• Climate:

Integration in time of the Physical state of the atmospheric conditions, characteristic feature of a
certain geographic location.

• Weather:

Integration in time with the momentary state of Atmospheric conditions at a certain location

1. Macro climatology:

It is concerned with features of climates of large areas of the earth and the large scale
atmospheric motions that cause the climate;

2. Meso climatology:

It is concerned with the study of climate over relatively small areas of between 10-100km across (e.g. the
study of urban climate or severe local weather systems like tornadoes and thunderstorms); and

3. Microclimatology:

It is concerned with the study of the climate close to the ground’s surface or very small areas less than
100 meters across

1. Solar radiation

a. quality

b. quantity

2. Tilt of earth’s axis

3. Radiation at earth surface

4. Earth’s thermal balance

5. Wind – Thermal force

a. Trade wind (coriolis force)

b. Mid latitude westerlies

c. Polar wind

6. Annual shift of wind

7. Influence of topography
1 .a. Solar Radiation Quality

• Earth receives all form of energy from sun in form of radiation.

• Spectrum of solar radiation extends from 290nm- 2300nm.

1. Ultra-violet radiation, 290 to 380nm, producing bleaching, sun-burn,etc

2. Visible light, 380 to 700nm

3. Short infra-red radiation- 700 to 2300nm- radiant heat with photo chemical effect.

• Spectral energy distribution varies with altitude- due to filtering effect of atmosphere.

• Short wavelength reradiated as long infra red upto 10,000nm

• The value of 100 lumens/watt can be taken for solar radiation and this would give an illumination
of 100 lux for every W/m2 or 100000 lux for every KW/m2

1. b. Solar Radiation Quantity

• Intensity of radiation reaching upper surface of atmosphere is taken as Solar Constant

• Solar constant: Intensity of solar radiation reaching the upper surface of earth atmosphere
1395W/m2.

• Varies +/- 2% due to sun itself and varies +/-3.5% due to earth-sun distance.

Earth moves around sun in elliptical orbit. It takes 365 days, 5 hours, 48 min and 46 sec to complete one
revolution

2. Tilt of earth’s axis

3. Radiation at earth’s surface

1. Cosine Law of Angle of Incidence

The intensity of
solar radiation on a horizontal or tilted surface equals the normal intensity times the cosine of the angle of
incidence.

Now,    Cos "X"       =   B/C

And     Area C        <   Area B
Ergo:   Intensity C   >   Intensity B
So,     Intensity C   =   Intensity B x Cos "X"

2. Atmospheric depletion

a. Absorption of radiation by ozone, vapours and dust particles in the atmosphere.

b. Lower the solar altitude angle, longer the path of radiation through the atmosphere. Thus
smaller part reaches earth surface.

3. Duration of sunshine: length of daylight

period

Earth thermal balance

 Total amount of heat absorbed by earth each year is balanced by sufficient heat loss.

 Without which the thermal balance of earth could not be maintained.

 Earth surface release heat by three processes:

1. By long wave radiation to cold outer space

2. By evaporation - earth’s surface is cooled as liquid water change into vapour and mixes with air.
 3. By convection – air heated by contact with warm earth surface becomes lighter and rises to the
upper atmosphere, where it dissipate its heat to space.

 Land and sea breezes

 During the day, the land heats up faster than the water, so a breeze will blow from the sea
to the land, called a sea breeze.

 At night, the land will cool off faster than the water, so the cool land air will flow toward
the warmer ocean water air, creating a land breeze, where the wind blows from the land
to the sea
  Mountain and Valley Breezes

 During the day, the valley heats up, so the warm less dense air flows up the mountain,
creating a valley breeze

 At night, the mountain will cool off faster than the valley, so the cool mountain air
descends because it is more dense, creating a mountain breeze

Elements of climate

Temperature
Measurement:

o Temperature of air is measured in degree Celsius with mercury thermometer.

o Dry- bulb /true air temperature is value taken in shade.

o Thermometer mounted inside louvered wooden box known as ‘Stevenson Screen’ @ ht of 1.20
to 1.80m above Ground.

o If max and min thermometer is used, one reading daily give the momentary temp & max and min
temp reached in past 24 hr.
DATA REQUIRED:

o Monthly mean temperature for each of 12 month. Average taken between

each day max and min and then average of 30 days average is found

o To give indication of diurnal variations – Monthly mean Maxima and Minima

will be calculated. This will establish Monthly Mean Range of Temperatures.

o Monthly extreme maxima and minima to establish Monthly Extreme range of

Temperature.

These 5 value for 12 month give reasonable correct temperature condition.

Humidity
Measurement:

o Humidity of air described as absolute humidity(AH). i.e amount of moisture

actually present in air

o Amount of moisture the air hold known as saturation point humidity depend

on its temperature.

o Relative humidity = AH/SH x 100 (%)

o Humidity is measured with wet & dry bulb hygrometer. Consist of 2 thermometer

o One measures DBT. Second one covered with gauge kept wet measure WBT.

o WBT less than DBT b’coz in dry air evaporation is faster.

DATA:

To know the prevailing humidity condition the following data should be established

o Monthly Mean Maximum

for Each Of 12 Month

o Monthly Mean Minimum

RH Value For Each Of 12 Month

o Reading Will Be Taken Before

Sunrise @ 6 AM (Max)and 3 PM (Min)

Vapour pressure
Another indication of atmospheric humidity is vapour pressure, i.e. partial

pressure of water vapour in air.

Atmospheric pressure(P) is sum of partial pressure of dry air (Ps) and partial vapour

Pressure(Pv). P=Ps + Pv.

RH can also be expressed as ratio of actual vapour pressure to saturation point

Vapour pressure. RH = AH/SH x 100 = P v/P vs x 100 (%)

Precipitation
o Precipitation is any form of water that falls to the

Earth's surface. Different forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain,hail, snow, sleet, and freezing rain.

o Precipitation is important because it helps maintain

the atmospheric balance..
 o Measured by rain gauge & expressed in mm/month or mm/day.

o values indicating total precipitation for each month of the year show the dry and wet season.

o Ever recorded max and min gives deviation from average.

o max rainfall for any 24 hr period is useful for predication of flooding

o for designing surface drainage, roof, paved area and gutter max hourly rainfall intensity should
be known.

Driving rain
o Rain associated with strong wind - Driving rain

o Driving rain index is the product of annual rainfall (in m) and annual average wind

Velocity ( in m/sec). Thus its dim is sqm/sec.

o Upto 3sqm/sec – location is considered as ‘ sheltered’

o If the exposure is between 3sqm/sec to 7 sqm/sec then it is ‘moderate’.

o Location is considered ‘severe’ if over 7sqm/sec.

o the actual rain penetration will depend on instantaneous rain intensity and

wind velocity.

SKY CONDITION
o Sky condition usually described in terms of presence or absence of clouds.

o Min of two observation will be made per day & proportion of sky covered by

cloud is expressed as percentage

o It will be useful to know the time of day and frequency of observation.

o A single average figure giving sky condition for a typical day of a month may

hide significant difference. Eg. Between morning and noon condition which affect
the design of roof , overhangs and shading device.

o Sky luminance value are needed if day lighting in building is to be predicted.

Solar radiation
o Sunshine recorder will record the duration of sunshine . Expressed in no of

hours/day, as an average for each month.

o Other instruments used for quantitative recording of solar radiation – solarimeter,

Heliometer, actinometer and pyranometer.

o Accepted international standard (SI) unit is watt/sqm. Ie incidence of energy in

Joules/sqm of surface/sec.

o Total radiation received over a long period , eg one day will be expressed in

J/SQM day

DATA:

o Average daily amount of solar radiation for each month of the year will

give indication of climatic condition including seasonal variation.

o For detailed design, hourly totals for typical day of each month or typically

High/low radiation day of the year must be known.

o US Weather bureau collect recordings of solar radiation intensity from all

Countries of the world.

WIND
Measurement:
 o Wind velocity is measured by cup type /propeller anemometer and direction by

Wind vane.

o An Anemograph can produce continuous recordings of wind velocity and

directional changes.

o Wind velocity normally recorded in open flat ground at ht of 10m and in urban

area at ht of 10 to 20m

o Velocities are measured in m/s. a wind force scale developed based on visual

observation is still in use.

DATA:

o Designer must identify whether there is prevailing direction of winds, whether daily

or seasonal shift occur and whether there is considerable pattern of daily or

seasonal velocities. & the calm period of each month.

o All observation record the occurrence of storms, hurricanes or typhoons

Special characteristics

o Most region experience unfavorable condition such as hail and thunder-storms,

Earthquakes and dust storms

o Such event are rare but it is very important to record their frequency, likely

duration and nature.

o The designer must classify rare events into those which affect human comfort

and those which may endanger the safety of building and lives of inhabitants

Vegetation
Warm humid Warm humid island

Zone Belt near equator ext to 15deg N & S Island within equatorial belt & in trade wind zone

Ex cities Lagos, dar-es-salam,colombo, Singapore, Caribbeans, Philippines & other island group in pacifi
Jakarta ocean.

Air temperature DBT-27 degC to 32 deg C DBT- day time 29 to 32 deg C. night time minima as
18 deg C. normally 24 deg C. diurnal range rarely mor
At night 21- 27 deg C 8 deg C. annual range
Diurnal & annual range of temp are narrow 14 deg C

Humidity RH – remain high @ 75%, vary from 55% to RH – 55% to 100%. Vapour pressure- 1750 to
100%. Vp 2500 – 3000 N/sqM
2500 N/sqm

Precipitation High throughout year. Annual rainfall – 2000- High as 1250 to 1800mm/annum, 200 – 250mm in we
5000mm, 500mm in 1 mon- wettest month. month.
Severe storm 100mm/h for short period.

Sky condition Fairly cloudy throughout the year. Cloud cover Normally clear or filled with broken clouds of high
60% - 90%. Bright sky with luminance of brightness ,except during storms – skies are dark & du
7000cd/sqm- dull sky Clear sky with luminance – 1700 to 2500cd/sqm

850 cd/sqm

Solar radiation Partly reflected & partly scattered by cloud Strong and direct with small diffuse component , when
blanket-so radiation reaching GD is diffuse but clear. It also varies with cloud cover
strong – cause painful glare.

Cloud & vapour prevent reradiating thus heat is

not dissipated soon.
 o Vegetation can influence local or site climate. It is a important element in design of

Outdoor space for providing sun-shading and protection from glare.

Classification of climate

The basic of this classification is given by two atmospheric factors that influence

Human comfort

1. Air temperature

2. Humidity

The tropical regions of earth are divided into three major climatic zones and

three sub – groups.

i. Warm humid equatorial climate –sub group: warm humid island or

trade wind climate

ii. Hot dry desert climate – sub group: hot dry maritime desert climate

ii. Composite or monsoon climate - sub group : tropical upland climate

Warm humid Warm humid island

Wind Velocities are low, clam period are Predominant trade wind blow at 6 to 7 m/s .
frequent. Strong wind occur during Provide relief from heat and humidity. Much
rain squalls. Gusts of 30m/s are higher velocity during cyclones.
experienced.

Vegetation Grow quickly due to frequent rains and Is less dense and of lighter green colour . Varies
high temperature. Difficult to control with the rainfall. Sunlight reflected from light
colored coral, sand and rock are bright. Soil is dry
Red or brown laterite soil poor for with low water table.
agriculture. Plant supporting organic
substance and mineral salts are washed
by rain. Sub soil water level is high.
Little light reflected from ground
Special High humidity accelerate mould and Tropical cyclones or hurricanes with wind
characteristic algal growth, rusting and rotting. velocities from 45 to 70m/s, which constitute a
Organic building material decay seasonal hazard. The high salt content of the
rapidly. Mosquitoes and other insects atmosphere lead to corrosion in coastal area .
abound. Thunder storm accompanied
by frequent air to air electrical
discharges.

Hot dry desert Hot dry maritime desert

Zone Latitude between 15 and 30 deg N & Occur in same latitude belts as the hot- dry desert
S of equator climates, where sea adjoins a large land mass.
This is the most unfavorable climate of earth.

Ex cities Assuan, Baghdad, Alice springs and Kuwait ,Antofagasta and Karachi.
phoenix

Air DBT- 43 degC to 49 deg C (day time) There are two seasons : hot and cooler one.
temperature
Max 58 dec C DBT: max- 38 deg C in cool season between 21-

Cool season- mean max- 27- 32 degC. 26 deg C. the night time min temp of hot season
At night 24- 30 deg C in hot season
and 10 – 18 degC in cool season. 24 deg C – 30 degC . Cool season – 10 to
18degC. Diurnal range 9 - 12degC. Larger
Diurnal range – 17 to 22 deg C diurnal variation during cool season.

Humidity RH- 10 TO 55%. VP- 750 to RH- 50 to 90%. VP- 1500- 2500 N/sqm. Strong
solar radiation causes strong evaporation from
1500 N/sqm sea. The moisture does not get precipitated but
remain suspended in air create unfavorable
conditions.

Precipitation 50 to 155mm/annum. Flash storms As in other desert region. It is very low.

may occur over limited areas with
50mm rain in few hours. Some region
may not have rainfall for several years.

Sky condition Normally clear. Few clouds due to low Little more cloudy than hot dry desert climates,
humidity of air. Dark blue sky with which may occur in the form of a thin,
luminance of 1700 to 2500 cd/sqm. transparent haze that may cause glare
Darkened during dust/sand storms to
850 cd/sqm. @ end of hot period
white haze created by dust in air with
luminance of 3500 to 10000 cd/sqm
that produce diffuse light and painful
 glare

Hot dry desert Hot dry maritime desert

Solar radiation Direct and strong during day . Is strong with higher diffuse component than in
Absence of cloud permit easy desert climates, due to thin cloud and suspended
release of heat stored during moisture.
day as long wave radiation
toward cold night sky. Diffuse
radiation present during dust
haze.

Wind Usually local. Heating of air Mostly local, coastal winds caused by unequal
over hot ground causes heating and cooling of land and sea surfaces.
temperature inversion and as Tend to blow of from sea towards land during
lower warm air mass break day and Land towards sea during night.
through higher cooler air, local
whirlwind are created. Winds
are hot, carry dust & sand &
develop into dust storm.

Vegetation Sparse and difficult to maintain Sparse , not more than some dry grass. The
due to lack of rain and low ground of rocks are brown or red. It is dusty
humidity. Soil very dusty and throughout the year. Ground glare can be intense.
dry. Strong sunlight illuminate
highly reflective light colored
& dry ground create luminance
of 20000 to 25000 cd/sqm.
Sub-soil water table is very
low.

Special During certain months dust and Dust and sand storms may occur. The salt in
characteristics sand storms are frequent. High atmosphere accelerates corrosion.
day time temp and rapid
cooling @ night cause material
to break.
Composite /monsoon climate Tropical upland climate

Zone Occur in large land masses near tropics of cancer and Mountainous region and plateau more
Capricorn far from equator. than 900 to 1200 m above sea level.

Example of Lahore, Mandalay, Asuncion, Kano and new Delhi. Addis Ababa, Bogota, Mexico city and
cities Nairobi

Two season occur normally. 2/3 of year is hot-dry Seasonal variations are small in upland
and other third is warm- humid. Third season is cool- climate near equator, but away from
dry. equator, the season follow those of
nearby lowland.

Air Season Hot-dry Warm-humid Cool-dry DBT decrease with altitude. At an

temperature altitude of 1800m the day time mean
max – 24 to 30 degC and night mean
min – 10 to 13 degC. At some locations
is may fall below 4 degC. Diurnal range
is great. Annual range depend on
Day- 32-43 27-32 Up to 27 latitude at equator it is slight. At tropic
max of cancer and Capricorn it is – 11 to 20
degC
Night- 21-27 24-27 4-10
min

Cool- 11-22 3-6 11-22

dry

Humidity RH is low in dry periods @ 20- 55%. VP-1300 to RH between 45 – 99% and VP 800 to
1600 N/sqm. Wet Period- 55 to 95% with VP of 1600N/sqm.
2000 to 2500N/sqm

Precipitation Monsoon rain are intense .occasionally 25 to Rarely less than 1000mm. Rain often
38mm can fall in an hour. Annual rainfall falls in heavy, concentrated showers
varies from 500 – 1300mm with 200- 250mm reaching an intensity of 80mm/ hr
in wettest month. Little or no rain in dry
seasons.

Sky condition Heavily overcast and dull during monsoon. Normally clear or partly cloudy to the
 Clear with dark blue colour in dry season. End ext of 40%. During monsoon rain- sky
of hot season sky become bright with frequent is overcast and clouds are heavy and
dust haze. low.

Solar radiation Alternate between condition found in warm-
humid climate and hot-dry climate
Strong and direct during clear periods,
stronger than at the same latitude, but at
sea- level. UV rays are stronger at lower
altitudes. Become more diffuse as cloud
cover increases

Wind Hot & dusty during dry period. Directional Predominantly north east and south-
changes in prevailing winds at beginning of easterlies, but may be deflected by local
warm humid season bring rain cloud and humid topography. Wind velocity rarely
air from sea. Monsoon winds are strong and exceeds 15m/s.
steady.

Vegetation Sparse in hot-dry season with brown and red Green although not very dense during
barren GD.change quickly with rain. Landscape wet season but it wither in dry season,
become green and fertile within few days. when ground turn brown or red. Soil
Plants grow quickly. In cooler period may be damp in rains but dries quickly.
vegetation covers the ground but diminishes
with temp rise.

Soil is damp during rains but it dries out

quickly. Risk of soil erosion in monsoon. In dry
season there will be strong ground glare.

Special Seasonal change in relative humidity cause
characteristic rapid weakening of building materials. Dust
and sand storms may occur. Termites are
common problem
Heavy dew at night. Strong radiation
loss at night during dry season, which
may lead to formation of radiation fog.
Thunder- storms with fair proportion of
electric discharges- air to ground.

Human body heat balance

Heat gain

o Metabolism

o Conduction

o Convection
 o Radiation

Heat LOSS

o Conduction

o Convection

o Radiation

o Evaporation

Body Temperature
o Normal body core temperature: 37 oC.

o We have separate Heat- and Cold-sensors.

o Heat sensor is located in hypothalamus. Signals when temperature is higher than 37 oC.

o Cold sensors are located in the skin. Send signals when skin temperature is below 34 oC.

o Heating mechanism:

o Reduced blood flow.

o Shivering.

o Cooling mechanism:

o Increased blood flow.

o Sweating (Evaporation).

Metabolism
Each person has a different metabolic rate, and these rates can fluctuate when a person is performing
certain activities, or under certain environmental conditions. Even people who are in the same room can
feel significant temperature differences due to their metabolic rates, which makes it very hard to find an
optimal temperature for everyone in a given location

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR), and the closely related resting metabolic rate (RMR), is the amount
of energy expended daily by humans and other animals at rest. Rest is defined as existing in a
neutral temperate environment while in the post-absorptive state. In plants, different considerations apply.

The release, and using, of energy in this state is sufficient only for the functioning of the vital organs,
the heart, lungs, nervous system, kidneys, liver, intestine, sex organs, muscles, and skin.

Muscular Metabolism :

Heat  production of muscles while carrying out consciously controlled work.

Only 20% Of Energy Is Used As Useful Energy, 80% is converted as Surplus Heat. This 80% of surplus
heat should be dissipated to the environment.
When the environment is colder than the neutral zone, then body loses more heat than is generated.
Then the regulatory processes occur in the following order.

1. Zone of vaso-motor regulation against cold (vaso-constriction): Blood vessels adjacent to the skin
constrict, reducing flow of blood and transport of heat to the immediate outer surface. The outer skin
tissues act as insulators.

2. Zone of metabolic regulation: If environmental temperature drops further, then vaso-motor regulation
does not provide enough protection. Hence, through a spontaneous increase of activity and by shivering,
body heat generation is increased to take care of the increased heat losses.

3. Zone of inevitable body cooling: If the environmental temperature drops further, then the body is not
able to combat cooling of its tissues. Hence the body temperature drops, which could prove to be
disastrous. This is called as zone of inevitable body cooling.

When the environment is hotter than the neutral zone, then body loses less heat than is generated.
Then the regulatory processes occur in the following order.

1. Zone of vaso-motor regulation against heat (vaso-dilation): Here the blood vessels adjacent to the
skin dilate, increasing the flow of blood and transport of heat to the immediate outer surface. The outer
skin temperature increases providing a greater temperature for heat transfer by convection and radiation.

2. Zone of evaporative regulation: If environmental temperature increases further, the sweat glands
become highly active drenching the body surface with perspiration. If the surrounding air humidity and
air velocity permit, then increase in body temperature is prevented by increased evaporation from the
skin.

3. Zone of inevitable body heating: If the environmental temperature increases further, then body
temperature increases leading to the zone of inevitable body heating. The internal body temperature
increases leading several ill effects such as heat exhaustion (with symptoms of fatigue, headache,
dizziness, irritability etc.), heat cramps (resulting in loss of body salts due to increased perspiration) and
finally heat stroke. Heat stroke could cause permanent damage to the brain or could even be lethal if the
body temperature exceeds 43oC.

Thermal comfort
Thermal comfort is defined as “that condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the
thermal /surrounding environment”. This condition is also sometimes called as “neutral condition”,
though in a strict sense, they are not necessarily same.

Thermal comfort is a term used by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, an international body. (ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55). Maintaining this
standard of thermal comfort for occupants of buildings or other enclosures is one of the important goals
of HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) design engineers.

Thermal comfort is affected by heat conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporative heat loss.

Thermal comfort is maintained when the heat generated by human metabolism is allowed to dissipate,
thus maintaining thermal equilibrium with the surroundings

Factors determining thermal comfort:

 Personal factors (health, psychology, sociology & situational factors)

 o Insulative clothing (Clo Value)

o Activity levels (Met Rate)

 General Factors

o Air temperature

o Mean radiant temperature

o Relative humidity

o Drifts and ramps in operative temperature

 Localized factors

o Air movement/velocity.

o Radiant asymmetry

o Floor surface temperatures.

o Air temperature stratification

Clothing insulation

 During cold weather, layers of insulating clothing can help keep a person warm. At the same
time, if the person is doing a large amount of physical activity, lots of clothing layers can prevent
heat loss and possibly lead to overheating. Generally, the thicker the garment is the greater
insulating abilities it has. Depending on the type of material the clothing is made out of, air
movement and relative humidity can decrease the insulating ability of the material.

 A person wearing suit will require 9 deg temp more than a person in naked condition.

Gender differences

 Thermal comfort preferences between genders seems to be small, there are some differences.
Studies have found men report discomfort due to rises in temperature much earlier than women.
Men also estimate higher levels of their sensation of discomfort than women. Generally women
will require 1deg c higher temp than men
Food and drink habits

may have an influence on metabolic rates, which indirectly influences thermal preferences. These effects
may change depending on food and drink intake. Body shape is another factor that affects thermal
comfort

Body surface area

Heat dissipation depends on body surface area. A tall and skinny person has a larger surface-to-volume
ratio, can dissipate heat more easily, and can tolerate higher temperatures than a more rounded body
shape

Subcutaneous fat:
fat under the skin is an excellent thermal insulator. A fat person will need a cooler

air to dissipate the same amount of heat.

State of health:

in an illness the metabolic rate may increase, but proper functioning of the regulatory

Mechanisms may be impaired. The tolerable range of temperatures will be narrower.

Acclimatization:

 Exposed to new set of climatic conditions, the human body will reach full adjustment in 30 days and by
time the thermal preferences of the individual will change. For ex – a person in tamilnadu will prefer an
average room temperature of 26 degC, but after spending some month in London -he/she would prefer
average temp of 18 degC.

Predication of Thermal Comfort

• PMV

• a complex function of six major comfort parameters;

• predict mean value of the subjective ratings of a group of people in a given

environment

• PPD

• determined from PMV as a quantitative measure of thermal comfort

• ‘dissatisfied’ means not voting -1, +1 or 0 in PMV

• normally, PPD < 7.5% at any location and LPPD < 6%

The term Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) is the mean vote expected to arise from

averaging the thermal sensation vote of a large group of people in a given

environment. The PMV is a complex mathematical expression involving activity,

clothing and the four environmental parameters. It is expressed by eqn.

Mahoney tables
There are four tables; four are used for entering climatic data, for comparison with the requirements
for thermal comfort; and two for reading off appropriate design criteria. A rough outline of the table
usage is:
 1. Air Temperatures. The max, min, and mean temperatures for each month are entered into this
table.

a. Humidity, Precipitation, and Wind. The max, min, and mean figures for each month are entered into
this table, and the conditions for each month classified into a humidity group.

2.Comparison of Comfort Conditions and Climate. The desired max/min temperatures are entered, and
compared to the climatic values from table 1. A note is made if the conditions create heat stress or cold
stress (i.e. the building will be too hot or cold).

a. Indicators (of humid or arid conditions). Rules are provided for combining the stress (table 3) and
humidity groups (table 2) to check a box classifying the humidity and aridity for each month. For each of
six possible indicators, the number of months where that indicator was checked are added up, giving a
yearly total.

3.Schematic Design Recommendations. The yearly totals in table 4 correspond to rows in this table,
listing schematic design recommendations, e.g. 'buildings oriented on east-west axis to reduce sun
exposure', 'medium sized openings, 20%-40% of wall area'.

4.Design Development Recommendations. Again the yearly totals from table 4 are used to read off
recommendations, e.g. 'roofs should be high-mass and well insulated'.

UNIT –II
ROTATION

The Earth rotates about on a fixed plane that is tilted 23.5° with respect to its vertical axis around the sun.
The Earth needs 23hrs 56mins to complete one true rotation, or one sidereal period, around the sun.

A sidereal day (period) is the time taken for a given location on the earth which is pointing to a certain
star to make one full rotation and return back pointing to the same star again. Since the speed of the
Earth’s rotation is constant throughout the year, the Earth’s sidereal day will always be 23hrs 56mins.
The solar day, on the other hand, is the time needed for a point on earth pointing towards a particular
point on the sun to complete one rotation and return to the same point. It is defined as the time taken for
the sun to move from the zenith on one day to the zenith of the next day, or from noon today to noon
tomorrow.

The length of a solar day varies, and thus on the average is calculated to be 24hrs. In the course of the
year, a solar day may differ to as much as 15mins. There are three reasons for this time difference.

Firstly it is because the earth’s motion around the Sun is not perfect circle but is eccentric. The second
reason is due to the fact that the Sun’s apparent motion is not parallel to the celestial equator. Lastly, the
third reason is because of the precession of the Earth’s axis.
For simplicity, we averaged out that the Earth will complete one rotation every 24hrs (based on a solar
day) and thus moves at a rate of 15° per hour (one full rotation is 360°).

Because of this, the sun appears to move proportionately at a constant speed across the sky. The sun thus
produces a daily solar arc, which is the apparent path of the sun’s motion across the sky. At different
latitudes, the sun will travel across the sky at different angles each day. Greater detail about this
phenomenon will be touch on in the later part of the section

The rotation of the earth about its axis also causes the day and night phenomenon. The length of the
day and night depends on the time of the year and the latitude of the location. For places in the
northern hemisphere, the shortest solar day occurs around December 21 (winter solstice) and the
longest solar day occurs around June 21 (summer solstice) (Figure 1.2). In theory, during the time of
the equinox, the length of the day should be 0equal to the length of the night. This will be further
discussed in the later part too.

REVOLUTION
It is generally accepted that the earth’s complete revolution around the Sun is 365 days. However, to
be exact, the number of days the earth takes to revolve around the sun actually depends on whether
we are referring to a sidereal year or a tropical (solar) year.
A sidereal year is the time taken for the earth to complete exactly one orbit around the Sun. A
sidereal year is then calculated to be 365.2564 solar days.

A tropical year is the time interval between two successive vernal equinoxes, which is 365.2422
solar days. The difference between the two is that tropical year takes into consideration precession
but the sidereal year does not.

Precession is the event where the earth’s axis shifts clockwise in circular motion which then changes
the direction when the North Pole is pointing.

The difference between the sidereal and the tropical year is 20mins. This difference is negligible in
the short run, but in the long run will cause time calculation problems. Thus readjustments to
calendars must be made to correct this difference. Hence for simplicity, the average time the earth
takes to move around the sun in approximately 365 days. This path that the earth takes to revolve
around the sun is called the elliptical path.

EQUINOX
To explain solstices, equinoxes and season, it will be easier if we use the heliocentric model.
Equinoxes happen when the ecliptic (sun’s apparent motion across the celestial sphere) and celestial
equator intersect. When the sun is moving down from above the celestial equator, crosses it, then
moves below it, that point of intersection between the two planes is when the Autumnal Equinox
occurs. This usually happens around the 22 nd of September. When the Sun moves up from below the
celestial equator to above it, the point of intersection between the sun and the celestial equator is
when Spring (Vernal) Equinox occurs. It usually happens around the 21 st of March. During the
equinoxes, all parts of the Earth experiences 12 hours of day and night and that is how equinox gets it
name as equinox means “equal night”. At winter solstice (Dec), the North Pole is inclined directly
away from the sun. 3 months later, the earth will reach the date point of the March equinox and that
the sun’s declination will be 0°. 3 months later, the earth will reach the date point of the summer
solstice. At this point it will be at declination -23.5°. This cycle will carry on, creating the seasons
that we experience on earth (Figure 1.2).

SOLSTICE
It is being tilted on an axis makes the northern hemisphere of the Earth get more sun than the southern
during the months of July, August and September—we call that summer. The days are longer and the
nights are shorter, creating a warmer temperature for that time. In the southern hemisphere, it is winter.
The longest day of the year in the north is June 21—we call it the summer solstice. The north pole gets 24
hours of daylight and the south pole gets 0 hours of daylight during our summer solstice
It is being tilted on an axis makes the northern hemisphere of the Earth get less sun than the southern
during the months of January, February, and March—we call that winter in the northern hemisphere. The
nights are longer and the days are shorter, creating a colder temperature for that time. In the southern
hemisphere, it is summer. The shortest day of the year in the north is December 21—we call it the winter
solstice. The south pole gets 24 hours of daylight and the north pole gets 0 hours of daylight during our
winter solstice.

The earth is tilted 23.5o, so is the ecliptic, with respect to the celestial equator, therefore the Sun
maximum angular distance from the celestial equator is 23.5°. At the summer solstice which occurs
around 21st of June, the North Pole is pointing towards the sun at an angle of 23.5 o as shown in figure
1.3. Therefore the apparent declination of the sun is positive 23.5 o with respect to the celestial
equator. At the Winter solstice which occurs around 21 st December, the North Pole is pointing away
from the sun at an angle of 23.5o. Therefore the apparent declination of the sun is negative 23.5 o with
respect to the celestial equator.

SEASON
Seasons are caused by the Earth axis which is tilted by 23.5 o with respect to the ecliptic and due to
the fact that the axis is always pointed to the same direction. When the northern axis is pointing to
the direction of the Sun, it will be winter in the southern hemisphere and summer in the northern
hemisphere. Northern hemisphere will experience summer because the Sun’s ray reached that part of
the surface directly and more concentrated hence enabling that area to heat up more quickly. The
southern hemisphere will receive the same amount of light ray at a more glancing angle, hence
spreading out the light ray therefore is less concentrated and colder. The converse holds true when
the Earth southern axis is pointing towards the Sun. (Figure 1.5)

SUN’S APPARENT MOTION

From the heliocentric point of view, the Earth rotates and revolves around the sun in a counter
clockwise direction. However, when we look at the Sun on earth, it appears to be moving in a
clockwise direction. This phenomenon is known as the apparent motion of the sun.
Shading devices
Shading devices can play important role in control the solar radiation that
enter into the room especially during summer months. Shading devices can
control solar radiation in three ways. First, they protects from sunlight. Second,
they redirects the solar radiation and softens the excessive solar energy. Third,
they diffuses the light and gives visual comfort (Geun, 1997). According to
Dubois (2000), the appropriate design of shading devices can effectively reduce
cooling load. This reduction ranges between 23-89% depending on the type of
shading device used, the building orientation, the climate, etc.
Shading devices differ in their characteristics and dimensions according to
the duration of sunshine on the window facade. For examples, south windows
can easily be shaded during summer because of the high position of the sun in
the sky and they can be designed to accept high solar heat gains during winter. In
contrast, there are some difficult in shading of west and east windows because of
the low position of the sun in the sky. North windows also accept very limited
solar heat gains, restricted to the summer early morning and late afternoon hours,
so shading may be not necessary in the north façade (Vogel, 2004).
The functions of shading systems are to improve thermal and visual
comfort by reducing overheating and glare, and to provide privacy (McKay,
2010). In some cases the disadvantage of shading devices is that it may reduce
availability of daylight which enter the building, hence increasing consumption
of energy for artificial lighting. Thus, an effective shading device should be able
to prevent the unwanted solar heat and allow the needed daylight to reach the
building interior (Mathur, 2003). Shading devices should be able to perform
some of these functions:
 Stop solar radiation penetration into the building during hot periods.
 Allow solar radiation penetration into the building during cool periods.
 Should allow view to the outside from inside the building.
 Should allow daylight into the building.
 Provide some privacy whenever required.
 Protect the occupants of the building from glare.
 Should not interfere with air circulation through the windows.
Although adjustable shading devices may respond to multi demands than
fixed ones, it is difficult for a shading device to effectively perform all previous
functions. Thus, a device should be chosen after identifying its functions
Generally, solar radiation entering a room through windows can cause
three effects: increase in air temperature by radiation absorbed on room surfaces,
increase in the mean radiant temperature of occupants, and the third important
effect is that high intensities of radiation from direct sun can cause discomfort
glare. The performance of shading devices is measured by the level of reduction
in negative impacts of these three effects .The following section
discuss in details the performance parameters of the shading devices.
3.6.1 Performance parameters for shading advices
Performance parameters for the shading devices include: thermal, visual,
acoustic and aesthetic performance. The values of these parameters depend on
the independent variables such as climate, site, and building type, and dependent
variables, such as heat transfer, facade type, and position of the blinds relative to
the window
1. Thermal performance
There are three parameters determine the thermal performance of the
shading device: protection from overheating in summer by reflection or
absorption, protection from heat loss in winter, and collection of sun energy. In
hot climates, shading device systems should protect the interior space from
overheating in summer. The thermal performance can also be measured by the
54
level of protection from heat loss during winter nights in cold climates. Another
parameter is the collection of solar energy by absorbing instead of reflecting
which can be used in many applications like the building’s mechanical systems.
2. Visual performance
Visual performance of the shading device includes: providing sufficient
illuminance, providing sufficient luminance, protection from glare, providing
privacy, providing desired darkening of the interior space, and providing direct
visual contact to the outside space. The building type affects the previous visual
performance parameters. For example, providing privacy and darkening of the
space is desirable in residential buildings, but not necessarily in office buildings.
3. Acoustic performance
Acoustic performance parameters of the shading device include: sound
transmission and vibration of the blinds. Both building location and site affect
the acoustic performance of the shading device. For example, a higher level of
noise occurs in urban areas requires selecting a specific shading device to reduce
this noise. The blinds installed outside can vibrate because of wind, resulting in
increased noise level. Thus, they should be fixed carefully to avoid the problem
of vibration (Olbina, 2005).
4. Aesthetic performance
The shading device is an important architectural element. It has a
significant impact on both the exterior and interior appearance of the facade.
Aesthetic performance parameters of the shading device include: blinds’
transparency, blinds’ translucency, and percent of window area obstructed by the
blinds. There is a strong relationship between the aesthetic performance
parameters and thermal, visual, and acoustic performance. For example, the
blinds’ transparency and percent of window area obstructed by the blinds depend
on the requirements for the protection from overheating and the desired daylight
level in the interior space (Olbina, 2005).
55
3.6.2 Different shading device types
There are many different kinds and categories of shading devices. It can
be classified into three main types fixed overhang shades, louvers, and movable
shades as illustrated in fig. (3.6). According to the position of a shading device
relative to the building envelope, shading devices can be divided into internal
and external devices. The external devices also can be divided into the sub
categories of vertical, horizontal and combined devices. In addition, vegetation
element is considered as a important type of shading devices All
these types of shading devices and its main characteristics will be discussed in
the following sections.

1. Fixed devices
Fixed shading devices are parts of the building or extra structures
mounted on the building facade. They can be external or internal structures,
however they usually used in the outside of building envelope. There are many
types of fixed shading devices such as horizontal overhangs, vertical fins,
combination of horizontal and vertical elements, balconies or internal elements
like louvers and light-shelves. The most significant advantage of fixed shading
devices is that they are "passive" or self-operating. In addition, fixed devices are
preferred because of their simplicity, low maintenance cost and sometimes low
construction cost .Particularly, fixed shading devices are effective at preventing direct
sun radiation, but it less effective against diffuse or reflected radiation. The
horizontal overhang is the most common form of fixed shading device. It can
effectively be used on the south-facing facade to provide complete shading
during summer and allow solar penetration in winter. However, Fixed horizontal
devices do not generally provide effective protection from the low-angled
sunlight of morning and afternoon, particularly on the east and west facades
2. Movable devices
Moveable devices can be located externally, internally or between the
panes of a double or triple glazed window. They can be external shading
elements in the form of tents, awnings, blinds, pergolas, or internal elements like
curtains, rollers and venetian blinds. Movable devices are more flexible because
they can modify according to the dynamic nature of the sun’s movement
(McKay, 2010). The concept of moveable devices depends on changing the cutoff
angle to match the changing solar altitude as a result of the movement of the
sun. These devices can be operated manually or automatically (Kasule, 2003).
Both colour and material influence the effectiveness of shading system.
the white venetian blinds give 20% shade protection more than dark ones, while for roller
blinds the effect can reach 40%. An aluminium blind can add 10% more protection than a
coloured one. For internal curtains the differences are less, as light coloured ones are only
18% more effective than dark ones. Fig. (3.7) shows shaded performance of various
materials. Part of the sunlight will be reflected out through the glazing and the
rest of the solar energy will be absorbed, convected and re-radiated into the
room. Thus, It is not possible to achieve 100% efficiency in the shading system.
In the light of the previous fact, the dark coloured in internal shading devices
should be avoided
3. Internal devices
Internal shading devices are that mounted on the inner side of the building
envelope. They can either be fixed like interior light shelves or adjustable like
louvers, curtains, etc. Fig. (3.8) shows the difference between interior and
external shading devices. It demonstrates that internal shading devices are
considered less effective than external ones because the sunlight enters the
building envelope. In contrast, external shading devices diffuse any absorbed
solar energy to the outside air. Thus, the efficiency of external shading devices
increases about 30% over internal shading devices, but internal devices are
considered cheaper and easier to operate manually
4. External devices
External shading devices are that mounted on the outer side of the
building envelope. Their main function is to trap solar radiation before it reaches
the building envelope. External shading devices can play important role in
architectural appearance of the building facade. Thus, their colour, form, and
shape should be selected carefully during the design phase. External shading devices can
be divided basically into three categories which are horizontal shades, vertical shades,
and compound shades. The vertical devices will be most effective when the sun is
opposite to the wall considered, such as an eastern or western facade. The performance of
vertical devices can be measured by a horizontal shadow angle.
Table shows many forms of vertical shading devices.
In contrast, The horizontal devices will be most effective when the sun is
opposite to the building face considered and at a high angle, such as for north
and south facing walls. The performance of horizontal devices can be measured
by a vertical shadow angle .Some forms of horizontal shading
devices is shown in Table

Vertical shading devices

Horizontal shading devices
Combined shading devices
Sizing Overhangs and Fins (Equations method)
Use these equations to find starting dimensions for shading elements. Do the calculations to
find:
• Depth required for a shading element, or
• Extent of shadow cast by a shading element with given depth.
1. For each facade, select a critical month and time for shading. Suggested: south windows use
September noon, east use September 10 am, west use September 3 pm, or ask mechanical
engineer for estimate of peak cooling time in east, south, and west zones.
2. Find solar altitude and azimuth for target month/hour from the sun path diagrams.
3. Use the formulas below to size overhang, fin, or both. Results are a minimum starting point.
4. If overhang is too big, try breaking it into several smaller elements or dropping part of it down
for an equivalent depth.
5. If sizing overhang for east or west window, you may notice that a fin must be added for
adequate
shading; otherwise overhang becomes unreasonably deep.
6. Test solution with a physical model and sundial.
7. Improvements: Extend ends of overhang wider than window or use a continuous element.
Make overhang deeper or add another horizontal element part-way down the window. Add
vertical elements to the scheme.
For an overhang: h =D x tan (solar altitude) / cos (solar azimuth – window azimuth) ‡
• For total shade at your target month/hour, set h to height of window from sill to head and solve
for D, required overhang depth.
• For partial shade, set h to acceptable height of shadow (perhaps 2/3 of window height) and
solve for D, required overhang depth.
• With a given overhang, set D to its depth and find h, the height of shadow it will cast at your
target month/ hour.

For a fin: w = D x tan (solar azimuth - window azimuth) ‡

• Solve for either w, width of shadow, or D, depth of fin, as with the overhang equation
‡ Be sure to observe proper signs. If both solar and window azimuths are on the same side of
the south
vector, then both values are positive. If they are on opposite sides of south, then set one
azimuth as
negative. For example: solar azimuth - (-window azimuth) = solar azimuth + window
azimuth.

Calculating Shading Devices using the Factor method

The following equation provides a quick method for determining the projection of a fixed
overhang.
Projection = window opening (height) / F F = factor from the following table
North latitude F factor
28 5.5 – 11.1
32 4.0- 6.3
36 3.0- 4.5
40 2.5- 3.4
44 2.0- 2.7
48 1.7- 2.2
52 1.5- 1.8
56 1.3- 1.5
Select a factor according to your latitude. The higher values will provide 100% shading at noon
on June 21st, the lower values until August 1.