VII.

STEAM GENERATOR AND AUXILIARIES DESIGN

A steam generator is a device that uses a heat source to boil liquid water and convert
it into its vapor phase, referred to as steam. The heat may be derived from the combustion of
a fuel such as coal, petroleum fuel oil, natural gas, municipal waste or biomass, a nuclear
fission reactor and other sources.
There are a great many different types of steam generators ranging in size from small
medical and domestic humidifiers to large steam generators used in conventional coal-fired
power plants that generate about 3,500 kilograms of steam per megawatt-hour
of energy production.
Many small commercial and industrial steam generators are referred to as "boilers".
In common usage, domestic water heaters are also referred to as "boilers", however they do
not boil water nor do they generate any steam. Steam generators are used to harness energy
liberated as heat in a wide variety of processes and convert it into a form which is more
useful, such as mechanical and electrical energy. The heat used is typically produced
intentionally for the production of electricity or is captured as a byproduct of some other
industrial process. The immediate source of the heat is usually dirty, such as the radioactive
fuel in a nuclear power plant, so the first step of steam power generation is to transfer that
heat into clean water with a heat exchanger. This is done by having the heat source elevate
the temperature of an exchange medium, such as an oil, that is circulated in a closed circuit.
The oil in turn heats a water reservoir without contaminating it

180 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

1. DESIGN DATA AND PRELIMINARY CALCULATION
a. Conditions of Throttled Steam Leaving the Superheater (state 1)
Temperature, t 1=498.65 ° C
Pressure, P1=5516.387 kPa
Mass of steam, ms =60.218 kg/ sec
Enthalpy, h1 =3425.50 kJ /kg

b. Conditions of Steam at Boiler

T steam at boiler=t sat at boiler operating temperature∧ pressure.

Calculating for the design pressure, Pdesign

Generally, the steam pressure at turbine throttle valve is taken to be the official
plant pressure. Boiler drum steam pressure is of course higher because of frictional
losses in the boiler parts. These are:
Loss through piping and valves 1.55 kg/cm2 gage
Loss in superheater and connection 0.98 kg/cm2 gage
Allowance for dry pipe in boiler drum 0.14 kg/cm2 gage
Total 2.67 kg/cm2 gage
Values above are taken from page 263 of Power Plant Engineering by Morse.
To overcome these losses, the steam at boiler should be higher than the pressure
at state 1. Thus,
P1 , gage+ P loss ,total=P boiler drum

( 5516.387 kPa−101.325 ) kPag+2.67 ( 101.32

1.0332 )
5
kPag=P boiler drum

Pboiler drum=5 676.907 kPag (operating pressure)

As the safety valve will not open until the pressure has risen some 4 % above
operating pressure, the maximum boiler pressure will be:
Pmax =Pdesign =5676.907 kPag ( 1.04 )=5 903.983 kPag
This will be the design pressure in the boiler drum.

Calculating for the design temperature, t design

From page 263, Power Plant Engineering by Morse, the pressure–temperature
ranges for steam power can be group as follows:
8.8 – 17.6 kg/cm2: sat. steam to 83.3 °C superheat
17.6 – 28.1 kg/cm2: sat. steam to 400 °C total
28.1 – 56.2 kg/cm2: 400°C to 440 °C
56.2 – 70.3 kg/cm2: 427°C to 482 °C
70.3 – 140.6 kg/cm2: 449°C to 566 °C

181 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 1.0332 kg/ cm 2
For the design pressure of 5 903.983 kPag × =60.202kg /cm 2the design
101.325 kPa
temperature falls on the range of 56.2-70.3 kg/cm2: 427 °C to 482 °C.

c. Conditions Steam Entering Superheater

P=5 903.983 kPa
t=t sat @5 903.983 kPa
From Table 1, Steam Tables by Keenan et. al.
Pressure, kPa Temperature, °C Enthalpy, kJ/kg
5000 263.94 2 794.2
5903.983 t h
6000 275.59 2 784.6
t=274.47 ℃
h=2757.28 kJ /kg

d. Conditions at Boiler Blowdown, mbd

mbd=0.015 m28=0.01 5 ( 61.135 kg/ s )
mbd=0.91703 kg/ s

e. Feedwater Entering the Economizer (state 28)

t 28=203.973 ℃
P28=5516.387 kPa
h28=652.669 kJ /kg

f. Feedwater Leaving Economizer

P=5 903.983 kPa
t=274.47 ℃
h=h f @ 274.47 ℃
From steam tables by Keenan et al.
Temperature, ℃ Enthalpy, kJ/kg
270 1185.1
274.47 h
275 1210.7
h=1207.99 kJ /kg

182 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

2. DESIGN OF FURNACE
From Table 10-1, page 314, PPE by Morse, furnace temperature of oil or gas fuel is
above or 1316 ℃. For design calculation, assume that the furnace temperature is about 1316
℃. From this temperature, furnace heat release ranges 222500 to 445000 kcal/m3-hr.
Table 10-1. FURNACE HEAT RELEASE RATES
DESIGN VALUES – KCAL PER M3 PER HR
Pulverized coal Below 1149℃ Above
Ash fusion temp . . . . 1149℃ 1316℃ 1316℃

Solid refractory . . . . Never 111250 133500

Air-cooled refractor . . . . 106800 133500 155750
Water-cooled bottom . . . . 142400 155750
178000
Water walls . . . . . 155750 195800 267000

Lump coal
Stoker firing Very large plant . . . . . 267000 – 311500
Stoker firing Large plant . . . . . . 178000 – 267000
Stoker firing Small plant . . . . . . 133500 – 222500

Oil or gas . . . . . . . . 222500 – 445000

Use means,
Q R=
2 (
222500+ 445 000 kcal
3
m −h r () 4.181 kcal
58 kJ
)( 3600
1 hr
s 1 kJ / s )
)( 1 kW

kW
Q R=388.059
m3

a. To find Volume of Furnace:

Heat Added Q
VF = = A Where:
Heat Released Q R
Heat added, Q A =mf ( HV )
From equation:
ms ( h s−hf )
ηB =
mf ×HV
where:
2
HV =51 716−8 793.8 ( SG )
Fuel used is 12° Baume, or Bunker Oil No. 6
For BAUME and API Gravity Units
140 140
° BAUME = −130 ↔12= −130
SG @ 15.6° C SG @ 15.6 ° C

183 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 S.G @ 15.6 ℃ = 0.98592
For °API
141.5 141. 5
° API = −131.5= −131. 5
SG @1 5.6 ℃ 0.98 5 92
° API =12.021

From Kent’s Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook, Table 11, page 2-57 as

shown below, the approximate preheating temperature for fuel oil having °API 12 –
14 has a temperature of 220 – 275 ℉
Table 11. Approximate Preheating Temperatures for Fuel Oil
Gravity Temperature Gravity Temperature Gravity Temperature
API ℉ API ℉ API ℉

10-12 275-325 16-18 150-200 22-24 70-100

12-14 220-275 18-20 140-160 24-26 70-80
14-16 175-250 20-22 100-140 ……. ……..

For °API = 12.021, the preheating temperature 220.578 ℉ = 104.766℃

Using the correction for specific gravity of fuel:
SG T =SG s [ 1−0.0007 ( t−1 5 .6 ) ]
SG T =0.98592 [ 1−0.0007 ( 104.766−15 .6 ) ]
SG T =0.9244
Thus,
HV =51 716 – 8 793.8(0.9244)2=44,201.563 kJ / kg
HV =44,201. 563 kJ /kg
From the given data:
Boiler Efficiency, η B=85 %
Enthalpy of feedwater entering economizer, h f =652.669 kJ /kg
Enthalpy of steam leaving superheater, h s=h1 =3425.50 kJ / kg
Then,
ms ( h s−hf )
ηB =
mf ×HV
60.218 kg /s (3425.50−652.669 ) kJ /kg
0.85=
mf × 44,201. 563 kJ /kg
mf =4.444 kg/ s
So,
Q A =mf ( HV )=4.444 kg/ s ( 44,201. 563 kJ /kg )
Q A =196 431.746 kW

184 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 For volume of furnace,
196 431.746 kW
V FURNACE= =506.190 m3
kW
388.059 3
m

b. Dimensions and No. of Tubes of Furnace

The designer chooses to design a furnace of rectangular shape.
 For simplicity, assume to be covered on all six sides with water walls of type
tangent tubes – flat files as shown below from Figure 10-12d by Morse on
page 309;
 From example 1, page 310 of same book, having the same efficiency of
85%, the designer will also use the data such as: 88.9 mm tubes spaced to
152.4 mm on centers

For this rectangular furnace, the designer chooses a length of 7m and a width of 6m.
Height of furnace;
V f =l ×w × h
3
506.190 m =7 m× 6 m× h
h=12.052m
With 88.9 mm tube diameter and spaced to 152.4 mm on centers.
No. of tubes for 6m walls,
6
N 1= =39.370
0.1524
N 1=40 tubes
No. of tube for 7m walls, the roof and floor:

185 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 7
N 2= =45.932
0.1524
N 2=46 tubes
Total no. of tubes
N=(40× 2)+(46 × 2)=172 tubes

c. Calculation of Radiant Heating Surface, A p

Project Area ( Side wall tubes )=( 40+46 ) × 2× 12.052m ×0.0889 m
2
Project Area ( Side wall tubes )=184.285 m
Projected Area ( Top∧Bottom )=6 m× 40 × 2× 0.0889m
2
Projected Area ( Top∧Bottom )=42.672 m
2 2 2
Total Projected Area , A P=184.285 m + 42.672 m =226.957 m

d. Effective Radiant Surface, Ar

From equation 9-27, PPE by Morse
Ar =sδ A P
Where:
δ = 0.6 π assumption for this type of wall
s=¿ slogging factor ¿ 0.9
Ar =sδ A P=0.9 ( 0.6 π ) ( 226.957 m )
2

2
Ar =385.023 m

e. Determine the available Sensible Heat, QS

QS =mC p ( t g−t air )
Where:
m CP = m C O C P + m CO C PCO + m H O C P + m SO C P + m O C P + m N C P
2 C O2 2 H 2O 2 S O2 2 O2 2 N2

Since: t g=¿ gas temperature ¿ 1 316℃

To find mean C p :
t a=¿ preheated air temperature ¿ 150 ℃
This value is taken since air supplied to a furnace should not exceed 300°F or
350°F at the most. Otherwise, war page and maintenance will be too high. This
preheated air improves combustion particularly at low loads. (Phillip J. Potter. Power
Plant Theory and Design, p. 247)
C pb ( t b −15.6 )−C pa ( t a −15.6 )
mean C p =
t b−t a

From PPE by Morse, figure 5-5 p. 138

186 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 For the Case of CO2:
C pb=C P @ 1316℃=1.180 kJ / kg ∙ ℃
C O2

C pa=C P @ 150℃=0.960 kJ /kg ∙ ℃

C O2

For the Case of O2:

C pb=C P @1316 ℃=1.16 5 kJ /kg ∙℃
O2

C pa=C P @150 ℃=0.9 55 kJ / kg ∙℃

O2

For the Case of H2O:

C pb=C P @1316 ℃=2.240 kJ / kg ∙℃
H 2O

C pa=C P @150 ℃=1.890 kJ /kg ∙℃

H 2O

For the Case of CO:

C pb=C P @1316 ℃=1.140 kJ /kg ∙℃
CO

C pa=C P @150 ℃=1.0 55 kJ /kg ∙ ℃

CO

For the Case of N2:

C pb=C P @ 1316℃=1.140 kJ / kg ∙ ℃
N2

C pa=C P @ 150℃=1.0 55 kJ /kg ∙℃

N2

Thus, for SO2:

kCal kJ
mean C P=0.2 × 4.1858
kg∙°C kCal
kJ
mean C P=0.8372
kg∙℃
For CO2:
1.18 ( 1316−1 5.6 )−0.96 ( 1 50−1 5.6 )
mean C pCO = 2
1316−1 50
kJ
mean C pCO =1.20 54
2
kg∙℃
For O2:
1.16 5 ( 1316−1 5.6 ) −0.9 55 ( 1 50−1 5.6 )
mean C pO = 2
1316−150
kJ
mean C pO =1.1892
2
kg∙℃
For N2:
1.14 ( 1316−15.6 )−1.0 55 ( 1 50−1 5.6 )
mean C p N = 2
1316−150
kJ
mean C p N =1.14982
kg∙℃
For CO:
kJ
mean C pCO =1.1498
kg∙℃

187 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 For H2O:
2.24 ( 1316−1 5.6 ) −1.89 ( 1 50−1 5.6 )
mean C p H O =
2
1316−1 50
kJ
mean C p H O =2.2803
2
kg∙℃

Ultimate analysis of fuel: Bunker oil no.6(mass basis)

Carbon, C=84.3 %
Hydrogen, H 2=12.7 %
Oxygen, O2=1.0 %
Nitrogen, N 2=0.2%
Sulfur, S=0.8 %
Moisture, M =1.0 %
Flue Gas Analysis:
CO 2=13.0 %
O2=3.1 %
N 2=83.9%
Solving for Theo. A/F ratio:
A
F ( O
=11.5 C+34.5 H − + 4.3 S
8 )
A
F (
=11.5 ( 0.843 ) +34.5 0.127−
0.01
8 )+4.3 ( 0.008 )

A kg air
=14.067
F kg fuel
Theoretical A/F = 14.067 kg air/kg fuel from table 3, page 2-06 KMEH,
(shown below), the excess air for fuel oil ranges from 8 to 15%.
Table 3. Excess Air at Furnace Outlet for Various Fuels
Permission from Combustion Engineering, Combustion Engineering Co., Inc., Ne /1947.
Fuel Excess Air, % Fuel Excess Air, %
Coal 10-40 Natural gas 5-10
Coke 20-40 Refinery gas 8-15
Wood 25-50 Blast-furnace gas 15-25
Bagasse 25-45 Coke-over gas 5-10
Oil 8-15
Use mean e=11.5 %
So that,
A A kg air
Actual =Theo ( 1+e )=14.067 ( 1+0.11 5 )
F F kg fuel

188 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 A kg air
Actual =1 5.685
F kg fuel
To solve for its masses:
From figure A-4 p. 663, PPE by Morse
Constants:
kg C O2
C=3.67
kg C
kg H 2 O
H 2=9
kg H2
kg SO2
S=2
kg S
For CO2:

( )
kg CO2 kg C
mCO =3.67 C=3.67 0.843
2
kg C kg fuel
kg CO2
mCO =3.094
2
kg fuel
For SO2:

( )
kg SO 2 kg S
mS O =2 S=2 0.008
2
kg S kg fuel
kg SO 2
mS O =0.016
2
kg fuel
For O2:

mO =
2
A
( )
F t heo (
( e ) 0.232
kg O 2
kg air )
=14.067
kg air
kg fuel (
( 0.115 ) 0.232 )
kg O2
kg air
kg O2
mO =0.3753
2
kg fuel
Note: air contains 23.2 % O2 and 76.8 % nitrogen; a total composition of 100 % air.
For N2:

mN =
2
A
( )
F t h eo (
( 1+e ) 0.768
kg N 2
kg air )
=14.067 ( 1+0.11 5 ) ( 0.768 )

kg N 2
mN =12.046
2
kg fuel
For H2O:
mH O =9 H 2+ W a
2

From Figure 3-1 (Refrigeration and Air Conditioning by Stoecker, et.al.)

Atmospheric Pressure, Patm =101.325 kPa
Dry bulb temperature, t db=27 ℃
Wet bulb temperature, t wb =21℃

189 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 W a =0.0132 kg vapo r /kg air
Thus,

mH O =9
2
kg H 2 O
kg H 2 (
0.127
kg H 2
kg fuel )
+0.0132
kg vapor
kg air
15.685( kg air
kg fuel )
kg H 2 O
mH O =1.3
2
kg fuel
Then, m C P = m CO C P
2
+ m
C O2 CO C PCO + m H O C P + m SO C P + m O C P + m N C P
2 H 2O 2 S O2 2 O2 2 N2

m CP = ( 3.094 ) ( 1.20 54 )+ ( 0 ) (1.1498 )+ (1.3 )( 2.2803 ) + ( 0.016 )( 0.8372 ) + ( 0.37 53 ) ( 2.2803 ) + ( 12.046 ) ( 1.14
kJ
m CP = 21.414
℃
Thus,
kJ
QS =mC p ( t g−t air )=21.414 ( 1316−1 5 0 ) ℃
℃
QS =24 968.724 kJ /kg fuel
f. Determination of Latent Heat, Q L
Q L=mv h fg
The specific value of h fg is uncertain, however, the ASME boiler test code
uses h fg @65.6℃. (Morse, F.T., Power Plant Engineering p. 142)
Where:
h fg @65.6 ℃
From Steam tables by Keenan et al.
Enthalpy, kJ/kg Temperature, ℃
2346.2 65
h fg 65.6
2343.7 66
h fg =2344.7 kJ /kg

mv =9 H 2 =9
kg H 2 O
kg H 2 (
0.127
kg H 2
kg fuel
=1.143 )
kg H 2 O
kg fuel
Thus,

( )
kg H 2 O kJ
Q L=mv h fg =1.143 2344.7
kg fuel kg H 2 O
kJ
Q L=2 679.922
kg fuel

g. Heat Absorbed and carried off by the product of combustion,Q

kJ
Q=mf ( hfg +Q L ) =4.444 kg/s ( 2344.7+ 2679.922 )
kg

190 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 Q=22329.42 kW

h. Gas Flow, mgas

Gas per kg fuel=mC O +mS O +mO +mN
2 2 2 2

kg CO 2 kg SO 2 kg O2 kg N 2
Gas per kg fuel=3.094 +0.016 +0.37 53 +12.046
kg fuel kg fuel kg fuel kg fuel
Gas per kg fuel=15 . 5 31 kg gas /kg fuel
mgas =1 5 .5 31 kg gas /kg fuel ( 4.444 kg fuel/ s )
kg gas
mgas =69.02
s

i. ERS (Effective Radiant Surface) per 1000kg gas

From PPE by Morse p. 311
A r (1000) 385.023 m2 (1000 kg gas /hr )
ERS per 1000 kg gas= =
m gas 69.02 kg gas /s ( 3600 s /hr )
2
ERS per 1000 kg gas=1.550 m

j. Amount of water evaporated in the water walls

From equation 6-14 Pp. 260, PPTD by Potter
Available Energy=[ HHV ( 1−Qr ) + 0.24 W aa ( t ah−t a )−1040 ( 9 H 2 )−14600 (C−Ca ) ] W f
Where:

( )
kJ
1
kJ kg
HHV =¿ higher heating value ¿ 44,201. 563
kg BTU
2.326275
lb
HHV =19001.00 5 BTU /lb
Qr =3 % of HHV are usually used (from PPTD by Potter page 266)
W aa =¿ actual A/F by mass weight analysis¿ 15.685 kg air /kg fuel
t ah=¿ temperature of preheated air ¿ 150 ℃=302 ℉
t a=¿ dry bulb temp of air ¿ 27 ℃=80.6 ℉
C=84.3 %=0.843
3600 s 2.205 lb lb
W f =¿ mass of fuel ¿ 4.444 kg/ s × × =35,276
1 hr 1 kg hr
H 2=0.127 kg H 2 /kg fuel
C ab=¿ carbon actually burned
since,

191 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 actual
A
F
=3.03 C ab
( N2
CO 2+ CO )
15.685=3.03 C ab ( 13+0
83.9
)
C ab=0.80209
Thus,
Available Energy =[ 19 001.005 ( 1−0.03 )+ 0.24 ( 15.685 ) (302−80.6 ) −1040 ( 9 )( 0.127 )−14600(0.843−0
BTU 1.055 kJ 1 hr 1 kW
Available Energy =616 568285.7 × × ×
hr 1 Btu 3600 s 1 kJ /s
Available Energy=180 688.76 kW
Energy transferred to water walls, Qw
Q w = Available Energy −Energy carried by the product of combustion
Qw =180 688.76 kW−22 329.42 kW
Qw =158 359.34 kW
Amount of water evaporated, mw
Qw 158 359.34 kW
mw= =
h superheater −h economizer ( 2757.28 – 1207.99 ) kJ /kg
mw =102.214 kg/ s
k. Furnace Exit Temperature
From Fig 6-39, p. 261, PPTD Potter

For ERS =1.550

m2
(
( kg gas/hr )/1000 1 m )
3.28 ft 2
=16.676
ft 2
(kg gas /hr )/1000
158 359.34 kJ /s 1 BTU
Available Energy at Exit = =2 294.398 kJ /kg gas ×
kg gas 1.055 kJ
69.02
s
BTU
Available Energy at Exit =2,174.785
kg gas
2,174.785 BTU
AvailableEnergy per ERS= =130.414 2
16.676 (ft / hr )/ 1000

Thus, from figure 6-39, furnace-exit gas temperature for bare-tube, water wall
furnaces at 130.414 Btu per ft2 of adjusted furnace envelope surface per hr ÷ 1000 and
oil:
Furnace exit temperature=2250 ℉=1232.222 ℃
3. BOILER INSULATION

192 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 Furnace inside temperature ¿ 1 316℃
Ambient air temperature ¿ 30 ℃
Thermal conductivity of materials:
1. Fire clay, burnt 1725 d=25 cm
2
K 1=1.30 W /m ∙℃
2. Fired diatomaceous earth brick
2
K 2=0.31 W / m ∙ ℃
3. Common brick d=15 cm
K 3=0.69W /m2 ∙℃
4. Steel d=2mm
2
K 4 =43 W / m ∙℃
Heat transfer of outer surface at 30 ℃=11.3W /m2 ∙℃
Heat Transfer of inner Surface at 1316 ℃=1200W /m2 ∙℃
It is desired to limit heat loss through a boiler furnace wall to 1000W /m2, then
determine thickness of insulation.
q t i - to
=
A 1 A x 1 A x 2 A x3 A x 4 1
+ + + + +
h1 k1 k2 k4 k4 h2
2 1316−30
1000 W /m =
1 0.25 A x 2 0.15 0.002 1
+ + + + +
1200 1.3 0.31 0.69 43 11.3
Thus,
Thickness of insulation, A x 2=0.2439 5

4. CONVECTION SURFACE CALCULATION FOR RISERS

a. Develop Boiler Horsepower

193 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 ms ( h s−h f )
Developed Boiler HP=
35 322
where:
kg 3600 s kg
ms =60.218 × =216 784.8
s 1 hr hr
h f =¿ the enthalpy of feedwater entering economizer, kJ/kg
h f =652.669 kJ /kg
h s=¿ the enthalpy of steam leaving superheater, kJ/kg
h s=3425.50 kJ /kg
Thus,
kg kJ
ms ( h s−h f ) 216 784.8 hr ( 3425.5−652.669 ) kg
Developed Boiler HP= =
35 322 35 322
Developed Boile r HP=17 017.938 HP

b. Rated Boiler Horsepower

Developed Boiler HP
Percent Rating=
Rated Boiler HP

Where:
Percent Rating=200 %
17 017.938 HP
2.00=
Rated Boiler HP
Rated Boiler HP=8 508.97 HP

c. Boiler Heating Surface, HS

“It was judged that 0.91 m2 of heating surface would be needed to generate
steam for an engine horsepower.” (Morse, F.T., Power Plant Engineering. Pp. 295)
Then,
m2
Boiler Heating Surface=0.91 ( 8 508.97 HP )
HP
2
Boiler Heating Surface=7743.163 m
This heating surface includes heating surface in economizers, risers, waterfalls
and superheater.

d. Heating surface area of riser tube

Note: Heating surface area of riser tube is considered to be 18% of the total heating
surface area of the boiler.

194 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 2
HS riser tube=0.18 ( Boiler Heating surface )=0.18(7743.163 m )
2
HS riser tube =1393.77 m

e. No. of Tubes, n
Based on PPTD by Potter pp. 263, 6-14, convection-surface calculations
example, with a furnace dimension of 7 m× 6 m× 12.052m , we reliably assume that
the approximate tube length is 9.0 meters. This accounts for bent tubes and the longer
tubes at the rear of the cavity.
Also, tubes of 25.4 to 50.8 mm diameter are commonly used, (Morse, F.T.,
PPE, pp. 321). We also used a 50.8 mm (2 in) diameter tubes in this design.
Maximum value was chosen to have a maximum heating surface.
Thus,
HS riser tube=πdL ( n )
2
1393.77 m =π (0.0508 m) ( 9 m )( n )
n=970.364 ≈ 971 tubes
Note: This number of tubes is not yet the actual since we still have to consider the
heat transfer by radiation from gases.

f. Determination of the Actual No. of Tubes

i. Convection coefficient, h
From Table 4-1 Eq. F p. 145 by Potter
0.69
0.91 V o
h= 0.31
D

where:

D = Diameter, ft

Vo = the velocity of gas based on 14.7 psia and 32°F, ft/s

G
V o=
ρo

where: ρo = density of superheated steam = 0.0502 lb/ft3

from Potter pp. 145, Table 4-1
G = gas flow per area, lb/s-ft2
The area between tubes that is available for flow is the number of tube spaces
times the width and height of each space, (PPTD by Potter. pp. 263-264). Because of
the tube bents, the length of the area will be smaller than the tube length. Thus, with 9
meters tube length, we only take 7 meters as the length of the area.
195 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries
 Note: Tubes are spaced to 152.4 mm on centers - previously solved.
Based on example given in section 6-14 Pp. 264 PPTD by Potter. Given the
furnace length of 7 meters, we take the first convection row to have a length of 3.5
meters.
3500 mm
No . of spaces= =22.966 ≈ 23 spaces
mm
152.4
space

(
Area=23 spaces 152.4
mm
×
1m
space 1000 mm )
( 7 m )=17.526 m 2

The gas flow per area, G

where: mgas =69.02 kg /s
2
Area=17.526 m
G=
69.02 kg /s 2.205lb
17.526 m 2
×
1 kg
×
1m 2
3.28 ft(=0.8071 2)
lb
ft ∙ s
Thus,
lb
0.8071
G ft 2 ∙ s ft
V o= = =16.079
ρo lb s
0.0502 3
ft

h=
0.91 V o
0.69

=
(
0.91 16.079
s )
ft 0.69

D 0.31 ¿ ¿ ¿

( )
2
BTU 1.055 kJ 1 hr 3.28 ft 1.8℉
h=9.062 × × × ×
2
hr ∙ ft ∙℉ 1 BTU 3600 s 1 m 1℃
kW
h=0.0514 2
m ∙℃

ii. Water evaporated in the convection zone

The furnace was calculated to evaporate, mw =102.214 kg/ s. Then, the
convection zone should evaporate;
mconv =mw −m s
where: mw =¿ amount of water evaporated in the furnace
ms =¿mass flow rate of steam out of the boiler
mconv =( 102.214−60.218 ) kg /s
mconv =41.996 kg/ s

iii. Heat transfer to the tubes in the convection zone, Q conv

Qtubes ,conv =mconv ( hs−hfw )

196 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 where: h s=¿enthalpy of steam entering superheater ¿ 2 757.28 kJ / kg
h fw =¿ enthalpy of steam leaving economizer ¿ 1 207.99 kJ /kg
Qtubes ,conv =41.996 kg/ s ( 2757.28−1207.99 ) kJ /kg
Qtubes ,conv =64 854 kW

iv. Gas Temperature Leaving the Risers

From equation,
Q= AUθ
where: A=¿ heating surface of the riser
U =h=¿ convection heat transfer coefficient
θ=¿ logarithmic mean temperature difference
64 854 kW
θ= =1144.4 ℃
kW
0.04066 2 ( 1393.77 m2 )
m ∙℃
Also,
θ −θ
θ= max min
ln θ max / θmin
θmax =T exit furnace −T feedwater leaving economizer
θmax =( 1232.222−274.47 ) ℃=957.752 ℃
θmin =T gas −T feedwater leaving economizer
θmin =T gas −274.47 ℃
Then,
957.752℃−( T gas −274.47 ℃ )
1144.4 ℃=
( ln
957.752 ℃
T gas −274.47 ℃ )
t gas =1,628.32℃

v. Heat transfer by radiation from gases:

From PPTD by Potter, p. 265

[ ( ) ( ) ] BTU
4 4
Tg Ts
Qr =0.1723 A ∈ s ∈ g −a
100 100 hr
where:
A = Outside tube surface area, ft2
∈s = Tube emissivity = 0.80 for boiler
∈g = Emissivity of the gases at temp, tg
Tg = Absolute Gas temperature, °R
a = Emissivity of the gases at Temp, Ts
Ts = Absolute tube surface temperature, R
197 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries
 When the gases are at standard atmospheric pressure, as in the case in all
boilers, the gas emissivity can be evaluated as:
∈g =∈cg +∈wg C w
a=∈cs +∈ws C w
Where: ∈cg =¿ emissivity of carbon dioxide at temperature Tg
∈wg =¿ emissivity of water vapor at temperature
∈ws =¿ emissivity of water vapor at temperature
∈cs=¿ emissivity of carbon dioxide at temperature Ts
C w =¿ correction factor from fig 6-43, PPTD by Potter, fp. 268
Solving simultaneously:
t +t
Average Tube SurfaceTemp ,T s= i o
2
Where: t i and t o are surface temperatures at sections where fluid enters and
leaves tubes respectively
274.47 ℃+1,628.32 °C
Average Tube SurfaceTemp ,T s= =951.395 °C
2
T s=1744.511 ℉=2204.181 R
Average Temp . of Gas ,T g =1,628.32℃
T g=2962.976℉ =3422.646 R
Notice that the values ∈c and ∈w shown in figure 6-41 and 6-42, page 266-267
PPTD by Potter, are plotted with values PL as parameters. P is the partial pressures
of gas expressed in atmospheres and L is the radiant beam length for the gas
expressed in ft.

Evaluating PL
From table 6-1 p. 268 PPTD by Potter, we used (L = 2.8 x clearance) since
the tubes are spaced in equilateral triangles. Also, the clearance of the tube will be
equal to tube diameter. In this case, clearance = 2 inches as what was previously used
in this solution. Thus,
L=2.8 ¿
Also, the partial pressures (P), of gases are proportional to the volumetric
analysis of wet flue gas. In this case we only have H2O and CO2. Then,
Pc =¿ partial pressure of CO2
Pw =¿ partial pressure of H2O
From wet flue gas analysis:
mass CO 2 3.094
Mol CO2 = = =0.07032 mol CO2
MW CO2 44

198 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 mass SO 2 0.016 −4
Mol SO 2 = = =2.5× 10 mol SO 2
MW SO 2 64
mass O 2 0.3753
Mol O 2= = =0.01177 mol O 2
MW O2 32
mass H 2 O 1.3
Mol H 2 O= = =0.07222mol H 2 O
MW H 2 O 18
mass N 2 12.046
Mol N 2= = =0.43021mol N 2
MW N 2 28
Total Number of moles=0.58477 mol
Volumetric Analysis:
0.07032
% CO 2= × 100=12.025 %
0.58477
2.5 ×10−4
% SO 2= ×100=0.043 %
0.58477
0.01177
% O2 = ×100=2.013 %
0.58477
0.07222
% H 2 O= × 100=12.350 %
0.58477
0.43021
% N 2= ×100=73.569 %
0.58477
Thus,
Pc L=.12025 atm ( 0.46667 ft )=0.05612 ft ∙ atm
Pw L=.12350 atm ( 0.46667 ft ) =0.05763 ft ∙ atm
From figure 6-43 p. 268 PPTD by Potter
C w =1.04 kJ / kg−° K

199 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

200 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries
 Evaluating emissivity, ∈
From Figure 6-41:
T g=2962.976℉ ∧Pc L=0.05 612 ft ∙ atm
∈cg =0.035
T s=1744.511 ℉∧Pc L=0.0 5 612 ft ∙ atm
∈cs=0.054
From Figure 6-42:
T g=2962.976℉ ∧Pw L=0.0 576 3 ft ∙ atm
∈wg =0.0125
T s=1744.511 ℉∧Pw L=0.0 5 763 ft ∙ atm
∈ws =0.0 3
Thus,
∈g =∈cg +∈wg C w =0.035+0.0125 ( 1.04 ) =0.048
a=∈cs +∈ws C w =0.054+ 0.0 3 ( 1.04 )=0.0852
Then,
A=A bo− A fur tube
where: Abo =¿ boiler heating surface ¿ 7743.163 m2
A fur tube =¿ furnace tube heating surface
A furtube =πdLn; d=88.9 mm , L=8.576 m, n=971
2
A furtube =π ( 0.0889 ) ( 8.576 m )( 971 ) =2325.71m
2 2
A=7743.163 m −2325.71m =5 417.453 m
2
( 1m )
3.28 ft 2
=58 283.126 ft
2

[ ( ) ( )]
Tg 4 4
Ts
Qr =0.1723 A ∈ s ∈ g −a
100 100

[ ( ) ( )]
4 4
2 962.976 1 744.511
Qr =0.1723 ( 58283.126 )( 0.80 ) ( 0.048 ) − ( 0.0852 )
100 100
BTU 1.055 kJ 1hr 1 kW
Qr =233 821146.2 × × ×
hr 1 BTU 3600 s 1 kJ / s
Qr =68 522.586 kW

vi. Total Energy Transferred, Q

Q=Q r +Q tubes +Q walls
where: Qr =¿heat transfer by radiation from gases ¿ 68 522.586 kW
Qtubes =¿heat transfer to the tubes ¿ 64 854 kW
Qwalls =¿ energy transferred to the water walls ¿ 158 359.34 kW
Q= ( 68522.586+ 68 854+158 359.34 ) kW
Q=295735.926 kW
201 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries
 vii. Evaporation, E
Q 295 735.926 kW
E= =
h s−hfw ( 3 425.5−652.669 ) kJ /kg
E=106.655 kg/ s

viii. Factor of evaporation, F . E .

( h s−h fw ) ( 3 425.5−652.669 ) kJ /kg
FE= =
2 257 kJ /kg 2 257 kJ /kg
FE=1.229

ix. Allowable Evaporation, A . E .

AE=FE ( ms ) =1.229 ( 60.218 kg / s )
AE=74.01 kg /s

x. Total Energy to be Transferred, Q total

Qtotal= AE ( h s−h fw ) =74.01kg /s (3 425.5−652.669 )
Qtotal =207 215.492 kW < 295735.926 kW
∴ Maintainthe number of riser tubes.

5. DOWN COMERS
In a water tube steam generator, a mixture of steam and water leaves the risers
and enters the drum. The term dryness fraction refers to the amount of steam in this
mixture of steam and water and may be express as a fraction by volume or by weight.
When dryness fraction is expressed as weight ratio, it represents the quality of the
mixture. Top dryness fraction applies to the mixture leaving the tubes. The Top
Dryness Fraction (TDF) is an extremely important design factor because the inside
surface of the tubes must be wet at all times to ensure satisfactory heat transfer.
To determine the size of down comers, from previous calculations the boiler is
with 971 tubes of 2-inch diameter tubes with length of 9.0 m. The tubes have two 90-
degree bends. The down comer is 9 m and 2 bends.

a. Calculation of Top Dryness Fraction:

From PPTD Pp 214, eq's 6-3 and 6-4
TD F v =0.8−0.000133 ( P−250 )
( TD F v ) v f
TD F w =
v g−( TD F v ) v fg

202 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 3
f t steam
where: TDF v =¿ top dryness fraction by volume, 3
f t mixture
TDF w =¿ top dryness fraction by weight, lb steam /lb mixture
P=¿ boiler operating pressure, psia
v f , v fg ∧v g are specific volume as given in steam table operating
pressure, ft 3 /lb

From section 1 in this chapter, the boiler operating pressure is:

P=5 676.907 kPag+ 101.325 kPa=5778.232 kPaa=838.062 psi

From Table A-5 Pp.935, Thermodynamics, An Engineering Approach by Cengel

et.al.

( )( )
3 3
m 1 kg 3.28 ft 3
v f =0.0013083 =0.021 ft /lb
kg 2.2 lb 1m

v =0.0371867 (
kg 2.2 lb )( 1 m )
3 3
m 1kg 3.28 ft 3
g =0.5965 ft /lb
3 3
v fg =v g−v f =( 0.5965−0.021 ) ft /lb=0.5755 ft /lb
Then,
TD F v =0.8−0.000133 ( P−250 )=0.8−0.000133(838.062−250)
TD F v =0.72179( ft 3 steam)/(ft 3 mixture )
Also,
( TD F v ) v f 0.72179 ( 0.021 )
TD F w = = =0.0837 lb steam /lbmixture
v g−( TD F v ) v fg 0.5965−( 0.72179 )( 0.5755 )

203 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 b. Circulation Ratio
1 1
Circulation ratio= =
TD F w 0.0837
l bwater
Circulation ratio=11.948
l bsteam

c. Total Circulation
Total Circulation Ratio=Circulation ratio × Steam flow

Total Circulation Ratio=11.948

lb steam( s )( )( 160mins )
lb water 60.218 kgsteam 2.2lb
1 kg
Total Circulation Ratio=94 971.976 lb /min

d. Density of Mixture in the Steaming Section, ρm

204 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries
 [ ] ( ) ρw
ln
ρt
ρm = ρw
ρw
−1
ρt
Where:
ρm =¿mean density of mixture in the steaming section in tubes, lb/ft 3
ρw =¿density of saturated water, lb/ft 3
ρt =¿ density at top dryness fraction,lb /ft 3

where:
1 1 lb
ρw = = =47.619
vf 3
ft ft 3
0.021
lb
TDF v 0.72179 lb
ρt = = =14.457 3
v g (TDF w ) ft 3
ft
0.5965 ( 0.0837 )
lb

ρm =
[ ]ln ( 47.619
47.619
14.457

ρm =24.746
14.457 )
−1

lb
47.619
lb
ft 3

ft 3

e. Pressure Loss in Risers and Downcomers

Pressure loss in downcomers consist of:

 loss at entrance and exit: 1/2 and 1 elbow equivalent, respectively.
 loss due to changes in tube flow area: 1/4 to 1/2 equivalent elbow
 loss due to bends: 3/4 equivalent elbow for 90° bend
 loss due to straight tube
From PPTD by Potter page 56
0.01214 fL W 2
Δ Prisers =
ρ m d5
where:
f =¿ friction factor ¿ 0.02 (taken from page 215 PPTD by Potter)
this will give sufficiently accurate results for many purposes
W =¿ mass flow rate, lb/min

205 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 d=¿ tube inside diameter, in: ID = 1.71 and OD = 2 in (previous
design data)
ρm =¿ density of mixture in the steaming section ¿ 24.746 lb /ft 3
L=¿ equivalent length of tube, ft (includes losses in fittings)
The equivalent length of a fitting is that the length of a straight pipe
which would have the same friction loss as the fitting over and above the
friction loss in a straight piece of pipe physically the same length as the
fitting.
 loss at entrance: 1/2 elbow
 loss at exit: 1 elbow

loss due to changes in flow area: 1/2 elbow

loss due to 90 deg bends: 3/4 elbow___

TOTAL ELBOWS: 2.75 elbows

Length of tube :9.0 m=29.528 ft

From figure 2-22, p. 71, PPTD by Potter:

With 1.71 in ID; Le =5 ft /elbow
Total equivalent length will be:
L=29.528 ft +5 ft /elbow ( 2.75 elbows ) =43.278 ft
94 971.976 lb/min lb /min
W risers = =97.81
971 tubes tubes

Design number of downcomers (based on the conditions given: In two

set of 50 riser tubes is to be served by two downcomers)

(
971 riser tubes
2 set
)
50 riser tube
=38.84 ≈ 39 downcomers

94 971.976lb/min
W downcomers = =2 435.179lb /min
39 downcomers
2 2
0.01214 fL W 0.01214 ( 0.02 ) ( 43.278 ) ( 97.81 )
Δ Prisers = 5
= 5
ρm d ( 24.746 ) ( 1.71 )
Δ Prisers =0.2778 psi

Solving for pressure in downcomers

From eq. 6-1 p.213, PPTD by: Potter:

206 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 Z
Δ P downcomers= (ρ −ρ )
144 D m
where: Z=¿ system height, ft ¿ 29. 528 ft
ρ D=¿ density of water in the downcomers
3
ρ D= ρw =47.619lb / ft
ρm =¿ mean density of water steam mixture ¿ 24.746 lb /ft 3
29. 528 ft
Δ P downcomers= ( 47.619−24.746 ) lb /ft 3
144
Δ P downcomers=4.690 psi

f. Size of Downcomers Tubes

The size of downcomers tubes to give this pressure loss can be
determined by trial and error. Try nominal size of 200 mm with ID = 202.7
mm and OD = 219.1 mm.
From figure 2-22, Pp 71, PPTD by Potter:
with ID=202.7 mm=7.98∈¿ ; L=17 ft /elbow
Thus, the equivalent length of each downcomer will be:
ft
Le =29.528 ft +17 (2.75 elbows)=76.278 ft
elbow
Thus,
∆ Pdowncomers =0.01214(0.02)(76.278 ft ) ¿¿
∆ Pdowncomers =0.523 psi

Thus, using a nominal size of 200 mm is good since it does not exceed the
allowable pressure change in downcomer which is 6.288 psi.

6. STEAM DRUM
Drum size will be determined largely by the space requirement for all the
internals to perform the steps of steam purification. Purification devices depend
largely to the manufacturer so the drum size is not well determined. The pressure
drop of steam flowing through a separator is from 0.5 to 2 psi.
For this Design, use 2 m diameter drum equipped with gauge glass, high and
low water alarms, etc. Lower drum is about ½ of the diameter of upper drum, thus
lower drum diameter is 1 m.

7. SUPERHEATER DESIGN
Superheating the steam supplied to prime movers increases efficiency of a
plant both because it increases the cycle efficiency and because it increases the

207 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 efficiency of the steam engines or turbines. This design uses a convection type
superheater.
Inlet gas temperature
T furnace exit temp .+ gastemp .leaving the riser
g ,∈¿=T ave= ¿
2
T 1 232.222 ℃ +1,628.32℃ T g ,∈¿=1430.271℃ ¿
g ,∈¿= ¿
2

a. Conditions of Throttled Steam Leaving the Superheater (state 1)

Temperature, t 1=498.65 ° C
Pressure, P1=5516.387 kPa
Mass of steam, ms =60.218 kg/ sec
Enthalpy, h1 =3425..50 kJ /kg
b. Conditions Steam Entering Superheater
P=5 903.983 kPa
t=274.47 ℃
h=2757.28 kJ /kg
From section 11.5.1.3, PSME Code for high pressure superheated Steam
Velocity range from 50 to 77 m/s. Use average steam velocity;
V steam =63.5 m/s
Steam tube data: 20.07 mm ID and 25.4mm OD or nominal size 20, Schedule
40 seamless steel pipe. (this data is so chosen since it is also used in example no. 2
p.279, PPE by Morse).

c. Energy Transferred to the Steam. Qs

Energy transferred ¿ steam=Energy release by gas
Q s =m s ( hs −h g )=Q gas
where:
ms =60.218 kg/ s
h s=3 425.50 kJ /kg
h g=2 757.28 kJ /kg
Then,
Qs =ms ( hs −h g )=60.218 kg /s ( 3 425.50−2 757.28 ) kJ /kg
Qs =Qgas =94,435.072 kW

208 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 d. Determine the Log. Mean Temperature Difference, θ
From Table 6-40 (a), from PPTD by Potter p. 262 with, T gas =2962.976 ℉

Approximate CP of flue gas:

BTU 1.055 kJ 2.2lb 1.8 ℉
c p=0.328 × × ×
lb ∙ ℉ 1 BTU 1 kg 1℃
kJ
c p=1.3703
kg ∙ ℃
Also,
Q=mC p ( ΔT )
where: mg =gas flow=69.02 kg/ sec

T gi =temperature of flue gas entering superheater

T go=temperature of gas leaving superheater
Thus,

(
94,435.072 kW =69.02 kg/ s 1.3703
kJ
kg ∙ ℃)( 1,628.32−T go )
T g , o=629.832 ℃
209 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries
 Then,
θmax −θmin
θ=
ln θ max / θmin
where;
θmax =1628.32−498.65=1129.67 ℃
θmin =629.832−274.47=355.362 ℃
1129.67−355.362
θ= ℃
ln 1129.67 /355.362
θ=669.502℃

e. Determine the Overall Thermal Coefficient, U

Solutions in this part is all based on example no. 2 Pp 279, PPE by Morse.
For reliability purposes, some data used in the example are also use in this design.
1 1 1 1
= + +
U h1 U t h2
where: h1 =¿steam film conductance
h2 =¿ gas film conductance
U t =¿ metal film conductance
U =¿ overall thermal coefficient

1. Steam film coefficient, h1

( )
0.8
−3 −0.2 GS
h1 =3.7 ×1 0 D 1 k1
μi
where: GS =¿steam mass flow, kg / s ∙ m2
μi=¿ viscosity of steam
k 1=¿ conductivity
D1=¿ inside tube diameter

ms , per element
GS =
Atube
where: ms =¿ mass of steam per element
A=¿ area of tube
π ( 0.02007 m )2
A= =3.164 × 10− 4 m2 /tube
4
Also, use the data below for the corresponding average pressure and
average temperature:

210 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 (5 903.983+5516.387)
Pave = =5 710.185 kPa=58.23 kg /cm 2
2
( 498.65+274.47 ) ℃
T ave = =386.56 ℃
2
From Table A-6, Steam Tables, Keenan, et. al., at 5 710.185 kPa and 386.56
℃
Specific volume, v=0.053295 m3 /kg
Volume flow rate:
Q=ms v=60.218 kg / s ( 0.053295m 3 / kg )
Q=3.209 m3 /s

Steam velocity:
v s=63. 5 m/s
Inside tube diameter:
D 1=0.02007 m
From figure 9-6 p. 270, PPE by Morse; at T =270.160 ℃and
P=22.364 kg/cm2

−2
k 1=4.29 ×10 kcal /hr ∙ m∙ ℃
−7
u1=23.494 ×10 kg ∙ s / m
Total Area:

211 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 Since,
3
Q= A v s ↔3.209 m / s= A ( 63. 5 m/ s )
Atotal =0.05054 m2
No. of Elements:
Atotal 0.05054 m2
N= = =159.735 elements
A tube 3.164 ×10−4 m2 /element
N ≈ 160 elements
Steam flow rate per element:
Qs =A v s =3.164 ×10−4 m 2 /element ( 63.5 m/ s )
3
Q s =0.02009 m / s
Mass flow of steam per element:
3
m
0.02009
Qs s
m= =
vs m3
0.053295
kg
m=0.37696 kg/ s
Mass flow of steam per m2:
0.37696 kg/s kg
Gs = −4 2
=1191.403 2
3.164 × 10 m m ∙s
Thus,
G 0.8
h1 =3.7 ×1 0−3 D1−0.2 k 1 S
μi ( )
( )
0.8
−3 −0.2
( 4.29× 10−2 ) 1191.403
h1 =3.7 ×1 0 (0.02007)
23.494 ×10−7
2
h1 =3,193.235 kcal/h r ∙ m ∙ ℃
Transfer this to 25.4 mm diameter:
20.07 2
h1 =3,193.235× =2, 523.159 kcal/h r ∙ m ∙℃
2 5 .4

2. Gas Film Coefficient, h2

Spacing between centers on elements = 70 mm. This value is reliably
chosen since it is also used in example 2 on page 279, PPE by Morse.
Design length of 3 m for headers to 180° bond.
Gas film coefficient (From PPE by Morse, p. 280):

( )
0.6
−0.4 G g 0.33
h2 =0.0841 k 2 D2 Pr 2
μ2

212 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 Free area for gas flow per element:
A=3 m ( 70−25.4
1000 )
m =0.1338 m
2

Mass flow of Steam per element:

m=0.37696 kg/ s
Gas flow per element:
2 ×0.37696 kg /s=0.75392 kg /s
Mass flow of gas:
0.75392kg /s kg
Gg = 2
=5.635 2
0.1338 m m −s
Tube Temperature:
T o +T g , i 498.65+1430.271
T tube = = ℃=964.4605℃
2 2
Film Temperature:
T g , o+ T tube 636.132+ 964.4605
T film= = ℃=800.296 ℃
2 2
From PPE by Morse, figure 9-6 Pp. 270, Film Temperature ¿ 800.296 ℃ and
P=5 710.185 kPa . (note: values representing the Air curve in figure 9-6 is
used)
k 2=5.455× 10−2 kcal/hr ∙ m∙℃
−7
u2=41.309 ×10 kg ∙ s/ m
Using air properties as a substitute for those combustion products, From table
A-9 (page 894 Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications by Cengel
and Cimbala)
Pr 2=0.70 56

( )
0.6
5.635
h2 =0.0841 ( 5.455 ×10−2 ) ( 0.0254 )
−.0 .4
−7
( 0.70 56 )0.33
41.309 ×10
2
h2 =85.230 kcal/ h r ∙m ∙℃

3. Tube Coefficient:

213 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 k
Ut=
dt
where:
For Steel,
k =39.7 kcal/h r ∙ m∙ ℃
25.4 mm−20.07 mm
d t =thickness of tube= =2.665 mm
2
Then,
k 39.7 kcal/h r ∙ m∙℃ 2
Ut= = =14 924.812 kcal/h r ∙m ∙℃
dt 2.665× 10 m−3

U t =14 924.812 kcal/h r ∙ m2 ∙℃

Thus,
1 1 1 1
= + +
U 1 451.757 56.308 14 924.812
kcal 4.18 58 kJ hr kW
U =54.009 × × ×
2
h r ∙m ∙℃ kcal 3600 s kJ /s
2
U =0.06280 kW /m ∙ ℃

f. Determine Area and Length Element

Q= AUθ
94 435.072 kW = A ( 0.06280 kW /m ∙ ℃ ) ( 674.231 ℃ )
2

2
A=2230.309 m
Area per Element
2230.309 m2 2
A= =13.94 m
160 elements
OD per Linear Meter
OD=π ( 0.0254 )=0.07980 m
214 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries
 Length of Element
2
A 13.94 m
L= = =174.687 m
OD 0.07980 m

8. ECONOMIZER DESIGN
a. Feedwater Entering the Economizer (state 28)
t 28=203.973 ℃
P28=5 516.387 kPa
h28=652.669 kJ /kg

b. Feedwater Leaving Economizer

P=5 903.983 kPa
t=274.47 ℃
h=1207.99 kJ /kg
v f =1.315516 × 10−3 m3 / kg
Temp of gas entering the economizer =temp of gas leaving the superheater
T i ,gas =636.132 ℃
Volume Flow Rate,Q
Q=m28 v 28=61.135 kg /s ( 1.315516× 10 m /kg )
−3 3

3
Q=0.0 8042m / s

Using given velocity,

V =2m/ s

( )
2
3 πd
Q= AV ↔0.0 8042 m /s=2 m/s
4
d=0.226 m

From Table 7-2, p. 136 (Ref. & Air Conditioning by Stoecker, et. al.)
Thus, use schedule 40, seamless steel pipe of nominal size of 250 mm with OD = 273
mm & ID = 254.5 mm.
Actual area:
2
π D2 π ( 0.2545 )
A= = =0.0509 m2
4 4
Actual velocity of water:
Q 0.0 8042 m3 /s
V= = =1.58 m/ s
A 0.0509 m2

c. Energy Absorbed by Feedwater, Q fw

215 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 Heat Absorbed by Feedwater=Heat Released by the Flue Gas
Q fw =Q fg =m fw ( h 2−h1 ) ; mfw =m 28=61.135 kg / s
Qfw =61.135 kg /s ( 1 207.99−652.669 ) kJ /kg
Qfw =33 949.55 kW

d. Log. Mean Temp. Difference, θ

mgas =69.02 kg /s
From Table 6-40 (a) p. 262 Potter: at T i ,gas =636.132 ℃=1177.038℉

C pg=0.2962 (
BTU 1.055 kJ
lb∙ ℉ 1 BTU )( 2.21kglb )( 1.81 ℃℉ )=1.194 kgkJ∙° C
From Equation:
Q=mg c p g ( ∆ T )

(
33 949.55 kW =69.02 kg/ s 1.237
kJ
kg ∙ ° C )
( 636.132−T g , o )
T g , o=238.493 ℃
Then,
θmax −θmin
θ=
ln θ max / θmin
where;
θmax =636.132−274.47=361.662 ℃
θmin =238.493−203.973=34.52 ℃
361.662−34.52
θ=
ln¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

e. Determine the Overall Thermal Coefficient

Average water Temperature,

216 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 274.47 ℃+203.973 ℃
T water , ave. = =239.222 ℃+273.15=512.372 K
2
From Table A.23 Physical Properties of Selected Fluids (Page 832. Engineering
Thermodynamics by Bughardt et. al)
P r=0.1474
k =0.6252 W /m∙ K
ρ=803.624 kg /m3
N ∙s
120.574 × 10−6 2
m −5 kg ∙ s
μ= 2
=1.2295 ×10
9.807 m/ s m2
Use, Diameter of Tube, ID = 254.5 mm and OD = 273 mm. This is so chosen since it
is also used in previous design.

1. Determine h1
h De 0.273 h
Nu= = =0.4367 h
k 0.6252

ρv De
ℜ=
μ
where:

217 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 m
v=fluid velocity=1.58
s
kg
803.624
m3 kg−se c 2
ρ=mass density= =81.944
m m4
9.807 2
s
−5 kg ∙ s
μ=2.992×10
m2

ℜ=
( 81.944
kg−s2
m4 )( 1.58
m
s )
( 0.4367 m )
=4 598634.631
kg ∙ s
−5
1.2295× 10 2
m

From table by Morse P. 270 (cross-flow over tube banks)

c=0.33 , x=0.6 , y =0.33 , D e =D o=0.273
x x
Nu=C ℜ Pr
0.6 0.33
0.4367 h=0.33 ( 4 598 634.631 ) ( 0.1474 )
kcal
h1 =3 994.958
hr ∙ m2 ∙℃
2. Calculate Ut
From Table 9-1 p. 267 PPE by Morse for steel
k =39.7 kcal/hr ∙ m∙ ℃
273−254.5
dt = =9.25mm
2
k 39.7 kcal/h r ∙ m∙℃
Ut= = =4291. 89 kcal/h r ∙ m2 ∙℃
dt −3
9.25 ×10 m

3. Gas Film Coefficient

T tube =T water , ave =239.222℃

218 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 T tube +T i , gas 239.222+636.132
T film= = =437.677 ℃
2 2
From Fig. 9-6, PPE by Morse p. 270
−2
k 2=4 × 10 kcal/ hr ∙ m∙℃
−7
u2=28.9× 10 kg ∙ s /m
Using air properties as a substitute for those combustion products (PPE by Morse,
p. 280) Pr 20.33=0.884

( )
0.6
−0.4 Gg 0.33
h2 =0.0841 k 2 D 2 Pr 2
u2
D2=0.273 m
mgas =69.02 kg /s
Design: D = 2 m; Spacing of 256 mm on Centers
273−256
The free area for gas flow=2m × m=0.034 m2
1000
Gas flow per Element =2 ( Steam flow )=2 69.02 (
kg
s
=138.04
kg
s )
kg
134.04
s kg
Gg =Mass flow per Element = 2
=3 942.353 2
0.034 m m ∙s
Then,

( )
0.6
−0.4 G g 0.33
h2 =0.0841 k 2 D2 Pr 2
u2

( )
0.6
3 942.353
h2 =0.0841 ( 4 ×10−2 ) ( 0.273 )
−0.4
( 0.884 )
28.9 ×10−7
2
h2 =1512.72kcal / hr ∙ m ∙ ℃
Thus,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + = + +
U h1 U t h2 3 994.958 4 291.892 1 512.72
4.18 58 kJ hr kW
U =873.84 kcal/h r ∙ m2 ∙℃ × × ×
kcal 3600 s kJ /s
kW
U =1.016 2
m ∙℃
f. Surface Area of Economizer, A
Qfw = AUθ

(
33 949.55 kW = A 1.016
kW
m2 ∙ ℃ )
( 118.355 ℃ )
2
A=282.328 m

219 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 g. Outside Surface per Linear Meter
OD surface linear /m=π (OD)=π (0.273)
linear
OD surface =0.8577 m
m

h. Number of elements
mfw
No . of elements=
m¿element A ID
where: mfw =mass flow rate of feedwater=69.02 kg /s
2
m ¿element =mass flow per element =1329.377 kg / m ∙ s
2
A ID =¿ inside cross-sectional area of the tube¿ π ( 0.2545 m ) =0.0509 m2
4
kg
69.02
s
No . of elements= =1.02
1329.377 kg / m ∙ s ( 0.0509 m )
2 2

No . of elements≈ 2
i. Area per element
Aeconomizer 182.328 m2
A¿ element = = =141.164 m2
No . of elements 2

j. Length of Element
A ¿element 141.164 m
2
Length of elements= =
O D¿linear ,meter 0.8577 m
Length of elements=164.584 m
k. No. of Passes
164.584
No . of Passes= =82.29 ≈ 83 passes
2

9. AIR PREHEATER
Inlet air temperature , T i , air =27 ℃ ( ambient air temperature )

Mass of air , m a= ( AF ) m =15.685 kgkgfuel

f
air
(4.444 kg fuel
s )=69.704
kg air
s
Leaving air temperature , T o , air =150℃
Inlet flue gas temperature , T i , gas =temp of flue gas leaving economizer
T i ,gas =T go =224.172℃
From Table A-2, Cengel and Boles Thermodynamics (next page)
cp
c p of air=
MW air
220 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries
 2 3
c p=a+bT +cT + dT
where; a=28.11
b=0.1967 x 10−2
−5
c=0.4802 x 10
−9
d=−1.966 x 10
(150+27) ° C
T ave = =88.5 ℃+273.15=361.65 K
2
c p=28.11+(0.1967 x 10−2) ( 361.65 ) +(0.4802 x 10−5) ( 361.65 ) + (−1.966 x 10−9 ) ( 361.65 )
2 3

kJ
c p=29.356
kmol−K
kJ
29.356
kmol−K kJ
c pair = =1.013
28.966 kg/kmol kg−K

a. Energy Absorbed by Air, Q A

Energy absorbed by air=Energy released by the flue gas
221 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries
 Q A =Qfg
kg air
Q A =m air c pair ∆ T air =69.704
s (
1.013
kJ
kg−K )
( 150−27 ) ℃

Q A =8 685.066 kW

b. Log. Mean Temp. Difference, θ

Flue gas flow=69.02 kg /s
From Table 6-40 (a) p. 262 Potter at T i ,gas =224.172 ℃=435.5096 ℉
BTU 1.055 kJ 2.2 lb 1.8℉
c p g=0.2645 × × ×
lb ∙℉ 1 BTU 1 kg ℃
kJ
c p g=1.105
kg ∙ ℃

Q=m g c p g ∆ T
8 685.066 kW =69.02 kg /s ( 1.105 kJ /kg ∙℃ ) ( 224.172℃−T o , gas )
T o , gas =110.295℃
Then,
θmax −θmin
θ=
ln θ max / θmin
where;
θmax =224.172−150=74.172℃
θmin =110.295−27=83.295℃
74.172−83.295
θ= ℃=78.645 ℃
ln73.172/83.295

222 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 c. The Overall Thermal Coefficient, U
The Preheater is tubular type, air is passed aside the tube and flue gas inside the tube.
27 ° C+150 ° C
Average Air Temperature=T air, ave = =88.5 ℃=191.3 ℉
2
From Table A-9 (page 894 Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications by
Cengel and Cimbala)
3
ρ=0.97 594 kg /m
3 −1
v=ρ = ( 0.97 594 kg /m ) =1.025 m /kg
−1 3

Thus,
Volume flow rate of air:
kg air 3
V air =mair v air =69.704 ×1.025 m /kg
s
V air =71.45 m3 /s

Area of Ducts (for air only):

Design Velocity of air=10 m/s (¿ PSME code , boiler design)
Thus,
71.45 m3 /s 2
Aducts = =7.145 m
10 m/s
Find the Density of Flue Gas:
Pg
ρ g=
Rg T g
where; Pg =101.325 kPa
224.172+110.295
T g= =167.234 ℃+273.1 5=440.384 K
2
R
R g=
MW g
where;
Gravimetric Analysis:
mCO =3.094 kg CO 2 /kg fuel
2

mSO =0.016 kg SO 2 /kg fuel

2

mO =0.375 3 kg O2 /kg fuel

2

mH O =1.3 kg H 2 O/kg fuel

2

mN =12.04 6 kg N 2 /kg fuel

2

mtotal =16.8313 kg /kg fuel

Percentage Gravimetric Analysis:
CO 2=.18382

223 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 SO 2=.00095
O2=.02230
H 2 O=.07724
N 2=.71 569
Then,
MW g=0.18382 ( 44 ) +0.0009 5 ( 64 ) +0.02230 ( 32 ) +0.07724 ( 18 ) +0.71569 ( 28 )
MW g=30.292 kg flue gas/kmol gas
Thus,
8.314 kJ
R g= =0.27446
30.292 kg ∙ K

101.325 kPa kg
ρ g= =0.8383 3
0.27446 kJ /kg ∙ K ( 440.384 K ) m

Specific Volume of Gas:

( )
3 −1
−1 m 3
v g=ρ g = 0.8383 =1.1929 m /kg
kg

Volume flowrate of gas:

V gas=mg v g =69.704 kg /s ( 1.1929 m3 / kg )
3
V gas=83.15 m / s
From PSME code (boiler design):
Design Velocity of Gas=10 m/s
Area needed for the flue gas:
83.15 m3 /s 2
A gas = =8.315 m
10 m/s
Steel pipe Specification for Flue Gas:
Use Nominal size 4in: schedule 40 steel pipe
Nominal OD, mm
Size, mm ID, mm
Schedule Schedule
40 80
15 21.34 15.80 13.88
20 26.67 20.93 18.85
25 33.40 26.64 24.30
35 42.16 35.04 32.46
40 48.26 40.90 38.10
50 60.33 52.51 49.25

224 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries

 60 73.03 62.65 59.01
75 88.90 77.92 73.66
100 114.3 102.3 97.18
125 141.3 128.2 122.2
150 168.3 154.1 146.4
200 219.1 202.7 193.7
250 273 254.5 242.9
300 323.9 303.3 289
ID=102.3 mm
OD=114.3 mm
Area of Pipe:
π ( Di2 ) π ( 0.1023 m )2
A pipe= = =0.008219 m2 / pipe
4 4
No. of pipes needed:
A 8.315 m2
No . of pipe= gas = =1011.68≈ 1012 pipes
A pipe 0.008219m 2 / pipe
Thickness of pipe:
114.3 mm−102.3 mm
t= =6 mm=0.006 m
2
Gas mass flow:
69.704 kg /s ( 3600 s /hr ) kg
Gg = 2
=30 178.521 2
8.315m hr ∙m
Coefficient of Heat Transfer:
From PPE by Morse, equation 9-14
U =A +B G g ; A=1.95 ; B=0.0045
U =1.95+ 0.0045 ( 26557.767 )
kcal
U =121.460 2
hr ∙ m ∙℃

Tube Coefficient of heat transfer:

Thickness=0.006 m
k =39.7 ( for steel pipe )
k 39.7 kcal
Ut= = =6 616.667
t 0.006 2
hr ∙m ∙ ℃
Thus,
1 1 1
= +
U 121.460 6 616.667
kcal 4.18 58 kJ hr kW
U =119.271 × × ×
2
hr ∙ m ∙ ℃ kcal 3600 s kJ /s
225 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries
 kW
U =0.13868 2
m ∙℃

d. Calculation of total no. of tubes

Qfg =Q a=m c p ∆T
where:
m=ρ g V g
kg
ρ g=0.8383
m3
2
π d2 π ( 0.1023 m ) ( 10 m/s )
V g=nQ = vn= n=0.08219 n m3 /s
4 4
kg
m=ρ g V g=0.8383 3 ( 0.08219 n m /s )
3

m
m=0.0689 n kg /s
Thus,

(
8 685.066 kW =0.0689 n kg /s 1.120
kJ
kg ∙℃ )
( 224.172−110.295℃ )

n=988.33 ≈ 989 tubes

e. Total length of tube

Q= AUθ

(
8 685.066 kW =π (0.1143 m) L 0.13868
kW
m2 ∙℃ )
( 78.645℃ )

L=2217.65 m
f. Length per tube
L 2217.65 m 2.24 m
= =
tube 989 tubes tube

10. INDUCED DRAFT FAN CAPACITY

Data:
Mass of flue gas=69.704 kg /s
kg
Density of gas=0.8383 3
m
69.704 kg/ s 3
Volume flow rate of gas= 3
=83.149 m /s
0.8383 kg/ m

The fan capacity is design to develop a static head of 400 mm of H2O

3
0.4 m H 2 O ×1000 kg /m
h s=Psw hsw = 3
0.8383 kg /m
226 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries
 h s=h=477.156 m
Then,
Fluid Power=ρg gQh=0.8383 kg /m ( 9.807 m/ s )( 83.15 m / s ) ( 477.156 m)
3 2 3

1 kW 1hp
Fluid Power=326 180.7179W × ×
1000 W 0.746 kW
Fluid Power=437.24 hp
Typical fan efficiency 65% (PPE by Morse, Pp. 485)
437.24 hp
Fan Power= =672.677 hp ≈ 673 h p
0.65

⸫Use 700 hp motor, 60 Hz, 1800 rpm..

11. DUCT DESIGN

Duct enclosing air-preheater:
Equivalent area due to 70 mm spacing with 989 tubes of 26.67 mm OD
2
A=989 ×0.02627 m× 0.070 m=1.819 m
π 2 π 2 −4 2
Aoutside cross −section=¿ OD = ( 0.02667 ) =5.586 x 10 m
4 4
Thus,
A=L× W ; L=W
1.819 m 2=L2
Duct Dimensions:
L=W =1.3487 m
−4 2
Aoutside cross −section=5.586 x 10 m

12. SAFETY VALVES

Boiler Safety Valves:
0.97
Ps A
Steamrating=
60 ( 1+0.0065 T s )
Steam Rating=11.97
where:
T s=Superheater temperature above saturationtemperature
T s=T 1−T econ . =498.65−274.47=224.18℃=435.524 ℉
P=5 516.387 kPa=800.084 psi
Thus,
( 800.084 )0.97 A
11.97=
60 [ 1+0.006 5 ( 253.996 ) ]
2
A=4.2025 ¿
227 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries
 If valve diameter=2.5∈¿
2
A 4.2025 ¿
valvelift ( L )=
=
πD π ¿¿
L=0.5351∈¿ 4.2025 cm

228 | Steam Generator and Tube Auxiliaries