Extrusion cooking

Introduction
Health and nutrition are common and important topics and are very approached by specialists.
Nowadays, there is a demand and a challenge in this field and probably there will be in the future as
well because these are subjects that need for paying attention. This request consists of maintaining and
increasing the nutritional quality of food during processing.
In this case, this is a potentially important area of research. So, food scientists are always searching for
more efficient and nutritionally effective ways of processing food. The diet of human beings is
influenced by different factors such as politics, economy, society, culture and environment. Despite all
of this, it is essential to gain the necessary quantity of food and also improving qualitative changes.
Thus, there is the possibility to build greater food security for tomorrow’s developing world. As
Pasteur`s investigations of the basic preservation methods help other scientists to understand the
principle and after that this understanding coupled with major engineering advances such as canning,
freezing, freeze-drying has added considerable scope to the food scientist in his search for improving
food preservation methods. In the same time, it has been realized that the provision of the
carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins and minerals in a specific proportion is all that is necessary to
maintain growth and health. Food scientist has developed a process called thermal extrusion which
overcomes many problems. Thermal extrusion is one of man’s form processing and holds great
promises for the future.
Abstract
Cheftel summarized a table with extrusion coocking applications.

1
 Extrusion cooking is not a single unit operation. Extrusion cooking as a high-temperature short
time (HTST) is described by other authors like a multi-step, multi-function thermal/mechanical
process.
HTST-extrusion cooking has permitted a large number of food applications. There is a special interest
in developing bread, meat replacers, infant or dietetic foods.
The food extruder is described by different authors as a low moisture, continuous flow reactor
capable of processing biopolymers, ingredients or raw products at a relatively high temperature under
high pressures and shear forces at relative moisture content.
Nowadays, it has permitted a large number of food applications, for instance: food feeds and
industrial materials. There is the possibility to develop many products using extrusion cooking but to
do this it is necessary understanding chemical reactions that take place during this process. This review
summarizes our current knowledge about understanding the mechanism, as well as the influence of
process conditions and the food mix composition. This report is focused on physico-chemical and
chemical modifications of protein, starch or dietary fibre but also there are presented some points
where it is focused on Maillard reaction.
In this process parameters are essential and it needs to be controlled carefully. The parameters
influence the quality and properties of the final product. During this process may take place both
2
beneficial or detrimental changes. Beneficial effects include the destruction of antinutritional fats,
gelatinization of starch, increased dietary fibre and reduction of lipid oxidation.
On the other hand, the Maillard reaction between protein and sugar reduce the nutritional value of
protein. Gelatinization of starch and denaturation of proteins are the most important reactions during
extrusion. Protein, starches and non-starch polysaccharides
can fragment, creating molecules that may form new linkages not found in nature yet.
As regards as vitamin stability, this varies with vitamin structures or extrusion conditions and food
matrix composition.
Extrusion is an interest for creating new flavour, antioxidants and colour compounds.

Objective
In the first place, extrusion involves transporting feed material along a heated barrel using
screws. These screws force the material through a narrow aperture.
There are many advantages to using extrusion as a processing method. For example, it is a continuous
process, energy efficiency, it involves multiple operations in a single process, high quality through
short time, bacteriologically speaking, we obtain safety products. And also we have variety and
palatability.
Extrusion is described by many authors as being more than a processing method. Rather, it is an
art.
Extrusion combines thermal energy, mechanical energy and high pressure.
As far as extruders are concerned, they can have multiple types of screws. Each screw is designed for a
different reason. They have their unique benefits and usage. These designs could be classified as
corotating screws and counterrotating screws.
The corotating but non-intermeshing designs of screws are used for a gently pushing a low viscosity
noncooked dough through an aperture.
Using a non-intermeshing counterrotating screw design, we have a more efficient pumping.
The intermeshing designs of screws are mostly used because of their pumping action and the capacity
to generate a great deal of pressure with high viscous products.
For example, Intermeshing counterrotating screws are utilized in the rubber industry, very high viscous
plastic or elastomeric processing because of its ability to pump, to achieve a great deal of pressure but
also an excellent mixing ability.
Twin-screw extruders (co-rotating and intermeshing) are highly used in the food industry.

3
Using this design of screws can be processed a variety of raw products from high sugar, starch, fat,
protein to a dough with a high viscosity.
Although there are many designs of extruders, we can observe five zones. Each zone has its range
during extrusion processing.
1. First is the drive zone. In this section, electrical or hydraulic power is converted into rotating
energy, which drives the extruder shaft/shafts. This part needs specific attention because it
determines the correct functionality of the extruder.
2. Second is the feed section. In this place, the extruder is fed with raw, dry material at a constant
feed. It is then mixed with a liquid form a dough-like, and after that, it is introduced to shear, heat,
pressure. This is an essential parameter of the extruder, which needs to be kept constant.
3. The third one is the compression section of the extruder and it is the next section after the feed
section. This section accomplished some tasks such as compression of the floury material to
remove air while it mixes liquid with the flour to develop continuous dough-like consistency, which
can have a high viscosity. If the dough consistency is well developed and the textural consistency
of the final product will be uniform.
4. The metering section is the final section before the dough enters the die area. It is the section of the
extruders that consumes most of the electrical or rotational energy and is capable of generating
thermal energy. The deformation and the reconstruction of the matrix of the raw material to the
finished product can easily be seen in this section of the extruder.
5. The die section is the last section. Depending on the process, it can be as simple as a single outlet
hole more elaborate.
In food extrusion, the raw materials could be divided into three categories:
1. Thermoplastic raw materials (materials that can be heated to a melting point and cooled to solidify).
This process may repeat itself over and over again. Such raw materials are metals, glasses, most
plastics, starched and sugars.
2. Thermosetting raw materials (once heated and through glass transitions) become cured. Once this
curing process is complete, the molecules tend to be very strong yet. As a result, if they are heated
again after cooling, they will not follow the original pathway and flow. For example elastomeric
polymers, plastics, rubbers and proteins.
3. Nonfunctional raw materials (that materials that do not go through a glass transition phase at
temperatures introduced within the extrusion system and do not play a role in building of the cross-
sectional matrix of the final product. Examples: minerals, fibers, cellulose.)

4
Twin-screw extruders are well known to have much narrower resistance than single screw extruders
due to the complete displacement and forward conveying of the product to the die.
A narrow resistance time provides more uniform cooking, reduction in the nodules of overcooked
dough and burned dough on a cross-section of the extrudate.
High-pressure cooking extruders are considered one of the most efficient ways to cook a given raw
food material.
Energy is supplied to food material from three energy sources:
1. Conductive energy: is the energy externally applied. It is input into the system to heat the barrel and
screw. Extrusion barrels can be heated by various means, such as: circulating steam, hot water, hot
oil, hot air, or by electrical energy via heating elements.
2. Connective energy: It is the energy input in the form of gas or steam that is the higher thermal
energy than the food material. Thus this energy gets incorporated into the extrudate within the
barrel and it is dissipated into the extrudate into a continuous format.
3. Conversion of energy: It takes place when electrical energy is converted into heat energy by screw
rotation and shear. It is generated within the dough by screw rotation and pressure form. This
energy input can easily be disruptive and damaging to the starch granule. It provides thermal energy
through shear stress and share rate based on apparent viscosity. During extrusion, the product goes
from flour consistency to high, viscous, dough-like. It's not just behaviour changes, it's flow index
shifts. If starch granules and protein globules are not well hydrated and elastic, convective energy
can easily damage both starch granules and protein globules.
Extrudate quality is determined by the starting material and the reactions that take place due to the
application of thermal energy, pressure, shear and mixing. For example, a starch granule could remain
intact or become fully gelatinized depending on the path it is forced to take through the barrel and die.
High pressures within an extruder are the combined result of the screw forcing the feed material into a
small aperture (die), the heating of volatile materials (such as water), to high temperature and to high
viscosity preventing flow.
According to Wang et al. (1992), The effect of normal pressure on internal energy is nil for
incompressible materials. Pressure should have little effect on reaction kinetics. Although the assumed
incompressibility may not be valid for some materials, especially at higher pressure.
A major effect of high pressure is that it allows volatile compounds to remain liquid at high
temperature.

5
When extrudates exit the die into normal atmospheric conditions, these compounds volatilize rapidly.
This causes an expansion of the structure and a loss of volatiles.
During this process, many cooking reactions proceed much quicker when shear energy is applied,
residue time, within extruder can be significantly shorter.
It was suggested by a number of authors that the sensitivity of a molecule to shear is related to size,
therefore, large polymers such as amylose are very susceptible to shear conversion.
Bulut (1999) found the shear stress correlated strongly with bacterial destruction during low-
temperature extrusion experiments on a thermostable microorganism.
Zheng and Wang (1994) showed that shear activation energy 2-3 orders of magnitude lower than the
thermal activation energy.
Van den Haut (1998) found that shear had neligible effect on the inactivation of trypsin inhibitor
proteins in soy flour.
The shear conditions within an extruder are complex. Shear is influenced by screw speed, screw
and die conformation and rheology of food material. Typically, shear is greatest on the die and reverse
screw elements. Shear energy is converted to thermal energy within the extruder, thus causing both
local and bulk temperature changes further complicating the study of thermal versus shear reactions.
Extrusion has no effect on the monosaccharide subunits comprising starch or on the total starch
concentration. (Collonna et al. 1989). The size of high molecular weight structures is reduced through
the action of thermal and mechanical forces. Whereas low molecular weight polymers are largely
unaffected. Amylopectin and amylose, and 1-6, 1-4 bonds, have approximately the same susceptibility
to breakdown. Starch modification is reduced when lipids are present. As they actually act as lubricants
by reducing friction within the extruder. Conversely, by adding a thermostable alpha-amylase during
extrusion, starch can be made to undergo rapid liquefaction and thus produce low molecular weight
maltodextrin syrups. Using glucoamylase, these syrups can be further depolymerized to yield high
glucose syrups with De's of up to 88 per cent.
Native starch does not absorb water at room temperature and has a very low viscosity. While
extruded starch absorbs water rapidly to form a paste. Granular and crystalline structures usually
disappear during extrusion cooking. However, they may be able to endure high moisture or low shear
conditions. Extruding starch results in a structured material comprising a continuous amorphous phase,
often containing regions of crystalline amylose-lipid complexes that are formed at the cooling stage.
High pressure and temperature at the die exit results in product expansion, which is essential to the
texture of many products. The structure of extrusion-expanded products depends on starch

6
gelatinization and starch melt at the die. At the die exit, water rapidly vaporizes, causing the structure
to expand. The product becomes rigid as the temperature falls below during cooling and thus retains its
shape. Expansion may be related to starch content. Starch damage prior to extrusion results in products
with smaller pores, softer textures, greater solubility and sticky character when eaten. Bran can result in
reduced expansion through cell wall rupture.
Flavor
One of the factors determining the palatability of an extruded product is flavor. A parameter
incorporating aroma, taste, texture and some aspects of mouthfeel.
In real food products, flavor is rarely determined by a single compound but rather by a combination of
tens or hundreds of both volatile and non-volatile ingredients.
The basic ingredients used in extrusion are often blended. Unlike many conventional cooking
procedures, such as baking, very little flavor is produced from the materials during extrusion despite of
high temperatures. This is due to insufficient retention times for polymer degradation and subsequent
flavor production. The normal method used to produce a desirable product is to minimize flavor
production during extrusion and to add the desired compounds after extrusion. In this case, the
manufacturer has complete control over the outcome and the ability to manufacture multiple flavors of
the same product with very little difficulty.
An alternative approach is to add flavors during extrusion, which is not the best option.
Color
Color is often controlled by adding pigments before, during, or after extrusion.
When colors are sprayed on the post-extrusion only the outer surface of the products becomes colored.
However, colors are not extrusion stable they can not be used in this way. Adding colors before and
during extrusion allows for even distribution. The colors must be highly stable as severe processing
conditions and long shelf-life cause degradation. However, a range of natural and artificial colors are
available to suitable for use in extruded products. Too much heating or local superheating can cause
degradation.
Nutrition
As the food is designed to supply consumers with nutrients, the level and bioavailability of
these compounds is an important quality determining factor.
Minerals are largely unaffected by extrusion as they are very stable and unlikely to be lost through
volatilization.

7
 The concentration of trace metals can actually increase during extrusion due to screw and barrel
wear, which increases with fiber content and extrusion temperature. Fairweather-Tait et al. (1987 and
1989) showed that screw wear, iron and zinc are well utilized by the body.
Killiet (1994) provided an excellent review of vitamin retention during extrusion cooking. He
concluded that in general, vitamin destruction increases with increasing temperature, shear stress,
energy, and decreasing moisture content. In summary, factors that increase temperature and shear stress
increase destruction.
Vitamins
Vitamins vary greatly in their chemical structure, as well as their stability for processing.
Vitamin D and K are relatively stable. Vitamins A, C and E and related compounds are sensitive to
both oxygen and high temperature. In B vitamins, thiamine is the most sensitive to high temperature.
Vitamin content of extruded foods can increase through the post-extrusion application. Which is the
best method economically because no processing losses occur and palatability is largely unaffected. If
vitamins, colors or flavors are added during extrusion, the process will be more complicated by
introducing a new step but also in this case, vitamins must have the greatest stability.
Starch
Starch, the most important source of energy in the human diet, becomes more digestible as a
result of the extrusion process or other cooking processes. Digestibility is related to the degree of
gelatinization. High digestibility is required for infant formula and weaning foods. Low digestibility,
perhaps through the production of enzyme resistant starch, may be desirable in reduced calories
product. Chiu et al. (1994) patented a procedure to produce 30 per cent resistant starch by extruding
high amylose starch with pullulanase.
Inside the extruder, the starch goes through several stages. First, the initial moisture content is
very important to define the desired product type. Once inside the extruder and at relatively high
temperatures, the starch granules melt and become soft. In addition to changing their structure, which is
compressed to a flattened form. The application of heat, shear action on starch granule and water
content destroy the organized molecular structure, also resulting in molecular hydrolysis of the
material. The starch polymers are then dispersed and degraded to form a continuous fluid melt. The
fluid-polymer continuum retains water vapour bubbles and stretches during extrudate expansion until
cell structure rupture. Starch polymer cell walls recoil and stiffen as they cool to stabilize the extrudate
structure. Finally, the starch polymer becomes glassy as moisture is removed, forming a hard fragile
texture. The final expanded product presents air cells that are formed due to superheated water vapour
8
pressure. When the extrudate temperature is reduced below its glass transition temperature (Tg), it
solidifies and maintains its expanded form.
An important consequence of starch degradation is the reduction in expansion. Highly expanded
products may crumble easily due to thin cell walls, while dense products are often hard.
Protein
Protein digestibility is generally improved by extrusion. Denaturation can lead to exposure of
enzymes to susceptible sites and the resulting increase in digestibility. Lysine concentration may
decrease due to the Maillard reaction.
Among the variables, the feed ratio has the maximum effect on protein digestibility, followed by
processing temperatures in the extrusion of raw materials. Increase the temperature during extrusion
(100-140 C degrees) enhance the degree of inactivation of protease inhibitors in wheat flour for
example, thus the protein digestibility values are increased. Extrusion even at 140 C degrees, does not
have any adverse effect on the protein digestibility, which might be attributed to the lesser residence
time of food dough within the extruder. The effect of other process variables, such as length to
diameter ratio and screw speed on protein digestibility values appears to be insignificant ( Bhattacharya
et al., 1988)

Incresed screw speed may have increased the protein digestibility of extruded corn-gluten,
because the increase in shear forces in the extruder denatures the proteins more easily, thus facilitating
enzyme hydrolysis. An advantage of extrusion cooking is the destruction of antinutritional factors(
trypsin inhibitors, tannins, phytates, all of which inhibit protein digestibility). The destruction of trypsin
inhibitors increases with extrusion temperature and moisture content. At a constant temperature,
inactivation increases with increasing product residence time and moisture content. So, high extrusion
temperature, longer residence time and lower moisture content are the key variables for the destruction
of trypsin inhibitors/

Lipids
The concentration of lipids in extruded products is generally low. Levels as low as 5 per cent
can reduce extruder performance by reducing shear due to slip and expansion due to lower pressures.
Microbiology
The concentration and type of microbes within a product is a quality determining factor. Some
organisms can cause foodborne illness or spoilage. Most extruded products have low water activity, in
which case they can be considered microbiologically stable. Extrusion: HTST process, which reduces

9
microbial numbers while maintaining other quality attributes such as color. Extrusion has been shown
to be effective in reducing total microbian count, non-sporulating bacteria, bacterial spores, and yeast.
The degree of reduction can vary greatly depending on extrusion conditions, substrate, and
microorganism type.
Mild extrusion conditions result in low lethality.
Maillard reaction
Maillard reaction is defined that is a chemical reaction involving amino- groups and carbonyl
groups, which are common in foodstuffs and lead to browning and flavour production. The nutritional
significance of Maillard reaction is most important for animal feeds and food intended for special
nutritional needs. Maillard reaction occurs between free amino-acids groups and carbonyl groups of
reducing sugars, and lead to decrease in the avaibility of amino-acids involved and in protein
digestibility. Penthoses are the most reactive, followed by hexoses and disaccharides. Lysine is the
most reactive amino-acid, owing the fact that it has two available amino groups. Lysine is limiting in
cereals, and loss in availability result a decrease in nutritional protein value. Moreover, lysine may
serve as an indicator of proteine damage during processing. Arginine, Tryptophan, cysteine and
histidine might also be affected. The process conditions used in extrusion cooking, high barrel
temperatures and low feed moistures are known to favour the Maillard reaction.
It is known that the loss of amino acids, owing to the Maillard reaction, is affected by the degree of
reactivity of different sugars. The usage of less reactive sugar to prevent Maillard reaction eventually
minimizes the loss of aminoacids.
More then effect on lysine availability, it is confirmed that Maillard reaction is an important
reaction route for acrylamide formation in potatoes and cereals products. Acrylamide is a carcinogen
compound and it has been found in common foods, such as potato chips, french fries, cookies, cereals
and bread, which are prepared over 120 C degrees.
During extrusion, feed and product moisture contents, process temperature and resultant energy
input are relevant parameters for acrylamide formation. The use of twin-screw extruders with high
thermal and mechanical energy inputs leads to a high acrylamide contemnt in the end product. The
presene of glucine, cysteine and lysine has significant effects on the decrease in acrylamide contents.
As regards free aminoacids, they are more sensitive to damage during extrusion cooking than those in
proteins

10
Conclusion
Extrusion cooking is an ideal method for manufacturing different products. In addition, extrusion also
permits us to process a variety of raw materials.
As regards the balance between beneficial or detrimental changes during extrusion processing, there are
more powerful reason for using this method such as: higher retention of amino acids, high protein and
stacrh digestibility, increased soluble dietary fiber, decreased lipid oxidation, higher absorption of
minerals.
The extrusion conditions have to be mild because the severe conditions can cause nutritional
destruction and low nutritional quality which is an undesirable product.

References
1.Judson M. Harper, Extrusion of Foods, Volume I (1 July 1981)
2.Jorge Welti-Chanes, Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas, José Miguel Aguilera, Engineering and Food for
the 21st Century (Food Preservation Technology) 1st Edition (March 25, 2002)
3.Medeni Maskan, Aylin Altan.,Advances in Food Extrusion Technology(20. Oktober 2011)
4.Jean Claude Cheftel, Nutritional effect of extrusion-cooking
5. D.A. Ledward and R.F. Tester, Molecular transformations of proteinaceous foods during extrusion
processing
6. Caroline Joy Steel, Maria Gabriela Vernaza Leoro, Marcio Schmiele, Reinaldo Eduardo Ferreira and
Yoon Kil Chang University of Campinas Brazil, Thermoplastic Extrusion in Food Processing
7. Nahid Tamanna and Niaz Mahmood, Food Processing and Maillard Reaction Products: Effect on
Human Health and Nutrition, Accepted 24 December2014
8. Mary Ellen Camire , Alex Camire & Kim Krumhar, Chemical and nutritional changes in foods
during extrusion (29 septmeber 2009)
9.Shivendra Singh, Shirani Gamlath* & Lara Wakeling, Nutritional aspects of food extrusion: a review
(19 April 2006)
10. XUEWEI ZHAO,1 YIMIN WEI,2 ZHANGCUN WANG,1 FENGLIANG CHEN,2 and
ANTHONY OKHONLAYE OJOKOH3, Reaction Kinetics in Food Extrusion: Methods and Results
october 2011.

11