthocyanin losses, while the maltodextrin of
20e21 DE gave the highest anthocyanin content powder at
the end of drying process (Ersus & Yurdagel, 2007). The
maltodextrin can also be mixed with gum arabic as wall ma-
terial. A mixture of maltodextrin (60%) and gum arabic
(40%) has been used for encapsulation of procyanidins
512 Z. Fang, B. Bhandari / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 510e523
Table 1. Major polyphenols, sources and their properties.
Polyphenol groups Examples
Anthocyanidins Cyanidin, delphinidin, malvidin,
pelargonidin, peonidin, petunidin and
their glycosides.
Catechins Catechin, epicatechin, gallocatechin,
epigallocatechin and epigallocatechin
gallate
Flavanones Hesperetin, hesperidin, homoeriodictyol,
naringenin, naringin
Flavones Apigenin, luteolin, tangeritin
Flavonols Kaempferol, myricetin, quercetin and
their glycosides
Isoflavones Daidzein, genistein, glycitein
Hydroxybenzoic Gallic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic,
acids vanillic acid
Hydroxycinnamic Caffeic acid, ferulic acid, p-coumaric
acids acid, sinapic acid
Lignans Pinoresinol, podophyllotoxin,
steganacin.
Tannins Castalin, pentagalloyl glucose,
(proanthocyanidines) procyanidins
from grape seeds (Zhang, Mou, & Du, 2007). The ratio of
core substance to wall material was 30:70 w/w, while the
concentration of the slurry was 20% w/v. The encapsulation
efficiency was up to 88.84%, and the procyanidin was not
changed during drying. The stability of the products was ob-
viously improved by spray drying.
Chitosan has also been used as a wall material in spray
drying of olive leaf extract (OLE) (Kosaraju, D’ath, &
Lawrence, 2006). The loading percent of polyphenolic
compounds was 27%, and the OLE-loaded microspheres
normally had a smooth surface morphology. The FTIR
spectroscopy results indicated that the majority of the
OLE in the chitosan microsphere were physically encapsu-
lated in the chitosan matrix. Chiou and Langrish (2007) in-
troduced citrus fruit fiber as an encapsulating agent for
spray drying of bioactives extracted from Hibiscus sabdar-
iffa L. The main bioactive compounds in H. sabdariffa L.
extract are polyphenols, or more specifically, the anthocya-
nin complexes. The presence of the bioactive material in
the fibers did not appear to significantly affect the product
size or shape. The results demonstrated that natural fruit
fibers might be a potential replacement carrier for spray
drying sticky materials. This encapsulation process com-
bined two products (fruit fiber and polyphenols) into one
multipurpose functional food, creating a novel nutraceutical
product suitable for a variety of applications in functional
food manufacturing (Chiou & Langrish, 2007).
More recently, the effects of drying aids comprising col-
loidal silicon dioxide (tixosil 333), maltodextrin and starch
on spray drying of soybean extract have been studied
(Georgetti, Casagrande, Souza, Oliveira, & Fonseca,
2008). The resulting product, to which was added tixosil
Sources Properties
Fruit, flowers Natural pigments; Highly sensitive to temperature,
oxidation, pH, and lights; water soluble
Tea Sensitive to oxidation, lights and pH; astringent
and bitter; slightly soluble in water
Citrus Sensitive to oxidation, lights and pH; aglycones
insoluble but glycosides soluble in water
Fruit/vegetables Natural pigments; sensitive to oxidation and pH;
aglycones slightly soluble but glycosides soluble in water
Fruit/vegetables Sensitive to oxidation, lights and pH; aglycones slightly
soluble but glycosides soluble in water
Soybeans, Sensitive to alkaline pH; astringent and bitter; soy smell;
peanuts water soluble
Berries, tea, Sensitive to temperature, oxidation, pH, and lights; most
wheat soluble in water
Fruit, oats, rice Sensitive to oxidation and pH; Most slightly soluble
in water
Flax, sesame, Relatively stable under normal conditions; unpleasant
vegetables flavour; water soluble.
Tea, berries, Sensitive to high temperature and oxidation; astringent
wines, and bitter; water soluble
chocolate
333, showed a lower degradation of its polyphenol content
and lower reduction of its antioxidant activity, suggesting
that the correct selection of the drying excipients is an im-
portant step in guaranteeing the stability and the quality of
the finished product. The results also indicated that the inlet
gas temperature had a significant effect on the total poly-
phenol, protein and genistein contents of the dried extracts
(Georgetti et al., 2008). Another wall material successfully
used for encapsulation of polyphenol was protein-lipid (so-
dium caseinate-soy lecithin) emulsion, which has been used
in spray drying of grape seed extract, apple polyphenol ex-
tract and olive leaf extract (Kosaraju, Labbett, Emin,
Konczak, & Lundin, 2008). Optical microscopy and parti-
cle size distribution analysis indicated that the encapsulated
particles all had spherical morphology and uniform size
distribution. Radical scavenging activity studies demon-
strated a significant retention of antioxidant activity after
encapsulation by the spray-drying process (Kosaraju
et al., 2008).
Coacervation
The concept behind coacervation microencapsulation is
the phase separation of one or many hydrocolloids from
the initial solution and the subsequent deposition of the
newly formed coacervate phase around the active ingredi-
ent suspended or emulsified in the same reaction media
(Gouin, 2004). Coacervation encapsulation can be achieved
simply with only one colloidal solute such as gelatin, or
through a more complex process, for example, with gelatin
and gum acacia. Complex coacervation is usually associ-
ated with no definite forms (Fig. 2), and is considered an
expensive method for encapsulating food ingredients
 Z. Fang, B. Bhandari / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 510e523 513

Fig. 2. Illustration of the characteristics of encapsulated polyphenolic capsules produced by various encapsulation processes.

(Gouin, 2004); however, this process should be related to
the potential benefits it might offer, especially to high-
value, labile functional ingredients, such as the encapsula-
tion of polyphenols.
Yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis) extract (containing
62.11
1.16 mg of gallic acid/g yerba mate) has been en-
capsulated with two different systems: calcium alginate and
calcium alginate-chitosan (Deladino, Anbinder, Navarro,&
Martino, 2008). A high load of active compound (>85%)
was obtained in the alginate beads but in chitosan coated
beads the entrapment was lower (around 50%), on account
of the active compound being lost during immersion in
chitosan. The polyphenols can be retained in a chitosan-al-
ginate membrane, but maximum release in water was
achieved in a shorter time for chitosan coated beads than
with the alginate beads. These results implied that the
wall materials can affect the release of the natural antioxi-
dants of yerba mate.
Gelatin is a protein containing many glycine, proline and
4-hydroxyproline residues. A new type of protein/polyphe-
nol microcapsule based on ()-epigallocatechin gallate
(EGCG) and gelatin (type A), has been produced using
the layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly method (Shutava,
Balkundi, & Lvov, 2009). The first layer was a gelatin layer
514 Z. Fang, B. Bhandari / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 510e523
over the MnCO3 microcores, over which an EGCG layer
was formed by adding EGCG solution to the gelatin-coated
microparticles. The MnCO3 microcores were dissolved in
EDTA solution to form the stable (Gel A/EGCG)4 capsules.
The EGCG content of the protein/polyphenol film material
was as high as 30% w/w, while the EGCG in the LbL as-
semblies retained its antioxidant activity (Shutava,
Balkundi & Lvov, 2009).
Glucan is a polysaccharide, and also a thermoreversible
gelling agent, whose gelling behavior depends on its molec-
ular weight and concentration (Vaikousi, Biliaderis, &
Izydorczyk, 2004). During cooling of the glucan water so-
lution from 80  C to room temperature, a network structure
can be formed through an interaction of the chain segment
association and aggregated junction zones (Morgan &
Ofman, 1998). Black currant extract has been encapsulated
in glucan by simply mixing with hot dispersed glucan gel,
followed by cooling and cutting into cubes, or being drop-
ped into oil to produce a bead morphology (Xiong, Melton,
Easteal, & Siew, 2006). Recovery of 73e79% of encapsu-
lated anthocyanins was achieved using normal oven drying
to dehydrate the gel matrix. Larger amounts of anthocya-
nins were released from cubes than from beads using the
same drying process. The encapsulated anthocyanins ex-
hibited little difference as free radical scavengers, with an
increase in their reducing ability with time.
Other coacervation coating systems such as gliadin, hep-
arin/gelatin, carrageenan, soy protein, polyvinyl alcohol,
gelatin/carboxymethylcellulose, b-lactoglobulin/gum aca-
cia, and guar gum/dextran have also been studied (Gouin,
2004). However, most of the core materials in these studies
were essential oils rather than polyphenols.
Liposomes
Liposomes were first described by Bangham and co-
workers in 1965 at Cambridge University (Bangham,
Standish, & Watkins, 1965). They are colloidal particles con-
sisting of a membranous system formed by lipid bilayers en-
capsulating aqueous space(s) (Fig. 2). Owing to the
possession of both lipid and aqueous phases, liposomes
can be utilized in the entrapment, delivery, and release of wa-
ter soluble, lipid-soluble, and amphiphilic materials. The un-
derlying mechanism for the formation of liposomes and
nanoliposomes is basically a hydrophilicehydrophobic in-
teraction between phospholipids and water molecules. A ma-
jor advantage of their use is the ability to control the release
rate of the incorporated materials and deliver them to the
right place at the right time (Schäfer et al., 1992). Bioactive
agents encapsulated into liposomes can be protected from di-
gestion in the stomach, and show significant levels of absorp-
tion in the gastrointestinal tract, leading to the enhancement
of bioactivity and bioavailability (Takahashi et al., 2007).
There are several methods for producing liposomes, and
there are a number of excellent books and published re-
views that provide details of the most common production
techniques (Betageri & Kulkarni, 1999; Frezard, 1999;
Mozafari & Mortazavi, 2005; Mozafari et al., 2008;
Watwe & Bellare, 1995). A variety of liposome techniques
have been employed for the encapsulation of polyphenols.
Fan, Xu, Xia, and Zhang (2007) compared the effects of
five different liposome methods on the encapsulation of sal-
idroside e thin film evaporation, sonication, reverse phase
evaporation, melting, and freezing-thawing. Multilamellar
vesicles can be obtained by thin film evaporation, larger
unilamellar vesicles by reverse phase evaporation, and
small unilamellar vesicles by sonication or extrusion tech-
nique (Bangham et al., 1965; Cevce, 1993.). The freez-
ing-thawing treatment leads to the production of special
freezing-thawing multilamellar vesicles (Maestrelli,
Gonzalez-Rodriguez, Rabasco, & Mura, 2006). The encap-
sulating efficiency of liposomes is highest when they are
prepared by freezing-thawing, followed by thin film evapo-
ration, then reverse phase evaporation, while melting and
sonication has the lowest efficiency. Loading capacity of
salidroside can have significant effects on encapsulating
efficiency, average diameter, and z potential of liposomes.
Liposomal systems prepared by sonication, melting, and re-
verse phase evaporation, displayed better dispersivity. Sali-
droside liposomes show a slower increase in particle size
than liposomes without salidroside, suggesting salidroside
plays an important role in preventing the aggregation and
fusion of liposomes. Fan et al. (2007) illustrated that these
differences might come from the different morphologies of
liposomes prepared by different methods.
The nature of the core materials is another factor that af-
fects the efficiency of liposome encapsulation. The isomers
of (þ)-catechin and ()-epicatechin entrapped in lipo-
somes show similar encapsulation levels and release rates
(Fang, Hwang, Huang, & Fang, 2006). However, another
type of catechin, ()-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG),
has been observed to have a much higher level of encapsu-
lation for the same liposome system. EGCG contains a gal-
loyl group, indicating a greater lipophilicity. Hence it is
possible that EGCG was stronger when to locate within
the liposome bilayers, thereby increasing the entrapment.
Liposome encapsulation efficiency can be increased by
the addition of ethanol (15%) to the preparation hydration
solution (Fang, Lee, Shen, & Huang, 2006). In response,
the core material of EGCG in the liposomes showed
a high rate of encapsulation of nearly 100%, compared to
84.6% encapsulation for conventional liposome. It was
also shown that ethanolic solutions of phospholipids exhibit
high encapsulation efficiency for both hydrophilic and lipo-
philic actives (Dayan & Touitou, 2000). The liposomes
made in the presence of ethanol had a relatively small
size of 133.1 nm. The further addition of deoxycholic
acid (DA) significantly increased the size of the vesicles
to 378.2 nm. EGCG encapsulated in liposomes with ethanol
and DA gave a 20 fold increase in active deposition in basal
cell carcinomas relative to the free form (Fang et al., 2006).
The larger vesicle size of this formulation was suggested to
be the predominant factor governing this enhancement.
 Z. Fang, B. Bhandari / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 510e523
Evidence of liposomes enhancing the bioactivity and
bioavailability of polyphenols has been reported by a num-
ber of researchers. Curcumin [1,7-bis (4-hydroxy-3-me-
thoxyphenyl)-1,6-hepadiene-3,5-dion] is the principle
curcuminoid of the popular India spice turmeric, which ex-
hibits anti-HIV, antitumor, antioxidant, and anti-inflamma-
tory activities (Maheshwari, Singh, Gaddipati, & Srimal,
2006). However, curcumin is poorly absorbed from the gas-
trointestinal (GI) tract after oral administration, due to its
low water solubility and low stability against GI fluids
and/or alkaline/higher pH conditions. To enhance the bio-
availability and food functionality of curcumin, liposome-
encapsulated curcumin (LEC) can be prepared from com-
mercially available lecithins (SLP-PC70) and curcumin,
by using a microfluidizer (Takahashi, Uechi, Takara,
Asikin, & Wada, 2009). The resulting LEC is composed
of small unilamellar vesicles with a diameter of approxi-
mately 263 nm, with encapsulation efficiency for curcumin
of 68.0%. A faster rate and better absorption were observed
for LEC relative to other forms. The results indicated that
curcumin enhanced the gastrointestinal absorption by lipo-
some encapsulation, while the plasma antioxidant activity
following oral LEC was significantly higher than that of
other treatments. Another example reported was quercetin
liposomes prepared from egg phosphatidylcholine/choles-
terol (2:1) (Priprem, Watanatorn, Sutthiparinyanont,
Phachonpai, & Muchimapura, 2008). The resulting lipo-
somes were approximately 200 nm in mean particle diam-
eter with a negative surface charge and a range of
encapsulation efficiency between 60% and 80%. Both con-
ventional and quercetin liposomes have shown anxiolytic
and cognitive-enhancing effects. A lower dose (20 mg/kg
body weight day) and a faster rate of absorption were ob-
served with intranasal quercetin liposomes when compared
with oral quercetin (300 mg/kg body weight/day). The re-
sults suggested that intranasal delivery of quercetin in the
form of liposomes to the brain could allow a reduction in
the dose and thereby reduce the potential of toxicity of
the quercetin (Priprem et al., 2008).
A modified liposome system encapsulating of resveratrol
has been developed, with the encapsulated particles being
called “acoustically active lipospheres” (AALs) or “microbub-
bles” (Fang et al., 2007). The liposome is prepared using dis-
solved soybean phosphatidylcholine, cholesterol, co-
emulsifier, and resveratrol in chloroformemethanol. After
evaporation of the organic solvent and rehydration, AALs
are formed by stabilization using coconut oil and perfluorocar-
bons. The benefits of AALs are high core material loading ca-
pacity (>90%) with a small droplet size (mean diameter of
w300 nm), together an acceptable level of safety, sustained
core material release, and high sensitivity to ultrasound treat-
ment. The ultrasound sensitivity of AALs is very useful, as
they possess the potential to be “magic bullet” agents for
the delivery of core materials to precise locations in the
body, with the locations being determined by focusing the ul-
trasound energy.
515
Inclusion encapsulation
Molecular inclusion is generally achieved by using cy-
clodextrins (CDs) as the encapsulating materials. CDs are
a group of naturally occurring cyclic oligosaccharides de-
rived from starch, with six, seven or eight glucose residues
linked by a (1-4) glycosidic bonds in a cylinder-shaped
structure, and denominated as a-, b- and g-cyclodextrins,
in which b- cyclodextrin is commonly applied
(Pagington, 1986.) The external part of the cyclodextrin
molecules is hydrophilic, whereas the internal part is hy-
drophobic (Fig. 2). This structure characteristic makes
CDs a satisfactory medium for encapsulation of less polar
molecules (such as essential oils) into the apolar internal
cavity through a hydrophobic interaction (Bhandari,
D’Arcy, & Padukka, 1999; Dziezak, 1998).
One outstanding advantage of the inclusion of polyphe-
nols in CDs is the effect in improving their water solubility,
especially for the less water soluble phytochemicals. The
inclusion of hesperetin and hesperidin in (2-hydroxy-
propyl)-b-cyclodextrin (HP-b-CD) (Tommasini et al.,
2005), resveratrol in b-CD and maltosyl-b-CDs (Lucas-
Abellán, Fortea, López-Nicolás, & Núñez-Delicado, 2007),
olive leaf extract (rich in oleuropein) in b-CD (Mourtzinos,
Salta, Yannakopoulou, Chiou, & Karathanos, 2007), querce-
tin and myricetin in HP-b-CD, maltosyl-b-CDs and b-CDs,
(Lucas-Abellán, Fortea, Gabaldón, & Núñez eDelicado,
2008), kaempferol, quercetin and myricetin in HP-b-CD
(Mercader-Ros, Lucas-Abellán, Fortea, Gabaldón, &
Núñez-Delicado, 2010), 3-hydroxyflavone (3-OHeF),
morin and quercetin in a- and b-CDs (Calabrò et al.,
2004), rutin in b-CD (Ding, Chao, Zhang, Shuang, & Pan,
2003) have been studied, and their water solubilities im-
proved by inclusion encapsulation. In addition, their antiox-
idant activities all increased in these CDs encapsulated
systems. The improved antioxidant efficacy of the inclusion
complex may come from the protection of the polyphenols
against rapid oxidation by free radicals (Mercader-Ros
et al., 2010), which may in part be explained by an increase
in their solubility in the biological moiety (Ding et al., 2003).
The encapsulation efficacy of CDs inclusion is affected
by the core materials. Generally, the higher the hydropho-
bicity and smaller the molecule is, the greater the affinity
for the CDs. For example, based on their relative CDs affin-
ity, hesperetin was more effective than hesperidin
(Tommasini et al., 2005), and 3-OHeF was more effective
than morin or quercetin (Calabrò et al., 2004). On the other
hand, different wall materials affect the encapsulation ca-
pacity for the same core material. For example, a number
of studies have been reported on the encapsulation of cur-
cumin in different CD variants (Tang, Ma, Wang, &
Zhang, 2002; Tomren, Masson, Loftsson, & Tonnesen,
2007; Tonnesen, Masson, & Loftsson, 2002). It has been
shown that HP-b-CD has the highest encapsulation capacity
for curcumin (Tomren et al., 2007). For the core materials
of quercetin and myricetin, the affinity to CDs was HP-
b-CD > maltosyl-b-CDs > b-CDs, reflecting the greater
516 Z. Fang, B. Bhandari / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 510e523
affinity of modified cyclodextrins (Lucas-Abellán, Fortea,
& Gabaldón, 2008)
To illustrate the structures of polyphenol-CD inclusion
complexes, some advanced analytical instruments were ap-
plied. The spatial configuration of the complex of rutin with
b-CD has been proposed, based on NMR and molecular mod-
eling (Ding et al., 2003), which revealed that the binding site
for rutin is a single ring of rutin molecule penetrating into the
b-CD cavity in the shallow position, forming a 1:1 inclusion
complex. This structure can be confirmed by 1H NMR and cir-
cular dichroism spectroscopy (Calabrò et al., 2005). The struc-
ture of the inclusion complex of ferulic acid (FA) with a-CD
has been analyzed by rotating frame nuclear overhouser effect
spectroscopy (ROESY) (Anselmi et al., 2008). Based on this
technology and modeling simulation, the insertion of the FA
into the lipophilic interior of a-CD involves the -COOH and
a, b-unsaturated groups and part of its aromatic moiety. The
phenol and methoxyl groups of FA lie on the plane of the wider
rim. This encapsulation increases the photo-stability of FA,
slows FA release, and would provide safer and longer-lasting
protection of the skin against solar radiation, if applied in cos-
metic formulations (Anselmi et al., 2008)
With the exception of CDs, other types of biopolymers
have been employed in the molecular inclusion of polyphe-
nols, such as curcumin being encapsulated in hydrophobi-
cally modified starch (HMS) (Yu & Huang, 2010). The
complexed curcumin showed a 1670 fold increase in solu-
bility, possibly reflecting the hydrophobic interaction and
hydrogen bonding between curcumin and HMS. The encap-
sulated curcumin revealed enhanced in vitro anti-cancer ac-
tivity compared to the free form.
Cocrystallization
Co-crystallization is an encapsulation process in which the
crystalline structure of sucrose is modified from a perfect to an
irregular agglomerated crystal, to provide a porous matrix in
which a second active ingredient can be incorporated (Chen,
Veiga, & Rizzuto, 1988). Spontaneous crystallization of super-
saturated sucrose syrup is achieved at high temperature (above
120  C) and low moisture (95e97  Brix). If a second ingredi-
ent is added at the same time, the spontaneous crystallization
results in the incorporation of the second ingredient into the
void spaces inside the agglomerates of the microsized crystals
(Fig. 2), with a size less than 30 mm (Bhandari, Datta, D’Arcy,
& Rintoul, 1998). The main advantages of cocrystallization
are improved solubility, wettability, homogeneity, dispersibil-
ity, hydration, anticaking, stability and flowability of the en-
capsulated materials (Beristain, Vázquez, Garcı́a, & Vernon-
Carter, 1996). Other advantages are that the core materials
in a liquid form can be converted to a dry powdered form
without additional drying, and the products offer direct tablet-
ing characteristics because of their agglomerated structure,
and thus offer significant advantages to the candy and pharma-
ceutical industries (Desai & Park, 2005).
Deladino, Anbinder, Navarro, and Martino (2007) re-
ported on the encapsulation of yerba mate (I. paraguariensis)
extract containing caffeoyl derivatives and flavonoids, by
cocrystallization in a supersaturated sucrose solution. The
co-crystallized product had a typically cluster-like agglom-
erate structure with void spaces and a sucrose crystal size
varying between 2 and 30 mm. An extra layer of a network
with neat edges covered the crystals. The microstructure
was further confirmed by differential scanning calorimetry,
X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy
(Deladino, Navarro, & Martino, 2010). The cocrystallization
of yerba mate extract changed it from a cohesive material to
be a non-cohesive product, and notably reduced its hygro-
scopic characteristics without affecting its high solubility;
this demonstrated that cocrystallization is a good alternative
for the preservation and handling of yerba mate extract for
further application in food products. There have been very
few reports of the application of the cocrystallization
process.
Nanoencapsulation
Nanoencapsulation involves the formation of active-
loaded particles with diameters ranging from 1 to
1000 nm (Reis, Neufeld, Ribeiro, & Veiga, 2006). The
term nanoparticle is a collective name for both nano-
spheres and nanocapsules. Nanospheres have a matrix
type of structure. Actives may be absorbed at the sphere
surface or encapsulated within the particle. Nanocapsules
are vesicular systems in which the active is confined to
a cavity consisting of an inner liquid core surrounded by
a polymeric membrane (Fig. 2) (Couvreur, Dubernet, &
Puisieux, 1995). The active substances are usually dis-
solved in the inner core but may also be adsorbed to the
capsule surface (Allémann, Gurny, & Doekler, 1993). It
is proposed that any target actives, while incorporated
into a complex of polymers, which result in nanoscale-
sized particles, might be called ‘encapsulated nanopar-
ticles’. Compared to micron-sized particles, nanoparticles
provide a greater surface area and have the potential to in-
crease solubility due to a combination of large interfacial
adsorption of the core compound, enhanced bioavailabil-
ity, improved controlled release, which enable better pre-
cision targeting of the encapsulated materials (Mozafari
et al., 2008). A variety of techniques have been employed
to develop polyphenol nanoparticles.
Barras et al. (2009) describe the loading of quercetin and
EGCG by lipid nanocapsules (LNC) through the applica-
tion of the phase inversion process. Briefly, the actives
were mixed in the oil phase prior to preparation. Soybean
lecithin, surfactant, NaCl and distilled water were then
mixed and heated to form a W/O emulsion. The mixture
was cooled, and distilled cold water (0  C) added, with stir-
ring to form O/W nanocapsules. The benefits of this method
are that the average volume sizes of particles are a function
of the formulation composition, which means the LNC size
can be tailored by formulation design. The higher encapsu-
lated quercetin LNC increased its apparent aqueous solubil-
ity by a factor of 100. The encapsulated quercetin and
 Z. Fang, B. Bhandari / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 510e523
()-EGCG have proved to be more stable compared to the
free ones.
The nanoprecipitation technique has been used for cur-
cumin entrapment, based on poly (lactide-co-glycolide)
(PLGA) and a stabilizer polyethylene glycol (PEG)-5000
(Anand et al., 2010). The nanoprecipitation technique in-
volves three steps: First, the target actives and a polymer
are mixed in an organic solution; second, the mixture is
added, drop wise, to an aqueous solution, normally contain-
ing a surfactant; third, the resulting dispersion of nanopar-
ticles is vacuum evaporated to eliminate the organic
solvent, and then centrifuged or filtered to obtain the parti-
cles. In the case of curcumin-loaded nanoparticles, the en-
capsulation efficiency was reported to have reached 97.5%,
with the particle diameter being about 80.9 nm, which en-
hanced its cellular uptake, and increased in vitro bioactivity,
resulting in superior in vivo bioavailability over free curcu-
min (Anand et al., 2010). Other quercetin loaded nanopar-
ticles were developed by using a similar technique, with
a particle size of <85 nm, and encapsulation efficiency of
over 99% (Wu et al., 2008). The encapsulated active of
quercetin might have an amorphous state, which formed in-
termolecular hydrogen bonding with carriers. The release
of the nanoparticals was 74-fold times higher when com-
pared with the pure active, and possessed more effective an-
tioxidant activities.
A method based on the concept of emul-
sionediffusioneevaporation, using polyethylene glycol
(PEG) 400 as a co-solvent, has been applied on ellagic
acid (EA) loaded PLGA nanoparticles (Bala, Bhardwaj,
Hariharan, Kharade, Roy, & Ravi Kumar, 2006). Didode-
cyldimethylammomium bromide (DMAB) and polyvinyl
alcohol (PVA), alone and in combination with chitosan
(CS), were used as the stabilizer. The basis of this technique
is as follows: the stirring of the EA-PLGA-PEG 400 mix-
ture causes the dispersion of the solvent in the form of ir-
regularly sized droplets in equilibrium with the
continuous phase, while the stabilizer is adsorbed on to
the larger interface, thereby creating the first emulsion
stage; then, the homogenization results in smaller droplets
with more homogenous size distribution; the addition of
water and subsequent heating destabilizes the equilibrium
and causes the organic solvent to diffuse into the aqueous
phase and then out of the system, leading to precipitation
of the polymer along with the active as very small particles
(Kumar, Bakowsky, & Lehr, 2004). The initial release of
EA from nanoparticles in pH 7.4 phosphate buffer is rapid,
followed by a slower sustained release. An in situ intestinal
permeability study in rats showed a higher uptake of active
encapsulated in nanoparticles prepared using PVA,
PVAeCS blend and DMAB as stabilizers, than pure active
(Bala et al., 2006).
Resveratrol is incorporated into amphiphilic copolymers
of mPEGePCL (methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(cap-
rolactone)), with an active loading content of
19.4
2.4% and an encapsulation efficiency of >90%
517
(Shao et al., 2009). The mPEGePCL based nanoparticles
are composed of a hydrophilic segment and a hydrophobic
segment, which are capable of loading the target active by
self assembling into nanoscale spherical structures with
a hydrophilic outer shell and a hydrophobic inner core
(Liu et al., 2008). In this way, lipophilic actives can be en-
trapped into the hydrophobic core of the nanosphere, while
its hydrophilic outer shell is maintained as a stabilizer for
the system. Other actives with lipophilicity can also be in-
corporated into this nanoparticle system to enhance their
bioavailability.
Tea catechins have been successfully encapsulated in chi-
tosan- tripolyphosphate (CS-TPP) nanoparticles using a sim-
ple ionotropic gelation method (Hu et al., 2008). By
controlling the critical fabricating parameters of the CS mo-
lecular mass, CS concentration, and CS-TPP mass ratio, de-
sirable CS-TPP nanoparticles can be spontaneously formed
when the freshly prepared CS solution containing tea cate-
chins is added with TPP solution, while stirring at room tem-
perature (Hu et al., 2008). In comparison with this simple
method, a relatively complicated method has been developed
for the encapsulation of polyphenols of EGCG, tannic acid,
curcumin, and theaflavin (Shutava, Balkundi, Vangala et al.,
2009). First, gelatin nanoparticles are prepared using a two-
step desolvation method. These particles are then further
encapsulated in polyelectrolytes using a layer-by-layer shell
assembly method. Finally, the polyphenols are loaded into
the prepared nanoparticles by adsorption under certain pH
values. The adsorption of polyphenols to the nanoparticles
depends on the chemical nature of the molecules. Adsorption
of polyphenols with higher molecular weights and a larger
number of phenolic -OH groups was found to be higher.
The amount of theaflavin, the polyphenol with the highest
molecular weight among those investigated, was as high as
70% of the mass of nanoparticle solid material. Loading of
tannic acid and EGCG is lower, while it is almost negligible
for curcumin (Shutava, Balkundi, Vangala et al., 2009).
Freeze drying
Freeze drying, also known as lyophilization or cryode-
siccation, is a process used for the dehydration of almost
all heat-sensitive materials and aromas. Freeze-drying
works by freezing the material and then reducing the sur-
rounding pressure and adding enough heat, to allow the fro-
zen water in the material to sublimate directly from the
solid phase to the gas phase (Oetjen & Haseley, 2004). En-
capsulation by freeze drying is achieved as the core
materials homogenize in matrix solutions and then co-ly-
ophilize, usually resulting in uncertain forms (Fig. 2).
Except for the long dehydration period required (generally
20 h), freeze-drying is a simple technique for encapsulating
water-soluble essences and natural aromas, as well as drugs
(Desai & Park, 2005). Freeze dried samples of pomace con-
taining anthocyanin and maltodextrin DE20 have shown
good shelf life stability during storage at 50  C/0.5 water
activity for up to two months (Delgado-Vargas, Jimenez,
518 Z. Fang, B. Bhandari / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 510e523
& Pardes-Lopez, 2000). Recently, Laine, Kylli, Heinonen,
and Jouppila (2008) encapsulated phenolic-rich cloudberry
extract by freeze drying, using maltodextrins DE5-8 and
DE18.5 as wall materials. The microencapsulated cloud-
berry extract offered better protection for phenolics during
storage, while the antioxidant activity remained the same or
even improved slightly.
However, there is also some evidence of freeze drying
induced encapsulation being unable to improve stability
or bioactivity. When Hibisus anthocyanin extract was en-
capsulated in pullulan by freeze drying, it was only when
samples stored at higher relative humidity levels
(aw>0.75) that the free anthocyanins showed w1.5e1.8
times faster degradation than the pullulan-anthocyanin co-
lyophilized materials (Gradinaru, Biliaderis, Kallithraka,
Kefalas, & Garcia-Viguera, 2003). Obviously, this was
not a big difference. Furthermore, both free and co-lyophi-
lized with pullulan, Hibiscus anthocyanins exhibited good
antiradical activity throughout storage, and no significant
differences were observed between them, suggesting that
the encapsulation might not be necessary if the Hibisus an-
thocyanin extract is to be freeze dried.
Yeast encapsulation
Encapsulation of essential oils and flavours by using yeast
cells (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) as wall material have
proven to to be a low cost, high volume process (Bishop,
Nelson, & Lamb, 1998). Yeast encapsulation depends on
the yeast cells, which allow the actives to pass freely through
the cell wall and membrane, while remaining passively
within the cells (Fig. 2). Encapsulation by yeast cells can
control the diffusion of actives through the cell wall and
membrane, using a defined temperature and time, in
a pre-determined solution mix, with the wall of the yeast cells
providing protection of the liquid active ingredients against
evaporation, extrusion, oxidation and light (MICAP PLC,
2004).This technology has been typically used for encapsu-
lation of small lipophilic molecules such as essential oils.
The yeast cells have proved to be able to absorb and re-
tain water-soluble flavor compounds when pre-treated with
a plasmolyser (Serozym Laboratories, 1973). This tech-
nique has been adopted in water soluble polyphenol encap-
sulation. After treatment with 5% sodium chloride at 54  C
for 24 h for autolysis, the yeast cells can be used to encap-
sulate water soluble polyphenol of chlorogenic acid, with
an encapsulation efficiency of 12.6% (Shi et al., 2007).
The yeast encapsulated chlorogenic acid was found to be
highly stable under wet and thermal stresses, with the re-
lease profiles suggesting that the yeast cells could prevent
chlorogenic acid from change, without significantly slow-
ing down the release. Another obvious benefit of this tech-
nique is that no additives apart from water, yeast and core
materials are used during processing, thereby ensuring its
safety in the food industries (Blanquet et al., 2005).
Emulsions
Emulsion technology is generally applied for the encapsu-
lation of bioactives in aqueous solutions, which can either be
used directly in the liquid state or can be dried to form powders
(e.g., by spray, roller, or freeze drying) after emulsification.
Therefore it is actually a part of encapsulation process. Basi-
cally, an emulsion consists of at least two immiscible liquids,
usually as oil and water, with one of the liquids being dis-
persed as small spherical droplets in the other (Friberg,
Larsson, & Sjoblom, 2004; McClements, 2005). Typically,
the diameters of the droplets in food systems range from 0.1
to100 mm (McClements et al., 2009). Emulsions can be clas-
sified according to the spatial organization of the oil and water
phases. A system that consists of oil droplets dispersed in an
aqueous phase is called an oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion,
whereas a system that consists of water droplets dispersed
in an oil phase is called a water-in-oil (W/O) emulsion
(Fig. 2). With the exception of the simple O/W or W/O sys-
tems, various types of multiple emulsions can be developed,
such as oil-in-water-in-oil (O/W/O) or water-in-oil-in-water
(W/O/W) emulsions (Benichou, Aserin, & Garti, 2004; van
der Graaf, Schroen, & Boom, 2005). To obtain a kinetically
stable solution, stabilizers such as emulsifiers or texture mod-
ifiers, are commonly added in the emulsion systems. The use
of this technology for delivering food components and nutri-
ceuticals has been comprehensively reviewed by Augustin
and Hemar (2009), Flanagan and Singh (2006) and
McClements et al. (2009).
A US patent named “functional emulsions”, relates to
dissolved polyphenols in ethanol (polyglycerol oleic acid
ester added), which are then stirred with vegetable
oil in a homogenizer, or emulsified, to obtain E/O type or
E/O/W type emulsions (Nakajima, Nabetani, Ichikawa, &
Xu, 2003). These emulsions can be used in pharmaceutical,
nutriceutical or food industries as polyphenol delivery sys-
tems. Naturally these polyphenols are insoluble or have low
solubility in water and oil, so the obvious advantage of
these emulsions is that they contain a high concentration
of polyphenols. Most recent researches in relation to poly-
phenol emulsions have been used for the reduction of lipid
oxidation or increase lipid stability. In one study, after dis-
solving Tween 20 in water containing lyophilized tea infu-
sion and bovine serum albumin (BSA), sunflower oil (from
which tocopherols has been removed) was added dropwise
to the aqueous sample in an ice bath and sonicated for
5 min (Almajano, Carbó, Jiménez, & Gordon, 2008). The
W/O emulsions containing tea extracts have shown strong
antioxidant activity against oil oxidation. Another W/O
emulsion prepared by the same research group using a sim-
ilar method but containing caffeic acid as an antioxidant
and Fe (III) as a pro-oxidant ion, also noted the antioxidant
activity of caffeic acid (Almajano, Carbó, Delgado, &
Gordon, 2007). However, when different polyphenols
were used in the W/O emulsions, their antioxidant activities
showed different characteristics. In the Tween 20-phos-
phate buffer-olive oil emulsion system, gallic acid can
 Z. Fang, B. Bhandari / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 510e523 519

Table 2. Technologies for encapsulation of polyphenols.

Encapsulation Technologies Polyphenols References

Spray Drying
Wall materials:
Maltodextrins black carrot extracts (anthocyanins) Ersus & Yurdagel, 2007
Maltodextrin and gum arabic procyanidins Zhang et al., 2007
Chitosan olive leaf extract Kosaraju et al., 2006
Citris fruit fiber Hibiscus sabdariffa L. extract Chiou & Langrish, 2007
(anthocyanins)
Colloidal silicon dioxide, maltodextrin and starch soybean extract Georgetti et al., 2008
Sodium caseinate-soy lecithin grape seed extract, apple polyphenol Kosaraju et al., 2008
extract and olive leaf extract
Coacervation
Wall materials:
Calcium alginate and calcium alginateechitosan yerba mate extract Deladino, Anbinder, Navarro, &
Martino, 2008
Gelatin (type A) EGCG Shutava et al., 2009a
Glucan black currant extract Xiong et al., 2006
Liposome
Specific methods:
Thin film evaporation, sonication, reverse phase salidroside Fan et al., 2007
evaporation, melting, and freezing-thawing
Thin film evaporation (þ)-catechin, ()-epicatechin, EGCG Fang, Hwang, Huang, & Fang C.-C, 2006a
Using microfluidizer curcumin Takahashi et al., 2009
Lipid thin film formation and extrusion quercetin Priprem et al., 2008
Thin film evaporation and sonication resveratrol Fan et al., 2007
Inclusion encapsulation
Wall materials:
HP-b-CD hesperetin and hesperidin Tommasini et al., 2005
b-CD and maltosyl-b-CDs resveratrol Lucas-Abellán et al., 2007
b-CD olive leaf extract (rich in oleuropein) Mourtzinos et al., 2007
HP-b-CD, maltosyl-b-CDs and b-CDs quercetin and myricetin Lucas-Abellán et al., 2008
HP-b-CD kaempferol, quercetin and myricetin Mercader-Ros et al., 2010
a- and b-CDs 3-hydroxyflavone, morin and quercetin Calabrò et al., 2004
b-CD rutin Ding et al., 2003
HP- b-CD curcumin Tomren et al., 2007
HP- b-CD, maltosyl-b-CDs, b-CDs, quercetin and myricetin Lucas-Abellán et al., 2008
b-CD rutin Ding et al., 2003
a-CD ferulic acid Anselmi et al., 2008
hydrophobically modified starch curcumin Yu & Huang, 2010
Cocrystallization
Yerba mate extract Deladino et al., 2007
Freeze drying
Wall materials:
Maltodextrin DE20 anthocyanin Delgado-Vargas et al., 2000
Maltodextrins DE 5-8 and DE18.5 cloudberry extract Laine et al., 2008
Pullulan Hibisus anthocyanin Gradinaru et al., 2003
Nanoencapsulation
Specific methods:
Phase inversion quercetin and EGCG Barras et al., 2009
Nanoprecipitation curcumin Anand et al., 2010
Nanoprecipitation quercetin Wu et al., 2008
Emulsionediffusioneevaporation ellagic acid Bala et al., 2006
Amphiphilic copolymers resveratrol Shao et al., 2009
Ionotropic gelation tea catechins Hu et al., 2008
Adsorption to prepared nanoparticles EGCG, tannic acid, curcumin, Shutava et al., 2009b
(layer-by-layer assembly) and theaflavin
Yeast cells
chlorogenic acid Shi et al., 2007
Emulsions
Systems:
Tween 20-BSA- Fe (III)- sunflower oil O/W emulsion caffeic acid Almajano et al., 2007
Tween 20-BSA- sunflower oil O/W emulsion Tea extract Almajano et al., 2008
Tween 20-phosphate buffer-olive oil O/W emulsion Gallic acid, catechin, quercetin Di Mattia et al., 2009
520 Z. Fang, B. Bhandari / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 510e523
stabilise the colloidal properties towards physical instabil-
ity, while showing low activity towards secondary oxida-
tion. Catechin showed an interfacial localisation which
was reflected in the enhancement of primary oxidation
and in the inhibition of secondary oxidation. Quercetin
was poorly partitioned in the aqueous phase and had no ef-
fect on slowing down the bimolecular phase of auto-oxida-
tion (Di Mattia, Sacchetti, Mastrocola, & Pittia, 2009).
These results suggested that not only polarity but also anti-
oxidant activity, can affect the polyphenol protective role
towards lipids auto-oxidation in emulsions.
Summary and trends
The abundant work on encapsulation of polyphenols is
summarized in this paper. The characteristics of capsules
produced by the various encapsulation processes are illus-
trated in Fig. 2, which also shows that the different morphol-
ogies can be achieved by these techniques. All of the work
reported and summarized in this paper, has been undertaken
since the year 2000 (Table 2), with the research and related
reporting indicating the current worldwide interest in the
subject. From the literature, it is clear that the utilization
of encapsulated polyphenols instead of free compounds,
can lead to improvements in both the stability and bioavail-
ability of the compounds in vivo and in vitro, and optimize
routes for their administration. Although most of the encap-
sulation technologies employed for other chemicals have
been adopted in polyphenol encapsulation, there are still
some technologies not being applied for these special phyto-
chemicals, including spray cooling/chilling, spinning disk
and centrifugal coextrusion, extrusion and fluidized bed.
However, this does not necessary mean that these technolo-
gies are not suitable for polyphenol encapsulation.
Because there is still a lack of direct evidence for the use
of polyphenols in preventing and treating of human dis-
eases (Scalbert, Manach et al., 2005), most of the polyphe-
nol encapsulated particles are classified as ‘functional
foods’ or ‘nutriceuticals’, which limits their potential mar-
kets. In food grade products, cost is an important factor for
their industrialization. Yeast encapsulation of chlorogenic
acid is an example of a successful low cost but high volume
processing (Shi et al., 2007). Future research of polyphenol
encapsulation is likely to focus on aspects of delivery and
the potential use of co-encapsulation methodologies, where
two or more bioactive ingredients can be combined to have
a synergistic effect. It can be foreseen that, with a deep un-
derstanding of the health benefits of polyphenols, improve-
ments in manufacturing technologies, new strategies for
stabilization of fragile nutraceuticals, and the development
of novel approaches to site-specific carrier targeting, encap-
sulated polyphenols will play an important role in increas-
ing the efficacy of functional foods or even
pharmaceuticals, over the next decade.
Acknowledgement
This work is supported by the Postdoctoral Research
Fellowship of The University of Queensland. The authors
thank Dr John Schiller for his professional proof reading.
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