1

Hydrogen offers sustainable solutions to

our nation’s energy and climate challenges.
Hydrogen provides a pathway for energy diversity. It can store the energy from
diverse domestic resources (including clean coal, nuclear, and intermittently
Table of Contents available renewables) for use in mobile applications and more.

Producing Hydrogen................1
Hydrogen Production Energy Security
Technologies ..........................3 Hydrogen-powered vehicles could significantly
Challenges and reduce imports of foreign oil.
Research Needs......................4
Technology Summaries ...........6 Sustainability
Distributed Natural Hydrogen production technologies can
Gas Reforming ....................8 potentially take advantage of abundant
Bio-Derived Liquids renewable energy resources (e.g., solar, wind,
Reforming ...........................9 geothermal, hydroelectric).
Coal and Biomass
Gasification .......................10
Climate Change
Thermochemical
Production ........................11 Vehicles produce near-zero carbon emissions
when operating on hydrogen produced from
Water Electrolysis ..............12 renewable resources, nuclear energy, or fossil
Photoelectrochemical energy with carbon capture and storage.
Hydrogen Production .........13
Biological Hydrogen
Production ........................14
Urban Air Quality
Hydrogen can reduce or eliminate regulated
Next Steps............................16 tailpipe emissions (e.g., hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxides).

Economic Vitality
The United States can secure a share of
future global energy markets by leading the
development and commercialization of
hydrogen and fuel cell technology.
 Producing Hydrogen
Delivering the potential for
clean, safe, affordable, and
secure energy from abundant
domestic resources*
Hydrogen can increase America’s energy security.
Vehicles operating on hydrogen can dramatically reduce our
nation’s dependence on oil and significantly reduce tailpipe
emissions. Hydrogen offers a potential means to store
and deliver energy from abundant, domestically available
resources—while reducing our nation’s carbon footprint.
Hydrogen is the most abundant element on Earth.
However, it does not exist naturally in its molecular form. It
must be produced from other sources or “feedstocks” such as
water, biomass, or fossil fuels. The technologies for producing
pure hydrogen from these feedstocks also require energy to
power the production process.
Researchers are working to produce hydrogen
economically from diverse sources. Sustainable
production technologies offer exciting possibilities for the
future. Meanwhile, hydrogen produced from fossil fuels (like
natural gas) can help to build early markets and infrastructure.
The ability to generate hydrogen from a variety of feedstocks
using diverse energy sources makes hydrogen a particularly
promising energy carrier.
Collaborative partnerships are accelerating
technology advances. By working together, government
and industry can expedite progress in improving the efficiency
and economics of hydrogen production. The FreedomCAR
& Fuel Partnership brings together the U.S. Department
of Energy (DOE), the major U.S. car manufacturers,
energy companies, and utilities in advancing research and
development (R&D) to enable high-volume production of
affordable hydrogen-powered vehicles and their supporting
infrastructure. The Partnership’s Hydrogen Production
Technical Team has identified the R&D needs for seven
key hydrogen production technologies in the Hydrogen
Production Roadmap: Technology Pathways to the Future.
* Including renewable resources, nuclear energy, and coal with
carbon capture and storage.
1
 Location and scale of production
affect consumer cost.
The location and scale of hydrogen production technologies affect
hydrogen cost, competitiveness, and timeframe to market.

Distributed Production
Technologies deigned to produce hydrogen on-site at refueling stations
will have an economic edge in early markets. Such technologies will
use locally available feedstocks and power in compact systems. In the
near-term, they may use existing utilities and infrastructure. In remote
locations, they may be useful on an ongoing basis.

Central Production
Ultimately, large-scale production at centralized sites will produce the
economies of scale needed to achieve low-cost hydrogen. Centralized
production, of course, requires an efficient, low-cost delivery
infrastructure, which is still in development.

Hydrogen Differs from Conventional Fuels

Potential for clean, low-cost
Hydrogen is non-toxic.
It is also non-poisonous
and will cause no ill effect if
inhaled with ambient air.
Hydrogen is odorless,
colorless, and tasteless.
It is thus undetectable by
human senses.
Hydrogen is highly
combustible. Leaks
are easily ignited yet the
hydrogen gas diffuses
rapidly into nonflammable
concentrations when released
It will not contaminate
groundwater. Under normal
atmospheric conditions,
hydrogen is a gas with a very
low solubility in water.
Hydrogen is not a pollutant.
A release of hydrogen is
not known to contribute to
atmospheric or water pollution.
Industry considers these
properties when designing
structures where hydrogen is
used or stored and provides

hydrogen from a range of to an open environment.

redundant safety systems,
including sensors and

domestic resources ventilation.

2
 Hydrogen Production Technologies
The Hydrogen Production Roadmap explores seven
promising technology options for producing hydrogen.
Development of clean, sustainable, and cost-competitive hydrogen production processes is
essential to the market success of hydrogen-powered vehicles. The seven key production
technologies fall into three broad categories: thermal, electrolytic, and photolytic processes.

Thermal Processes
One type of thermal process uses the energy stored in Distributed Natural Gas Reforming
such resources as coal or biomass to simply release the
hydrogen contained within their molecular structures.
Another type uses heat in combination with closed chemical Bio-Derived Liquids Reforming
cycles to produce hydrogen from feedstocks, such as water;
these are known as “thermochemical” processes.
Coal and Biomass Gasification

Thermochemical Production

(Using a Heat-Driven Chemical Reaction to Split Water)

Electrolytic Processes
Water electrolysis uses electricity to split water into hydrogen Water Electrolysis
and oxygen. Hydrogen produced via electrolysis can result in (Splitting Water Using Electricity)
zero greenhouse gas emissions, depending on the source of
the electricity used.

Photolytic Processes
Photolytic processes use light energy to split water Photoelectrochemical Hydrogen Production
into hydrogen and oxygen. Currently in the very early (Using Solar Power to Directly Split Water)
stages of research, these processes offer long-term
potential for sustainable hydrogen production with low
environmental impact. Biological1 Hydrogen Production

(Photobiological Water Splitting)

Includes other biological approaches that are not strictly photolytic

1

3
Technology
Distributed Natural
Summaries
Gas Reforming
Only by developing and
deploying a range of
technologies as they
move from research into
commercial readiness
will we ultimately arrive
at the sustainable energy
solution we seek. This
chart provides a broad
overview of the challenges
and research needed for
each of seven hydrogen
production technologies. A
far more detailed treatment
of these topics is available
in the Hydrogen Production
Roadmap produced by
the Hydrogen Production
Technical Team.
The following pages
summarize some of the key
challenges common to these
technologies and provide a
snapshot of each technology
today. Further research will
help to identify the most
sustainable technologies for
America’s energy future.
4
Bio-Derived
Liquids Reforming
Critical Challenges
▪ High capital costs
▪ High operation and
maintenance costs
▪ Design for manufacturing
Major R&D Needs
▪ Improve catalyst efficiency and
reduce costs
▪ Develop low-cost, efficient
separation/purification
▪ Combine unit operations to
increase cost effectiveness
▪ Improve feedstock
pre-treatment
▪ Optimize operations to meet
variable demand
▪ Develop flexible, modular
reformer designs using
low-cost materials
▪ Automate process control
▪ Increase equipment reliability
▪ Minimize energy losses and
level demand
Key Benefits
▪ Most viable approach to begin
building hydrogen market in
near term
▪ Lowest current cost
▪ Existing feedstock
infrastructure
Coal and Biomass
Gasification
Critical Challenges
▪ High capital costs
▪ High operation and
maintenance costs
▪ Design for manufacturing
▪ Feedstock quantity and quality
Major R&D Needs
▪ Increase hydrogen yield
and efficiency
▪ Develop catalysts to enable
use of low temperatures or
the liquid phase
▪ Develop low-cost, efficient
separation/purification
▪ Optimize operations to
meet variable demand
▪ Develop flexible, modular
reformer designs using low-
cost materials
▪ Devise economical way to
characterize biomass
▪ Identify best feedstock
candidates by region
▪ Assure hydrogen quality
across feedstocks
▪ Match feedstock
pretreatment to required
purity
Key Benefits
▪ Most viable renewable
hydrogen pathway in
the near term
▪ Existing infrastructure for
some feedstocks
Critical Challenges
▪ High reactor costs
▪ System efficiency
▪ Feedstock impurities
▪ Carbon capture and storage
Major R&D Needs
▪ Develop low-cost, efficient
separation/purification
▪ Improve catalyst tolerance of
impurities
▪ Develop more efficient and
robust components for entire
system
▪ Reduce cost of biomass
feedstock storage, preparation,
and handling
▪ Develop effective approaches
to carbon capture and storage
▪ Develop economical way to
monitor hydrogen quality
▪ Develop biomass/coal
co-fed gasifiers
▪ Increase quantity of
affordable biomass
Key Benefits
▪ Provides low-cost synthetic
fuel in addition to hydrogen
▪ Uses abundant and
affordable coal feedstock

Thermochemical
Water Electrolysis
Critical Challenges
▪ Cost-effective reactor
▪ Effective and durable materials
of construction
▪ Longer-term technology
Major R&D Needs
▪ Develop robust, low-cost
materials for solar receivers,
chemical cycles, reactors, and
thermal storage
▪ Design easy-to-manufacture,
low-cost reactors and
receivers
▪ Optimize thermal and chemical
storage system designs to
address variable solar power
availability and lower total costs
▪ Develop designs for
high-volume, low-cost
manufacturing of flexible,
modular equipment and
components
▪ Develop efficient heat transfer
for chemical cycle
Key Benefits
▪ Produces hydrogen using
only water, energy from the
sun or nuclear reactors, and
chemicals that are recycled.
▪ Clean and sustainable
Critical Challenges
▪ Low system efficiency and
high capital costs
▪ Integration with renewable
energy sources
▪ Design for manufacturing
Major R&D Needs
▪ Develop more durable and
less expensive membranes
▪ Develop long-lasting
membranes and corrosion-
resistant interconnects
▪ Develop durable, low-cost,
and active catalysts
▪ Design novel architectures for
large-scale production
▪ Balance storage and
production rate capacity for
variable demand
▪ Develop flexible, scalable
systems using lower-cost
materials
▪ Increase reliability for
high-temperature units
▪ Develop novel, more efficient
drier technologies
▪ Develop efficient water
conditioning systems
Key Benefits
▪ Produces virtually no
pollution with renewable
energy sources
▪ Uses existing infrastructure
▪ Uses fuel cell advances
Hydrogen Production Technologies
Photo-
Biological
electrochemical
Critical Challenges
▪ Effective photocatalyst
material
▪ Low system efficiency
▪ Cost-effective reactor
▪ Longer-term technology
Major R&D Needs
▪ Develop durable, effective
photocatalysts and electron
transfer catalysts
▪ Develop multifunctional
materials available in large
quantities at low cost
▪ Develop highly active,
stable, durable materials for
supports, coatings, etc.
▪ Develop manufacturing
techniques to assure uniform
quality
▪ Optimize high-volume
production design to lower
costs
▪ Automate system control,
increase equipment reliability,
and minimize energy losses
▪ Decrease parasitic power
losses
Key Benefits
▪ Operates at low temperatures
▪ Clean and sustainable —
using only water and
solar energy
Critical Challenges
▪ Efficient microorganisms for
sustainable production
▪ Optimal microorganism
functionality in a single
organism
▪ Reactor materials
▪ Longer-term technology
Major R&D Needs
▪ Develop microorganism
functionality for efficient and
sustainable production
▪ Identify and characterize
new microbes
▪ Develop inexpensive methods
to grow and maintain microbes
▪ Develop low-cost, durable
materials with specialized
properties for use in
bioreactors
▪ Optimize system to manage
variable production and
manage diurnal cycles
▪ Design manufacturing
processes for high-volume
production at low cost
Key Benefits
▪ Clean and sustainable
▪ Tolerant of diverse water
conditions
▪ Self-sustaining
5
Challenges and Research Needs

Common technical While each hydrogen production technology faces specific technical
challenges, some common hurdles exist for most of the technology
options. Government and industry are investing in research,
hurdles for most development, and demonstration activities to address these challenges
and pave the way for successful commercialization and widespread use
production technologies of hydrogen as an energy carrier.

Hydrogen Quality:
Purity is a major issue for any hydrogen intended for use in fuel cells
aboard vehicles. The problem arises because the platinum catalysts
used in most vehicle fuel cells can be easily “poisoned” by impurities
in the hydrogen, ultimately reducing catalyst effectiveness. Hydrogen
production technologies must therefore either produce high-purity
hydrogen outright or incorporate additional purification processes.

Capital and Operating Costs:

Today’s capital costs for many hydrogen production technologies
are substantially higher than those for other fuels. Developers are
working to reduce these costs by applying the principles of “design
for manufacture,” identifying better materials, decreasing the number
of necessary parts, designing simplified systems, and moving into
mass production. Operating costs should also decline as equipment
developers identify improved materials, consolidate processing steps,
reduce maintenance and labor requirements, and otherwise enhance
equipment performance and integration.

Education and Regulatory Issues:

The inspection, testing, certification, and permitting necessary to
move new hydrogen production technologies into commercial use
will require regulations, codes, and standards to be established or
significantly amended at federal, state, and local levels. This process will
require extensive outreach to familiarize regulatory agencies with the
technologies and to educate the public and local safety officials.

Safety and Control:

Like gasoline or natural gas, hydrogen must be handled appropriately.
The characteristics of hydrogen are different from those of other
common fuels, but it can be used as safely when guidelines are observed.
6
 Hydrogen Production Technologies

All hydrogen production technologies will be required to meet

the strictest safety requirements. The permitting process
demands proven reliability and safeguards. Production units
for placement at fueling stations, in particular, must be designed
to operate without manual assistance. This capability will
require use of back-up and fail-safe modes, remote monitoring
capability, exception-based reporting, and infrequent
maintenance.

Production Technology Icon and Color Key:

Timing of R&D: The specific challenges for each production
technology and the research needed to address them are
described in detail in the Hydrogen Production Roadmap. The
timeline below provides a broad overview of the general
timeframe in which these technologies may be expected to
move into commercial production.

Timeframes To Market
Some technology options necessarily appear at more than one location along this timeline as
market readiness is affected by the specific feedstock, energy source, and production scale.

7
Distributed Natural Gas Reforming

Near-term energy and Most viable near-term option: Natural gas

reforming at fueling stations offers the most viable approach
carbon advantages to moving hydrogen into vehicle markets in the near term.
These early markets will help to build the infrastructure
needed to expand the use of hydrogen in the United States.

Scale-down of a mature technology: This

technology uses high-temperature steam to reform the
methane in natural gas into hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
Steam reforming of natural gas has been used commercially
for many years in large, centralized industrial facilities. The
challenge of this option is to scale down the equipment
so that it operates cost-effectively in a distributed mode at
fueling stations.

An interim solution: The Hydrogen Production

Technical Team and DOE consider this production
technology as an interim option only because it will raise U.S.
demand for natural gas and still release some carbon dioxide.
DOE’s near-term, technical and projected cost targets for
this technology have been met; market success will require
the private sector to conduct additional work on system
integration, optimization, and technology validation.

Most hydrogen today is produced through natural gas reforming at

large refineries.

Feedstock: Natural gas Near Term

Energy Source: Natural Gas
Production: Distributed

Mid Term

Long Term

8
 Hydrogen Production Technologies

Bio-Derived Liquids Reforming

Potential to tap diverse domestic Reforming with greater efficiency: Liquids derived
from biomass can be reformed into hydrogen using high-
biomass feedstock supply temperature technologies similar to those used to reform
natural gas. However, some bio-derived liquids also offer
the potential to use lower-temperature reforming processes,
which would greatly improve system efficiency and decrease
reformer cost. Researchers are also exploring a variation of
this technology known as aqueous-phase reforming.

Improving hydrogen yield: All of these technologies

may potentially use a variety of bio-liquid feedstocks, such as
sugars, sugar alcohols (like ethanol), bio-oils, and less-refined
sugar streams (such as cellulose from non-edible plants).
Researchers are trying to find better catalysts to improve the
hydrogen yield of these technologies.

Aqueous-phase reforming may offer an efficient way to produce hydrogen from

sugar alcohols derived from a broad variety of potential biomass feedstocks. Gateway to wide-ranging biomass feedstocks:
For the near term, ethanol may be the most viable bio-liquid
for reforming—as it is already widely available. In the long
Feedstock: Biomass Near Term term, reformers may be able to accept a range of biomass
Energy Source: Biomass resources available in any particular region throughout the
Production: Distributed year. Eventually, it may be possible to process biomass
Semi-Central directly into hydrogen without first converting it to a liquid.
Mid Term

Long Term

9
Coal and Biomass Gasification

Combining feedstocks to offset Versatile modern gasifiers: The gasification process

can break down almost any carbon-based feedstock into
challenges posed by either coal or its chemical parts. Modern gasifier systems expose coal
biomass alone or biomass to hot steam and controlled amounts of air or
oxygen under high pressures and temperatures. Under these
conditions, the molecules break apart, setting off chemical
reactions that produce carbon monoxide mixed with smaller
amounts of hydrogen and other gaseous compounds. The
carbon monoxide can then be subjected to a water-gas shift
(WGS) process to produce hydrogen.

Carbon and productivity vs. cost and supply:

Coal gasifiers are now in commercial use to produce power,
chemicals, and synthetic fuels, but they generate substantial
amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2). The challenges are to
optimize the system for hydrogen production, develop
downstream processes, and develop better, lower-cost
methods to capture and store the carbon. Gasification of
biomass instead of coal would minimize carbon impacts,
but biomass cost and supply issues would present other
challenges.

Cleaner production through co-gasification:

Gasification technologies can use coal or biomass as
Some utilties are exploring biomass gasification as a cleaner and more feedstock, or a combination of the two simultaneously.
effecient way to meet growing demand for electricity. Co-gasification of coal and biomass helps to address both
the carbon issues related to coal and the cost and supply
Feedstock: Coal Near Term issues related to biomass.
Biomass
Energy Source: Coal
Biomass
Mid Term
Production: Semi-Central
Central

Long Term

10
 Hydrogen Production Technologies

Thermochemical Production
(Using a Heat-Driven Chemical Reaction To Split Water)

Concentrating solar energy to Sustainable, closed-loop process: Solar energy can

be concentrated with mirrors focusing on a special lens to
drive an efficient process generate temperatures close to 2,000°C. These temperatures
can be used to trigger a series of chemical reactions that split
water molecules to produce hydrogen without generating any
harmful emissions. Since the chemicals used are recycled,
this proposed process consumes only water and produces
only hydrogen and oxygen. The high temperatures enable
extremely fast reaction rates that significantly accelerate
production.

Multiple pathways to study: Researchers have

identified more than 300 possible chemical reaction cycles
for analysis and are in the process of selecting the most
promising for further development and demonstration.
This technology is relatively immature and requires extensive
research in basic chemistry and materials. DOE is also
One closed chemical cycle uses zinc oxide and solar energy to make hydrogen. developing similar thermochemical processes designed to
use the waste heat from nuclear plants.
Feedstock: Water Near Term
Energy Source: Solar
Materials challenge: Many of the chemical reaction
cycles under study involve corrosive chemicals at high
Nuclear
temperatures. The economic feasibility of this production
Production: Semi-Central Mid Term pathway relies on the identification of materials with
Central sufficient corrosion resistance under these process
conditions. Potential candidate classes of materials include
refractory metals, reactive metals, super alloys, ceramics,
Long Term polymers, and coatings.

11
Water Electrolysis (Splitting Water Using Electricity)

High sustainability potential

Clean with renewables: A promising way to produce
hydrogen is by splitting water using electricity (electrolysis).
This involves passing an electric current through the water
to split it into hydrogen and oxygen. Electrolysis is less
efficient than a direct chemical path but offers virtually
no pollution or toxic byproducts if the electric current is
generated using renewable energy (including geothermal and
hydropower).

Carbon and cost hurdles: Low-temperature water

electrolysis is a process that takes up relatively little space
and can use the existing water and electricity infrastructure.
For these reasons, this option could be used to make
hydrogen on-site at fueling stations in the near term. The
major drawbacks to this technology are the cost of electricity
and uncertain impacts on carbon emissions, which depend
on the energy sources used by the utilities.

Long-term strategy: In the long term, renewable-

powered water electrolysis (e.g., wind or solar) at central
or semi-central facilities could overcome these challenges.
Using wind power or waste heat from nuclear reactors would generate These facilities may take advantage of technology advances
hydrogen without emitting greenhouse gases.
or receive cost breaks from the utilities by using “off-peak”
power. Water electrolysis facilities at centrally located nuclear
Feedstock: Water Near Term plants could produce hydrogen using heat from the reactors.
Energy Source: Grid This high-temperature process would require a third less
Wind electricity than low-temperature electrolysis.
Solar
Nuclear Mid Term
Production: Distributed
Semi-Central
Central Long Term

12
 Hydrogen Production Technologies

Photoelectrochemical Hydrogen Production

(Using Solar Power to Directly Split Water)

Direct use of low-temperature One-step process: Hydrogen can be produced

directly from water using sunlight and a special class
solar energy of semiconductor materials. These highly specialized
semiconductors absorb sunlight and use the light energy
to completely separate water molecules into hydrogen
and oxygen.

Development of high-performance materials:

This technology requires a material that is both highly
durable and highly efficient at photoelectrochemical
hydrogen production. Scientists have identified some
materials that split water efficiently and others that offer high
durability, but the search continues for a material that meets
both of these criteria. Researchers are currently working to
discover photoelectrochemical materials and coatings that
can efficiently convert a wide spectrum of light—yet remain
stable when they come into contact with electrolytes.

Researchers focus light on a semiconductor immersed in water to directly split Future solutions: Scientists are exploring a range of
water into hydrogen and oxygen.
approaches to solve the materials hurdles, including use of
nanomaterial coatings, metal doping, and various hybrid
Feedstock: Water materials. Photoelectrochemical water splitting is in the
Near Term
Energy Source: Solar very early stages of reserach, but offers long-term
potential for sustainable hydrogen production with low
Production: Semi-Central environmental impact.
Central
Mid Term

Long Term

13
Biological Hydrogen Production

Harnessing naturally occurring Scientists are finding ways to harness natural biological
processes that convert and store the energy of sunlight as
biological processes renewable hydrogen. Metabolic pathways for the generation
of hydrogen are found in microorganisms such as unicellular
green algae, cyanobacteria, photosynthetic bacteria, and
in some forms of dark fermentative bacteria. Optimizing
biological hydrogen production requires understanding the
enzymatic pathways through which hydrogen is formed at
the molecular level. Scientists are exploring four or five
main pathways.

Photolytic Biological Production from Water:

This conversion pathway produces hydrogen by using
sunlight and specialized microorganisms, such as green algae
and cyanobacteria, to split water. Just as plants produce
oxygen from photosynthesis, these microbes consume
water and produce hydrogen as a byproduct of their natural
metabolic processes. Photolytic conversion holds great
promise for the long term, but major challenges remain.

A key challenge is that the oxygen produced along with

Scientists are pursuing innovative ways to improve photolytic hydrogen the hydrogen tends to accumulate and impede the work of
production in green algae. Specifically, they are working to increase the hydrogen-evolving enzymes. Researchers are searching
both the oxygen tolerance of critical enzymes and algae’s efficiency at
for more oxygen-tolerant enzymes and also exploring new
harvesting light.
genetic forms of the organisms that sustain hydrogen
production in the presence of oxygen. An alternative
Feedstock: Water Near Term approach uses a metabolic switch (sulfur deprivation)
Biomass to cycle algal cells back and forth between phases for
Energy Source: Solar photosynthetic growth and hydrogen production.
Biomass Mid Term
Another challenge is that the chlorophyll in microalgae
Production: Semi-Central
under bright sunlight absorbs photons at a far faster
Central
Long Term rate than they can be used in photosynthesis—wasting
up to 80% of the photon energy. Researchers are using
molecular genetics along with new diagnostic tools to find
ways for sunlight to penetrate deeper into the microalgae
culture. Success would enable more cells to perform useful
photosynthesis—increasing solar conversion efficiency and
hydrogen productivity.

14
 Hydrogen Production Technologies

Photosynthetic Bacterial Production: Sunlight

is the driver for bacteria to break down organic material,
thus releasing hydrogen. Purple, non-sulfur bacteria with
a specialized enzyme can produce hydrogen gas when
exposed to near-infrared light energy.

Dark Fermentative Production: Bacteria can

act on organic material and decompose it into hydrogen
and other byproducts without the aid of sunlight. This
process uses anaerobic bacteria that grow in the dark on
carbohydrate-rich substrates. These bacteria break down
biomass, which is relatively inexpensive, plentiful, and
high in carbohydrate content. Researchers are working
to identify specific strains of bacteria that can directly
Microbial electrolysis cells use bacteria to break up acetic acid from
and efficiently ferment organic material (or cellulose) plant waste and produce hydrogen gas using a bit of added electricity.
to hydrogen. Researchers will then develop mutations The process produces more than 250% more energy than the electricity
that selectively block the generation of waste acids and required to extract it.
solvents that reduce ongoing hydrogen productivity.

Microbial-aided Electrolysis: Microbial

electrolysis cells use bacteria to efficiently extract energy
from organic matter. As the bacteria decompose the
organic materials, they produce a low voltage at the
anode. Hydrogen is produced at the fully submerged
cathode with the input of a tiny amount of
additional energy. Optimizing the environment to
expedite this natural process could potentially produce
hydrogen with much greater efficiency than
standard electrolysis.
A system using multiple biological processes can provide internally generated
feedstock and produce hydrogen at each step.
Combination: Perhaps the most promising biological
production pathway incorporates some or all of these
technologies into a single system. This integrated
approach could alleviate the need to overcome all
barriers to individual technologies, as long as the overall
system is cost-competitive. Integrated systems may use
the byproducts of some production pathways as inputs
to others in a nearly closed-loop system that produces
hydrogen at each stage.

15
Next Steps
Energy prices, supply uncertainties, and climate concerns
are intensifying the need for diverse forms of energy from
sustainable domestic resources. Guided by the Hydrogen
Production Roadmap, the FreedomCAR & Fuel Partnership
and the DOE Hydrogen Program are working with
researchers in national laboratories, universities, and industry
to accelerate the development and commercial readiness
of hydrogen production technologies and the supporting
infrastructure.
The hydrogen initially available at consumer fueling
stations will help to establish the markets, standards, and
infrastructure. As research progresses, the technologies used
to produce the hydrogen are expected to shift toward those
that produce no net greenhouse gas emissions.
16
While some of the hydrogen production technologies now
under development may be supplanted by competing or
improved approaches, a variety of production technologies
are likely to find long-term use in regions that offer an
abundance of their required feedstock and renewable energy
resource. Fuel costs to consumers will gradually decrease
as these technologies and the delivery infrastructure are
optimized and grow to maturity.
Ultimately, hydrogen represents an important component
of our national strategy to diversify energy resources. The
Hydrogen Production Roadmap is helping to align public
and private R&D priorities and technology investments to
accelerate progress in bringing this clean, domestic energy
carrier into widespread use. For more information on the
technologies, please visit our website at www.hydrogen.
energy.gov
The nozzle used for refueling
a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle is
designed to form a seal around
the filler pipe rather than function
as a spout.
 The FreedomCAR and Fuel Partnership is a public-
private partnership between the U.S. Department
of Energy; five major energy producers, including
BP America, Chevron Corporation, ConocoPhillips,
ExxonMobil Corporation, and Shell Hydrogen LLC;
USCAR, whose members include Chrysler, Ford, and
General Motors; and two major utilities – DTE Energy
and Southern California.

The Partnership envisions a clean and sustainable

transportation energy future that reduces our nation’s
Disclaimer dependence on foreign oil and minimizes regulated
emissions and CO2, yet preserves freedom of mobility
This report was prepared as an account of
work sponsored by an Agency of the United
and vehicle choice for consumers.
States Government. Neither the United
States Government nor any Agency thereof,
nor any of their employees, makes any
warranty, expressed or implied, or assumes
The Partnership’s Hydrogen Production Technical
any legal liability or responsibility for the Team works closely with the DOE Hydrogen, Fuel
accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of Cells & Infrastructure Technologies (HFCIT) Program,
any information, apparatus, product, or
process disclosed, or represents that its use which is the lead federal agency for directing and
would not infringe privately owned rights. integrating activities in hydrogen production, storage,
Reference herein to any specific commercial and delivery with transportation and stationary fuel
product, process, or service by trade name,
trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise cell activities. The Hydrogen Production Tech Team
does not necessarily constitute or imply its provides guidance to DOE’s hydrogen production
endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by
the United States Government or any Agency
activities:
thereof. The views and opinions expressed by
the authors herein do not necessarily state or • Identifying technical goals
reflect those of the United States Government
or any Agency thereof.
• Clarifying R&D needs
• Establishing technical performance targets
January 2009 • Monitoring progress

17
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