LESSON 9: STEAM GENERATORS

 Steam Generator is a combination of apparatus for producing. Furnishing, or recovering heat,

together with apparatus for transforming to a working fluid the heat thus available.

Types of Boiler

1. Fire-tube Boilers- are those having the heat gases of combustion inside the tubes. Limited only to a
working pressure of 1.7 Mpag.
a) Horizontal-Return-Tubular (HRT) Boiler
b) Packaged Fire- Tube Boiler
c) Vertical Tubular Boiler

2. Water- Tube – Boiler- are those having the hot gases of combustion outside the tubes.
a) Horizontal Straight-Tube Boiler
b) Central Station Steam Generators
c) Marine Steam Generators
d) Forced-circulation Steam Boilers

Water- Tube Boiler Circulation Principle

 Figure 1 below illustrates the principle of water-tube boiler circulation

Figure 1. Water-Tube Boiler Circulation Principle

 Dryness Factor (or fraction) or Quality of steam- refers to the amount of steam in the mixture
of water and steam at the riser.
 Top Dryness Fraction- applies to the mixture leaving the tubes.

Boiler Ratings and Performance

 Boiler Hp = equivalent to the generation of 34.5 lb/hr (15.44 kg/hr) from water at 212 ℉ (100
℃ ) to saturated steam also at 212 ℉ (100 ℃ ).
 Energy of Evaporation:

Energy of Evaporation = ( 34.5 ) (hfg @ 212℉ )= 34.5 ( lb

hr)(
970.3
Btu
lb )
≈ 33 500 Btu /hr

Energy of Evaporation = ( 15.646 ) ( h fg @ 100℃ )= 15.646 ( kg

hr)(
2257
kJ
kg )
≈ 35 314 kJ /hr

Btu
Where, h fg =enthalpy of evaporation at 212℉ ( 100 ℃ )=970.3 =2257 kJ /kg
lb
Therefore, 1 Bo Hp = 33 500 Btu/hr = 35 414 kJ/hr

 Boiler Horsepower, Bo Hp

ms(h −h ) ms(h −h )
Bo, Hp = 2 1
= 2 1

35 314 33 500

Where, m s =mass flow rate of steam , kg /hr ,lb /hr

h1=enthalpy of feed water , kJ / kg , Btu /lb

h2 =enthalpy of steam leaving the boiler , kJ /kg , Btu /lb

 Factor of Evaporation, FE

Boiler Output , kJ /kg , Btu /lb h 2−h1 h2−h1

FE = = =
2257∨970.3 2257 970.3

 Equivalent Evaporation, Eq, Evap.

Boiler Output , kJ /hr Boiler Output , Btu /hr

Eq , Evap .=( F . E . ) ms= =
2257 970.3

 Rated Boiler Horsepower

2 2
Heat Transfer Area∨Surface ,m ,¿ ft
Rated Bo . Hp=
k
Where, k =0.91 m2 /Bo . Hp .=10 ft 2 /Bo . Hp. For water- tube boiler
2 2
K=1.10 m / Bo. Hp .=12 ft / Bo . Hp . For fire- tube boiler

 Developed Boiler Horsepower

Dev , Bo , Hp .=
∑ ms (∆ h) =
Boiler Output , kJ /hr Boiler Output , Btu/hr
=
35 314∨33500 35 314 33 500
 ( F . E ) (ms ) Eq . Evap . ( F . E . ) (ms) Eq . Evap .
Dev , Bo , Hp .= = = =
15. 646 15.646 34.5 34.5

Where, ∑ m s ( ∆ h )=¿ ¿ total heat transfer to cycle fluid in steam generator (boiler,
superheater, heater, Economizer, reheater), kJ /hr , Btu /hr .

 Percent Rating

Dev . Bo . Hp
Percent Rating =
Rated Bo . Hp .
 Rating for Modern steam Generators

Steam Generated at Rated Capacity , kg/hr

kW Rating =
¿−all Steam Rate , kg/kw ∙ hr

Where, Steam Generated= kg /hr of steam at a given pressure and temperature and feed
water temperature

 Boiler Performance- the measure of boiler heat output, Q B , in kJ /hr ∨Btu /hr
a) Q B = Based on the flow diagram

b) Q B = m F ( HHV ) E B

c) Q B = (Dev. Bo. Hp) (35 314) or Q B = (Dev. Bo. Hp) (33 500)
d) Q B = (Eq. Evap.) (2257) or Q B = (Eq. Evap.) (970.3)
% Rating
e) Q B = (Rated Bo. Hp) ( ) (33 500)
100 %

Where, Q B = Boiler Output, kJ /hr , Btu /hr

HHV = higher heating value of the fuel, kJ /kg , Btu/lb
E B = boiler efficiency
mF = mass flow rate of fuel, kg /hr , lb/hr

 Boiler Over-all Efficiency

QB
E B=( )(100 %)
QA

Where, Q B = Boiler Output, kJ /hr , kJ /kg , Btu /hr , Btu /lb

Q A =heat added∨heat ¿ the fuel , kJ /hr , Btu /hr=mF (HHV )

 Net Over- all Boiler Efficiency

 η B=
QB '
( 100 % ) =
∑ ms ( ∆ h ) (100 %)
mF ( HHV ) mF ( HHV )
'
Where, Q B =¿heat absorbed by the boiler fluid less the amount of heat used for the boiler
auxiliaries.

 Boiler and Furnace Efficiency

Boiler Output per kg combustible burned

E BF= (100 %)
HHV per kg fuel fired

[ ]
QB
( 1−M − A−C ub )
E BF= (100 % )
HHV
( 1−M − A )

Where, M = moisture content of the fuel

A = ash content of the fuel
C ub = unburned carbon

 Grate Efficiency

E BF=
kg combustible burned /kg fuel fired
kg combustible /kg fuel fired [
( 100 % ) =
1−M − A−Cub
1−M − A ]
(100 %)

STEAM GENERATOR HEAT BALANCE

 The fuel supplied to a furnace when completely burned releases its heating value. The energy
primarily changes the feedwater pumped to the boiler into steam. All the heating value does
not go this useful purpose. These are some losses in the form of incomplete combustion, of
flue gases leaving at high temperature, and of radiated and convected heat from the outside
of the steam generator. An energy balance shows the distribution of the heating value of the
fuel to the formation of steam and to the various losses.

 Figure 2 below illustrates the energy balance of a steam generator.

Useful Energy

1. Energy Absorbed by the steam generator fluid (or Useful Energy)

Q1=W S ( h g 2−h f 1 ) +W r ( h g 4 −h g3 ) + W B (hf 2−hf 1)

Where, Q 1=¿ Energy absorbed by the boiler fluid or the useful energy, kJ /kg fuel , Btu /lb fuel
h g 2 = enthalpy of steam leaving the boiler, kJ /kg , Btu/lb
h f 1 = enthalpy of feed water, kJ /kg , Btu/lb
h f 2 = enthalpy of water at boiler pressure, kJ /kg , Btu/lb
h g 4 = enthalpy of reheat steam leaving the steam generator, kJ /kg , Btu/lb
h g 3 = enthalpy of reheat steam entering the steam generator, kJ /kg , Btu/lb
W S = mass of steam from feedwater per unit mass fuel, kg /kg fuel , lb /lb fuel
W r = mass of reheated steam per unit mass fuel, kg /kg fuel , lb /lb fuel
W B = mass of blowdown per unit mass fuel (often negligible), kg /kg fuel , lb /lb fuel
Energy Losses

2. Energy Loss due to mechanical moisture in fuel (or energy loss due to evaporating and
superheating moisture of fuel)

Energy Units:

Q2=W ( 1066 +0.5 t g−t a ) when t g >575 ℉

Q2=W ( 1089+ 0.46 t g−t a ) when t g >575 ℉

S.I. Units:

Q2=W ( 2479.81+ 2.0935t g −4.187 t a ) when t g >302 ℃

Q2=W ( 2533.31+1.92602 t g−4.187 t a ) when t g >302 ℃

Where, Q 2= energy loss due to moisture content of the fuel as fired, kg /kg fuel , lb /lb fuel
W = moisture content of the fuel, kg /kg fuel , lb /lb fuel
t g = temperature of flue gas after passing all heat-transfer surfaces, ℃ , ℉
t a = temperature of air entering for combustion to the furnace of air heater, if the
latter is used, ℃ , ℉
3. Energy loss due to moisture from hydrogen in the fuel (or energy loss due to evaporating and
superheating moisture formed by combustion of hydrogen.

English Units:

Q3=9 H 2 ( 1066+ 0.5t g −t a ) when t g >575 ℉

Q3=9 H 2 ( 1089+0.46 t g −t a ) when t g >575 ℉

S.I. Units:

Q2=9 H 2 ( 2479.81+2.0935 t g−4.187 t a ) when t g >302 ℃

Q2=9 H 2 ( 2533.31+1.92602 t g−4.187 t a ) when t g >302 ℃

4. Energy loss due to moisture from air

English Units:

Q4 =0.47 W AV ( t g−t a )

S.I. Units:

Q4 =1.96789 W AV ( t g −t a )

Where, W AV =¿ mass of moisture content in supply air per unit mass fuel,
kg /kg fuel , lb /lb fuel
W AV =¿ (1 + e) W a (g)
W a=¿ theoretical air-fuel ratio, kg /kg fuel , lb /lb fuel
g = humidity ratio of supply air, kg /kg d . a . ,lb/lb d . a .

5. Energy loss due to dry flue-gas sensible heat

English Units:

Q5=W DG c p ( t g−t a ) =0.24 W DG ( t g−t a )

S.I. Units:

Q5=W DG c p ( t g−t a ) =1.005W DG ( t g −t a )

Where, W DG=¿mass of dry flue gas per unit mass fuel, kg /kg fuel , lb /lb fuel

6. Energy Loss due to incomplete combustion

 English Units:

Q6=W DG ( 28 CO
44 C O2 +28 CO+ 28 N 2+32 O2
( 10187 )
)
Q6=10160 C i=10160 C ab
( CO
C O2+CO )
S.I. Units:

Q6=W DG
( 44 C O +2828CO+CO28 N +32 O ) ( 4380)
2 2 2

Q =23631C =23631 C (
C O +CO )
CO
6 i ab
2

Note: CO and CO 2 in the second equation must be an Orsat analysis (% by

volume)

7. Heat Loss due to Unburned Carbon

English Units:
Q7=14 600 ( C−C ab)
Q7=W r (HHV )r

S.I. Units:

Q7=33 964 ( C−C ab )

Q7=W r (HHV )r

Where, W r =¿ mass of refuse, kg /kg fuel , lb /lb fuel

(HHV )r=¿ heating value of refuse

8. Heat Loss due to radiation and Unaccounted-for

Q8=HHV −∑ Q1−7=HHV −( Q1 +Q2 +Q3 +Q 4 + Q5+ Q6 +Q7 )

PROBLEMS

Prob. # 1] In a water-tube boiler with 186 m2 of boiler heating surface and operating at 1.75 MPaa,
water is fed at the rate of 2 268 kg/hr. Water enters the economizer at 56 °C and leave therefrom at
112 °C, while steam with 5 % moisture enters the superheater and leaves therefrom as superheated
at the same pressure. Coal with a heating value of 28 000 kJ/kg is burned at a rate of250 kg/hr. The
gross over-all boiler efficiency is 80%. The generated steam flows to a steam turbine through a well
insulated pipe along which the pressure drop is 0.10 Mpa and the steam temperature becomes 250
°C. In the turbine, steam expands to a dry and saturated state at 0.065 MPaa.
Determine:
a) the temperature of steam leaving the superheater:
b) the boiler heat losses per hour;
c) the equivalent evaporation:
d) the percent rating;
e) the weight of fuel saved in using the economizer per hour
f) the weight of additional fuel used per hour in the superheater:
g) the energy loss per hour in the piping line:
h) the power plant generator output if the turbine generator combined efficiency is 88%; and
i) the power plant gross thermal efficiency.

Prob. # 2] Water at a temperature of 28 °C enters an open feedwater heater. It mingles with sufficient
exhaust steam at 0.10 Mpaa and 0.93 dryness factor. The departing feed water is at 99 C from which
the boiler generates saturated steam at 1.14 Mpaa and develops 850 Bo. HP at a gross over-all
efficiency of 70 %. The coal has a heating value of 27 915.3 kJ/kg.
a) How much feedwater will be needed per hour?
a.) b) How much exhaust steam will be needed per hour?
b.) c) Find the factor of evaporation
c.) d) Find the equivalent evaporation.
d.) Find the weight of coal needed per hour.
e.) Find the rated Bo. Hp, if the fire-tube boiler has 11154. m2 of heating surface.
f.) Find the percent rating developed.
g.) Find the percent boiler overload or under load.

Prob. # 3] A steam boiler has an actual evaporation rate of 8.23 kg/kg coal fired. Coal as fired
contains 2 % moisture. Dry coal contains 5% ash and has a heating value of 29 776 kJ/kg. During the
test 12 % of coal fired is delivered from the ashpit as refuse. The steam leaving the boiler is saturated
at a pressure of 0.70 Mpaa and the temperature of feed water is 49 C. Determine a) the boiler
efficiency; b) the boiler-furnace efficiency; and c) the grate efficiency.

Prob. # 4] A frictionless nozzle expands steam from an initial steam pressure of 1.4 Mpaa, degrees of
superheat 29.93 C, to a back pressure of 0.0034 Mpaa. Weight of discharge is 3273.0kg/hr.
Determine:
a) the velocity of the jet at the throat:
b) the maximum spouting velocity;
c) diameter of the throat;
d) the diameter of the mouth.
e) Find the same above if the nozzle efficiency is 94 %.

Prob. # 5] A steam turbine operating at 2.5 MPaa, 320 C, and 0.01 MPaa develops a shaft power of
1120 kW. The engine efficiency is 67% and the losses are 4%. It is necessary to bleed enough steam
at a pressure of 0.42 MPaa to heat 68 000 kg/hr of water from 77 C to 138 C in a surface type
feedwater heater. There is a 0.02 Mpaa pressure drop from the turbine to the heater. What are the
throttle, feed, and exhaust flows steam rates?
Prob. #6] A deaerating feedwater heater has the following flows at one point of operation:
Leaving feedwater 363 640 kg/hr
Drain inflow 32 730 kg/hr averaging 882 kJ/kg enthalpy
Entering feedwater temperature 80 ℃
Turbine bleed steam 340 Краа, 160℃ .
Calculate the amount of a) bled steam from the turbine; and b) feedwater entering.

Prob. # 7] Data from a test on No. 5 boiler at the Calaca plant of the National Power Corporation are
as follows: Ultimate analysis of coal as fired,
C = 78.0 % H 2 = 4. 92 % 0 = 6.76%
N 2 = 1.60 % S = 0.62 % A = 6.40%
W= 1.70 %
HHV of coal as fired 31 900.2 kJ/kg
Coal rate 33 347 kg/hr
Refuse rate and analysis:
Ashpit refuse 427 kg/hr
C 0.30%
A 99.7%
Dry flue gas analysis:
CO 2 13.70 %
CO 0.00 %
O2 4.50 %
N2 81.80 %
Flue gas temperature 190 °C
Steam data:
Pressure 8.70 MPaa
Temperature 500 °C
Steam rate 37 200 kg/hr
Feedwater data:
Temperature 200 °C
Air data:
Dry bulb temperature 37°C
Wet bulb temperature 19°C

Calculate an energy balance of the boiler.

Prob. # 8] A water-tube boiler operating at 1.75 Mpaa has a heating surface of 140 m2. 5443 kg/hr of
steam at 360 °C leave the superheater. Water enters the economizer at 31 °C and leaves therefrom at
83 °C. Wet steam with 95% dryness leaves the boiler. With an overall boiler efficiency of 75% and a
fuel heating value of 37 214 kJ/kg,
find:
a) the weight of coal fired per hour;
b) the amount of steam produced per kg fuel;
c) the amount of heat added to the economizer;
d) the heat added in the superheater;
Prob. #9] A water-tube boiler having a heating surface of 325.23 m2 evaporates 6349.21 kg of water
in an hour from a feed temperature of 66 °C. Boiler pressure is at 1.04 Mpaa and the steam quality at
the boiler outlet is 99 %. What percent of its rated Bo. Hp was the boiler developing?

Prob. # 10] At a load of 48 000 kW in a steam turbine generating set, the following data appear the
logsheet:
Steam flow 190 metric tons per hour
Steam pressure 8.80 Mpaa
Steam temperature 540 °C
Feedwater temperature 230 °C
Fuel flow (consumption):
Bunker oil 3.4 metric tons per hour
HHV of bunker 41 870 kJ/kg
Local coal 18 metric tons per hour
HHV of coal 22 400kJ/kg
Calculate: a) the over-all boiler efficiency; b) the plant thermal efficiency; and c) the plant heat rate.

Prob. # 11] A bituminous coal has the following compositions:

C =71.6% N 2 = 1.3% A=9.1 %
N 2= 4.8 % S = 3.4 % W = 3.5 %
O 2 = 6.3 %
The dilution coefficient is 1.35 and 5 % of carbon is burned for CO. The coal consumption is 11762
kg/hr.

Determine:
a) the actual air-fuel ratio required for combustion:
b) the actual air required per hour;
c) the weight of flue gas required per hour;
d) the weight of dry-flue gas required per hour; and
e) the dry flue gas analysis by weight and by volume.

Prob. # 12] A producer gas has the following percentage volumetric composition:
CO 2= 10.8 CO = 18.3 CH 4 =1.3 O 2= 0.1 H 2 =12.9
N 2 = 54.6 C 2 H 2 = 0.2
Calculate:
a) the weight analysis by elements:
b) the weight analysis by compounds: and
c) the theoretical air required per kg fuel.

Prob. # 13] Data from a test on a NAPOCOR boiler, using pulverized coal, are as follows:

Proximate Analysis of coal Ultimate Analysis of coal

W = 2.80 % C= 84.36% N 2=0.63%
VCM=1.16% H 2=1.89% S=0.89%
FC = 88.21 % O 2=4.40%
A= 7.83 %
The coal rate is 11762 kg/hr and the excess air required is 35 %. Determine:
a) the actual air required per hour: and
b) the weight of dry flue gas required per hour

Prob. # 14] A jet condenser discharges water at 36 °C with inlet water at 8 °C. The condenser
pressure is 76 mm Hg abs. Calculate the mass of condensing water per kg of exhaust steam with a
dryness factor of 90 %.

Prob. # 15] The pressure in a surface condenser is 38.1 m Hg abs. Condensing water enters at 10 °C
and leaves with a terminal temperature difference of 6 C° compared with the steam. The condensate
is subcooled 3°C. A turbine of 2 000 kW capacity with a steam rate of 6.35 kg/kW-hr exhausts 85 %
quality steam to the condenser.
Calculate: a) the mass of condensing water perk kg of steam; and b) the volume rate of condensing
water.

Prob. # 16] A condenser receives 11 338 kg of steam per hour at 89 % dryness factor. Steam
temperature in the condenser is 33 °C and free air at 101.325 kPaa and 15.56 °C leaks into the
condenser at the rate of 0.51 m3/min. Determine the pressure in the condenser.

Prob. # 17] A 10-MW turbine uses 5.5 kg of steam per kW-hr at rated load. Steam conditions are 2
Mpaa and 400 C° with exhaust at 5 kPaa. Condensate is subcooled 4°C, and turbine losses to friction
and heat radiation amount to 2%ofturbineoutout. Calculate: a) the enthalpy of exhaust steam, in
kJ/kg; and b) the volume rate of condensing water based on 8°C rise.

Prob. # 18] A boiler has an effective heating surface of 154 m2. It has a capacity of 6 804 kg/hr on
138 °C feedwater and 1.7 Mpaa steam at 400 °C. Calculate:
a) the rated Bo. Hp;
b) the operating Bo. Hp;
c) the percent rating;
d) the equivalent evaporation.

Prob. # 19] Coal with a HHV of 28 052.9 kJ/kg is consumed at the rate of 600 kg/hr in a steam
generator with a rated Bo. Hp of 200 Bo. Hp. The feedwater temperature is 82 °C and steam
generated is at 1.08 Mpaa saturated. The Dev. Bo. Hp is equivalent to 305 Bo. Hp.
Determine:
a) the heating surface:
b) the rate of steam evaporated;
c) the percent rating;
d) the equivalent evaporation;
e) the factor of evaporation:
f) the over-all thermal efficiency of the boiler;
g) the actual specific evaporation (kg steam evaporated per kg fuel);
h) the equivalent specific evaporation, kg/kg fuel.

Prob. # 20] In a water-tube boiler with 186 m2 of boiler heating surface and operating 1.70 Mpaa,
water is fed at the rate of 2 268 kg/hr. Water enters the economizer at 56 °C and leaves therefrom at
111 C° while steam with 1 % moisture enters the superheater and leaves therefrom at 260 °C. Coal
with a HHV of 27 916 kJ/kg is burned with a gross over-all efficiency of 80 %. The generated steam
flows to a steam turbine through a well-insulated pipe along which the pressure drop was 0.07
Mpaa. Find: a) the weight of coal burned per hr; b) actual Bo. Hp developed; c) the percent rating; d)
the energy loss due to friction along the piping line; and e) the energy recovered in the economizer
and the weight of coal saved in using the economizer