Torrefiel Boiler, Secured

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VII. STEAM GENERATOR AND AUXILIARIES DESIGN
1. DESIGN DATA AND PRELIMINARY CALCULATION

a. Conditions of Throttled Steam Leaving the Superheater: (at state 1)
Temperature, t1 = 343.2260 ℃
Pressure @ P1 = 2068.2774 kPa
Mass of steam,ms = 44.9668 kg/sec
Enthalpy, h1 = 3120.3359 kJ/kg
b. Conditions of Steam at Boiler

Tsteam at boiler = tsat at boiler operating temperature and pressure.
Calculating for the design pressure
Generally, the steam pressure at turbine throttle valve is taken to be the
official plant pressure. Boiler drum steam pressure is of course higher
because of frictional losses in the boiler parts. These are:
Loss through piping and valves = 1.55 kg/cm2 gage
Loss in superheater and connection = 0.98 kg/cm2 gage
Allowance for dry pipe in boiler drum = 0.14 kg/cm2 gage
Total = 2.67 kg/cm2 gage
Values above are taken from Pp. 263 of PPE by Morse.

To overcome these losses, the steam at boiler should be higher than the
pressure at state 1. Thus,
P1,gage + Ploss,total = Pboiler drum
( )
kg 101325 Pa
cm2 1.0332 kg
(2068277.4 Pa - 101325 Pa)gage + 2.67 cm2 = Pboiler
Pboiler = 2228.7969 kPa,gage (operating pressure)
As the safety valve will not open until the pressure has risen some 4 %
above operating pressure, the maximum boiler pressure will be:
Pmax = Pdesign = 2228.7969 kPa x (1.04) = 2317.9488 kPa,gage
This will be the design pressure in the boiler drum.
Chapter 7 | Steam Generator and Turbine Auxiliaries

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Calculating for the design temperature, tdesign

From pg. 263, Power plant Engineering by Frederick Morse, the
pressure- temperature range for steam power can be group as follows;
8.8 - 17.6 kg/cm2: saturated steam to 83.3 °C superheat
17.6 - 28.1 kg/cm2: sat steam to 400 °C total
28.1 - 56.2 kg/cm2: 400°C to 440°C
56.2 - 70.3 kg/cm2: 427°C to 482°C
70.3 - 140.6 kg/cm2: 449°C to 566°C
For the design pressure of 2317.9488 kPa = 23.6359 kg/cm2 the design
temperature falls on the range of:
17.6 - 28.1 kg/cm2: sat steam to 400 °C total
By interpolation
tdesign = 265.3542 ℃
c. Conditions Steam Entering Super heater:

Pressure = 2317.9488 kPa
t = tsat at 2317.9488 kPa = 220.0021℃
h = hg at 2317.9488 kPa = 2802.1077 kJ/kg
d. Conditions at Boiler Blow Down: (at state 48)

Mass of blow down, mbd = m48 = 0.6848kg/s
t = 32 ℃
h = hf at 32 ℃ = 134.15 kJ/kg
e. Feedwater Entering the Economizer: (at state 36)

t = 176.0001 ℃
P = 2068.2774 kPa
h = hf @ 176.0001 ℃ = 745.57 kJ/kg
f. Feedwater Leaving Economizer
t = 176.0001 ℃
P = 2317.9488 kPa

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h = hf at 2317.9488 kPa = 943.6367 kJ/kg

2. DESIGN OF FURNACE
From Table 10-1 (below), P. 314, PPE by Morse, Furnace temperature of oil
or gas fuel is above or 1316 ℃.For design calculation, assume that the furnace
temperature is about 1316 ℃. From this temperature, furnace heat release ranges
kcal
3
222500 to 445000 m −hr
Table 10-1. FURNACE HEAT RELEASE RATES
DESIGN VALUES – KCAL PER M3 PER HR
Pulverized coal Below 1149oC Above

Ash fusion temp……………………………………… 1149 oC 1316 1316oC
Solid refractory………………………………………. Never 111250 133500

Air-cooled refractory……………………………… 106800 133500 155750
Water-cooled bottom……………………………. 142400 155750 178000
Water walls……………………………………………. 155750 195800 267000
Lump coal*
Stoker firing Very large plant……………………………………………………….. 267000-311500
Stoker firing Large plant………………………………………………………………. 178000-267000
Stoker firing Small plant………………………………………………………………. 133500-222500
Oil or gas…………………………………………………………………………………………. 222500-445000
kcal kW
3 3
Use average: 333750 m −hr = 388.0585 m
a. To find Volume of Furnace:

QA
=
QR
where:
Heat added, QA = mf (HV)
From equation:
ms ( hs −hf )
n=¿
mf HV
where:

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HV = 51,716 – 8793.8(SG)2
Fuel used is 12° Baume, or Bunker Oil No. 6
For BAUME and API Gravity Units
Thus,
S.G @ 15.6 ℃ = 0.9859
For ° API
°API = 12.024°
From Kent’s Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook, Table 11, Pp. 2-57 as shown
below, the approximate preheating temperature for fuel oil having °API 12 –
14 has a temperature of 220 – 275 ℉
Table 11. Approximate Preheating Temperatures for Fuel Oil
Gravity, Temperature, Gravity, Temperature, Gravity, Temperature,
o o o
API F API F API F
10-12 275-325 16-18 150-200 22-24 70-100

12-14 220-275 18-20 140-160 24-26 70-80
14-16 175-250 20-22 100-140 ………. ……….
For °API = 12.024, the preheating temperature 220.660 ℉ =

104.811℃
Using the Correction for Specific Gravity of Fuel:
SGT = SGS [1 – 0.0007(104.811– 15.6)]
= 0.9859[1 – 0.0007(104.811– 15.6)]
SGT = 0.9243
Hence;
HHV = 51716 – 8793.8(0.9243)2 = 44,203.1885 kJ/kg
From the given data:

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Boiler Efficiency, ηB = 85 %
Enthalpy of Feedwater entering Economizer, hf = 745.57 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of Steam leaving superheater, h1 = 3120.3359 kJ/kg
Therefore:
ms ( hs −hf )
n B=¿
mf HV
44.9668 kg /s ( 3120.3359−745.57 ) kJ /kg
0.85=¿ kJ
mf (44,203.1885 )
kg
mf =2.8421 kg/ s
So,
QA = mf Hv = 2.8421kg/s (44,203.1885 kJ/kg)
QA = 125, 629.882 kJ/s
For Volume of Furnace
125 , 629.882kJ / s
V FURNACE= 3 = 323.7395 m
3
388.0585 kW /m
b. Dimensions and No. of Tubes of Furnace

The designer chooses to design a furnace of rectangular shape.
-For simplicity, assume to be covered on all six sides with water walls of type
tangent tubes – flat files as shown below from Figure 10-12d by Morse Pp.
309:
-From example 1, Pp 310 of same book, having the same efficiency of 85%,
the designer will also use the data such as:
88.9 mm tubes spaced to 152.4 mm on centers

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For this rectangular furnace, the designer chooses a length = 5 m and

a width = 4 m.
So, height of furnace = Vf/LW = 323.7395 /(5x4) = 16.187 m
With 88.9 mm tube diameter and spaced to 152.4 mm on centers.

No. of tubes for 4m walls, N1
N1 = 4m / 0.1524 m = 26.247
N1 = 27 tubes
No. of tube for 5.0 m walls, the roof and floor:
N2 = 5m / 0.1524 m = 32.808
N2 = 33 tubes
Total No. of tubes = (27 x 2) + (33x 2) = 120 tubes
c. Calculation of Radiant Heating Surface, AP

Project Area (Side wall tubes) = (27 + 33) x 16.187 m x 2 x 0.0889 m
= 172.6829 m2
Projected Area (Top and Bottom) = 4 x 33 x 2 x 0.0889
= 23.4696 m2
Total Projected Area, AP = 172.6829 m2 + 23.4696 m2
= 196.1525 m2
d. Effective Radiant Surface, Ar

For Effective Radiant Surface, Ar:
From Eq. 9-27, PPE by F.T Morse
Ar = APδS
Where:
; is reasonable assumption for this type of wall.

Assume Slogging factor, of 0.95 from P. 285, of same book
Ar = 196.1525 m2 x x 0.95
Ar = 351.2518 m2

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e. Determine the available Sensible Heat, QS

QS = mCp(tg – tair)
Where:
Since; tg = gas temperature = 1316 ℃

To find mean CP:
ta = preheated air temperature = 150 ℃
This value is taken since air supplied to a furnace should not exceed 300 °F
or 350 °F at the most. Otherwise, war page and maintenance will be too
high. This preheated air improves combustion particularly at low loads. (Phillip J.
Potter. Power Plant Theory and Design, Pp. 247)
From PPE by Morse, figure 5-5 Pp. 138

For the Case of CO2:
CPb = CPCO2 @ 1316 ℃ = 1.18 kJ/kg.K
CPa = CPCO2 @ 150 ℃ = 0.954 kJ/kg. K
For the Case of O2:
CPb = CPO2 @ 1316 ℃ = 1.067 kJ/kg.K
CPa = CPO2 @ 150 ℃ = 0.957 kJ/kg. K
For the Case of H2O:
CPb = CPH2O @ 1316 ℃ = 2.240 kJ/kg.K
CPa = CPH2O @ 150 ℃ = 1.825 kJ/kg. K
For the Case of CO:
CPb = CPCO @ 1316 ℃ = 1.144 kJ/kg.K
CPa = CPCO @ 150 ℃ = 1.825 kJ/kg. K
For the Case of N2
CPb = CPN2@ 1316 ℃ = 1.144 kJ/kg.K
CPa = CPN2 @ 150 ℃ = 1.06 kJ/kg. K

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Thus, for SO2:
Mean CP = 0.2 x 4.187
= 0.8374
For CO2:
For O2:
For N2:
For CO:
mean CPCO =
For H2O:
Ultimate analysis of fuel: Bunker oil no.6 - (mass basis)

Carbon, C = 84.3 %
Hydrogen, H2 = 12.7 %
Oxygen, O2 = 1.0 %
Nitrogen, N2 = 0.2 %
Sulfur, S = 0.8 %
Moisture = 1.0 %

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Flue Gas Analysis:

CO2 = 13.0 %
O2 = 3.1 %
N2 = 83.9 %
Solving for Theo. A/F ratio:
A
F ( O
=11. 5 C+34 . 5 H − +4 . 3 S
8 )
=
(
11. 5 ( 0 .843 )+34 .5 0 .127−
0 .01
8 )+4 . 3 ( 0. 008 ) kg air
= 14.067 kg fuel
Theoretical A/F = 14.067 kg air/kg fuel from table 3, Pp. 2-06 KMEH,
(shown below), the excess air for fuel oil ranges from 8 to 15%.
Table 3. Excess Air at Furnace Outlet for Various Fuels Permission from
Combustion Engineering, Combustion Engineering Co., Inc., Ne/1947.
Fuel Excess Air, % Fuel Excess Air, %

Coal 10-40 Natural gas 5-10
Coke 20-40 Refinery gas 8-15
Wood 25-50 Blast-furnace gas 15-25
Pagasse 25-45 Coke-over gas 5-10
Oil 8-15
Use average e = 11.5 %

So that,
Actual = Theoretical (1+e) = 14.067(1 + 0.115)
= 15.6847
To solve for its masses:
From figure A-4 Pp. 663, PPE by Morse
Constants:
For C = 3.67
For H2 = 9

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For S = 2
For CO2:
mCO2 = 3.67C
kg CO
( kgC
)
kgCO
3 .67 2
0 . 843 2
kgC kgfuel
mCO2= = 3.094 kg fuel
For SO2:
mSO =2 S
2
kg SO kg SO
mSO2 =
2
kg S
2
( 0 . 008
kg S
kg fuel)=0 . 016 2
kg fuel
For O2:
( )
kg O
mO2 =
( ) A
F theo
( e ) 0 . 232
kgair
2
= 0.115 x 14.12 x 0.232
( )
kg air kgO 2 kgO 2
14 . 067 ( 0 .115 ) 0 .232 =0 . 375
= kgfuel kg air kg fuel
Note: air contains 23.2 % O2 and 76.8 % nitrogen; a total composition of 100 % air.
For N2:
mN2 = (1 + e)( )theo(0.768)
( )( )
kg air kg N 2 kg N 2
( 1+0 .115 ) 14 . 067 0 .768 =12 .046
kg fuel kgair kg fuel
mN2 =
For H2O: needs revision
mH O=9 H 2 +W a
2
Where:
Wa = moisture present in air
Atmospheric Pressure = 101.325 kPa

Dry Bulb Temperature = 20 ℃

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Relative Humidity = 70%

From Psychrometric chart: Refrigeration and Air- Conditioning by
Stoecker. Page 41.
Wet bulb temperature = 16.5 ℃

From Steam Table
Psat @ 16.5 ℃ = 1.8779 kPa
hfgw @ 16.5 ℃ = 2462.4 kJ/kg
Thus,
0.622 x 1.8779 kPa kg
W sat =¿ =¿ 0.01175 vap
(101.325−1.8779)kPa kg air
Also,
∆t = depression wet bulb below dry bulb
∆t = tdb – twb = 20℃ – 16.5℃ = 3.5 ℃
0.01175 x 2462.4−3.5 kg
Wa ¿ =¿ 0.010302 vap
2462.4+1.8 ( 3.5 ) kg air

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Thus,
kg H O kg H kg vap kg air
m H O =9 2
x 0.127 2
+0.010302 x 15.685
2
kg H 2
kg fuel kgair kg fuel
kg H
2O
= 1.3046 kgfuel
Thus,
mCP = [3.094(1.2061)] + [(0)(1.154)]+[1.3046(2.2878)] +

0.016(0.8374) + 0.375(1.0797) + 12.046(1.154)
= 21.0357
Then,
Qs = mCP (tg – tair)
= 21.0357 kJ/kg-°C (1316 – 150) °C
Qs = 24, 527.6262
f. Determination of Latent Heat, QL:

QL = mv (hfg)
The specific value of hfg is uncertain, however, the ASME boiler test
code uses hfg @ 65.6℃. (Morse, F.T., Power Plant Engineering Pp.
142)
Where:
hfg = hfg @ 65.6℃ = 2,344.7 kJ/kg (interpolated)
mv = 9H2 = 9kgH2O/kgH2 (0.127kgH2/kg fuel )
kg H
2O
mv = 1.143 kgfuel
kg H O kJ
2
kg H O
QL = 1.143 kgfuel (2344.7 2 )
QL = 2679.992 kJ/kgfuel
g. Heat Absorbed and carried off by the product of combustion

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Q = [hfg + QL](mf) = [2,344.7 + 2,679.992] x 2.8421kg/s

Q = 14, 280.6771 kW
h. Gas Flow, mgas

Gas per kg fuel = MCO2 + MSO2 + MO2 + MN2
kgCO kg SO kgO kg N
2 2 2 2
= 3.094 kg fuel + 0.016 kg fuel + 0.375 kgfuel + 12.046 kgfuel
Gas per kg fuel = 15.531
mgas= 15.531 kggas/ kgfuel x 2.8421kgfuel/s

= 44.1407 kg/s
i. ERS (effective Radiant surface)per 1000kg gas

(From PPE by morse Pp.311)
Ar (1000 )
ERS ¿ 1000 =
( m gas )
351.2518m2 ( 1000 kg gas /hr ) 2
m
( 3600
1 hr )
= s = 2.2104
44.136 kg/sec 1000 kg gas
j. Amount of water evaporated in the water walls

From eq. 6-14 Pp. 260, PPTD by Potter
Where:
HHV = higher heating value
HHV = 44,203.1885 kJ/kg = 19, 005.1514 Btu/lb
Qr = 3% of HHV are usually used (from PPTD by Potter page 266)
Waa = actual A/F by mass weight analysis
= 15.685
tah = temperature of preheated air = 150 ℃ = 302 ℉
ta = dry bulb temp of air = 20 ℃ = 68 ℉

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C = 0.843
Wf = mass of fuel = 2.8418 kg/sec =22556.4972 lb/ hr
H2 = 0.127 kgH2/kgfuel
Cab = carbon actually burned = 0.843
Thus;
Available energy = [19, 005.1514 (1 – 0.03) + 0.24(15.685)(302 – 68)
– 1040 (9 x 0.127) – 14600 (0.843 – 0.843)] 22556.4972 lb/hr
Available energy = 408, 884, 928.2Btu/hr = 119, 825.9998 kW
119 ,825.9998 kW
Available Energy @ Exit = = 2,714.6375 kJ/kggas
44.1407 kg /s
Energy transferred to water walls, Qw:

Qw = Available Energy – Energy carried by the product of combustion
Qw = 119, 825.9998 kW – 14, 280.6771 kW = 105, 545.3227
kW
Amount of water evaporated, mw

Qw
mw =
hsuperheater – heconomizer ,leaving
105 , 545.3227 kW
= kJ
(2802.1077 – 943.6367 kJ /kg)
kg
mw = 56.7915 kg/s
k. Furnace Exit Temperature

From fig 6-39, Pp.261, PPTD Potter, (shown below)
2.2104 m2 ft 2
( )( )
2
gas 3.2808 ft kg
For ERS = kg = 23.7920
hr 1m hr
1000 1000
-Available energy at exit = 2,714.6375 kJ/kggas
= 2,714.6375 (
kJ 1 BTU
kg 1.055 kJ )
= 2,573.1161 BTU/kg

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BTU
2,573.1161 ft 2
Available Energy per ERS = = 108.1505 ( )
23.7920 hr
1000
Thus,
at 108.1505 Btu per ft2 of adjusted furnace envelope Surface per hr
÷1000 and oil:
Furnace exit temperature = 2180 °F = 1193.3333 °C
3. BOILER INSULATION

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Furnace inside temperature = 1316 oC

Ambient air temperature = 20 oC
Thermal conductivity of materials:
1. Fire clay, burnt 1725 k = 25 cm
K1= 1.3 w/m-oC
2. Fired diatomaceous earth brick
K2 = 0.31 w/m-oC
3. Common brick = 15 cm
K3 = 0.69 w/m-oC
4. Steel = 2 mm
K4 = 43 w/m-oC
Heat transfer of outer surface at 20 oC = 11.3 W/m2-℃
Heat Transfer of inner Surface at 1316 oC = 1200 w/m2-℃
It is desired to limit heat loss through a boiler furnace wall to 1000 w/m 2,
then determined thickness of insulation.
1316−20
¿
1000 1 0.25 Ax2 0.15 0.002 1
+ + + + +
200 1.3 0.31 0.69 43 11.3
Ax2 = 0.2458m =Thickness of insulation
4. CONVECTION SURFACE CALCULATION FOR RISERS

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a. Develop Boiler Horsepower

m s ( hs −h f )
Dev . BoilerHp=
35322
Where:
ms = the mass of steam, kg/hr
ms = 44.9668
s 1 hr (
kg 3600 s
)
= 161880.48
kg
hr
hf = h36 = the enthalpy of feedwater economizer boiler
hf = h36 = 745.57 kJ/kg
hs = h1 = the enthalpy of steam leaving boiler, kJ/kg
hs = h1 = 3120.3359 kJ/kg
(Note: 1 Bo.Hp = 35,322 kJ/hr)
Thus,
Dev. Bo. hp =
161880.48
kg
hr ( kJ
3120.3359 −745.57
kg
kJ
kg )
35,322
= 10, 883.5356 Bo. hp
b. Rated Boiler Horsepower
= 200%
Dev . Bo . hp 10 ,883.5356 Bo .hp

Rated Bo. hp = =
% Rating 2
= 5441.7678 Bo. hp
c. Boiler Heating Surface

“It was judged that 0.91 m2 of heating surface would be needed to
generate steam for an engine horsepower.(Morse, F.T., Power Plant
Engineering Pp. 295)
Thus,
Boiler Heating Surface = 0.91(Rated Bo. Hp)

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2
m (
Boiler Heating Surface = 0.91 5441.7678 Bo. hp )
Bo . hp
Boiler Heating Surface = 4952.0087 m2
(this heating surface includes heating surface in economizers rises waterfalls and
superheater)
d. Heating surface area of riser tube

Note:
Heating Surface area of riser tube is considered to be 18% of the total
heating surface area of the boiler.
Hrs = 0.18 (Boiler Heating surface)
= 0.18 (4952.0087 m2) = 891.3616 m2
e. No. of Tubes, n
Based on PPTD by potter Pp.263, 6-14, convection-surface
calculations example. With a furnace dimension of 5 m x 4 m x 16.187
m, we reliably assume that the approximate tube length is 8.0 meters.
This accounts for bent tubes and the longer tubes at the rear of the
cavity.
In addition, Tubes of 25.4 to 50.8 mm diameter are commonly
used, (Morse, F.T., PPE, Pp. 321). We also used a 50.8 mm (2 in)
diameter tubes in this design. Maximum value was chosen to have a
maximum heating surface.
Thus, Heating surfaceriser = π dL (n)

891.3616 m 2
No. of tubes =
π ( 0.0508 m ) ( 8 m) /tubes
No. of tubes = 698.1526 ≈ 699 tubes
(Note: this no. of tubes is not yet the actual since we still have to consider the heat
transfer by radiation from gases)
f. Determination of the Actual no. of Tubes

f. 1 the convection coefficient, h
From Table 4-1 eq. F Pp. 145 by Potter

P a g e | 344
Where:
D = the diameter, ft.
Vo = the velocity of gas based on 14.7 psia and 32 °F, ft/s
G
=
ρo
ρo = density of superheated steam = 0.0502 lb/ft3
G = gas flow per area, lb/s-ft2

The area between tubes that is available for flow is the number of tube
spaces times the width and height of each space, (PPTD by Potter. Pp. 263-
264).
Because of the tube bents, the length of the area will be smaller than
the tube length. Thus, with an 8.0 m tube length, we only take 7.5
meters as the length of the area.
(Note: tubes are spaced to 152.4 mm on centers - previously)
Based on example given in section 6-14 Pp. 264 PPTD by Potter.
Given the furnace length of 5 m, we take the first convection row to have
a length of 2.5 m.
Then,
2.5 m
No. of spaces = 152.4 mm
(
1m
)
= 16.4042 ≈ 17 spaces
space 1000 mm
mm 1m
Area = 17 spaces (152.4 )( ) (7.5 m) = 19.4310 m2
space 1000 mm
The gas flow per area, G is: mg = 44.1407 kg/se
44.1407 kg /s kg
( )( )
2
2.2046 lb 1m
G= 2 = 2.2717 2
19.4310 m m −s 1 kg 3.2808 ft
lb
= 0.4653 2
ft −s

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Thus,
lb
0.4653 2
ft −s
Vo = = 9.2685 ft/s
lb
0.0502 3
ft
ft 0.69
0.91(9.2685 )
s BTU
h= = 6.1967
[ 25.4 mm 12 inches )]
0.31
88.9 mm( 1 inch

)( 1 ft hr−ft 2−℉
( )( )( 1 m ) ( 1℃ )
2
BTU 1.055 kJ 1 hr 3.2808 ft 1.8℉
h = 6.1967 2
hr−ft −℉ 1 BTU 3600 sec
kW
h = 0.0352 2
m −℃
f. 2 water evaporated in the convection zone

The furnace was calculated to evaporate, mw = 56.7915 kg/s
Then, the convection zone should evaporate,
mconv .=mw −ms
Where:
ms = mass flow rate of steam out of the boiler
mw = amount of water evaporated in the furnace
kg steam kg kg
mconv = 56.7915 −44.9668 = 11.8247
s s s
f. 3 Heat transfer to the tubes in the convection zone, Qconv.

Q tubes , conv =mconv. ( h s −hfw )
where: hs = enthalpy of steam entering superheater
hfw = enthalpy of steam entering economizer
kg kJ
Qtubes, conv = 11.8247 (2802.1077 – 745.57)
s kg
Qtubes, conv = 24317.9413 kW
f. 4 Gas Temperature Leaving the Risers

From equation,
Q = AU (∆Tlm)

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Where: A = heating surface of the riser

U = h = convection heat transfer coeff.
∆Tlm = log. Mean temperature difference.
24317.9413 kW
∆Tlm = 0.0352 kW ( 891.3616 m2) = 775.0509 ℃
2
m −℃
Also,
ΔT 1 −ΔT 2
ΔT lm=
( )
ΔT 1
ln
ΔT 2
Where:
∆T1 = Thot, in – Tcold, out
∆T1 = T exit, furnace – T feed-water, leaving economizer

= 1193.3333 °C – 220.0021= 973.3312 °C
∆T2 = Thot, out – Tcold, in
∆T2 = T gas – T feed-water, leaving economizer
∆T2 = T gas – 220.0021 °C

Then,
973.3312−[T gas −220.0021]
775.0509 ℃ =
ln
( T 973.3312
gas−220.0021 )
Tgas = 825.7240 ℃
f. 5 heat transfer by radiation from gases:

From PPTD by Potter, Pp. 265
Qr =
Where:
A = Outside tube surface area, ft2
∈s = Tube emissivity = 0.80 for boiler
∈g = Emissivity of the gases at temp, tg
Tg = absolute Gas temperature, °R
a = Emissivity of the gases at Temp, Ts

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Ts = Absolute tube surface temperature, R

When the gases are at standard atmospheric pressure, as in the case in
all boilers, the gas emissivities can be evaluated as:
∈g = ∈cg + ∈wgCw
a = ∈cs + ∈wsCw
Where:
∈cg = emissivity of carbon dioxide at temperature Tg
∈wg = Emissivity of water vapor at temperature Tg
∈ws = emissivity of water vapor at temperature Ts
∈cs = emissivity of carbon dioxide at temperature Ts
Cw = correction factor for water vapor emissivity from figure 6-
43, PPTD by Potter, Pp. 268
Solving simultaneously:
ti + t g
Ave .TubeSurfaceTemperature=
2
Where: ti and to = surface temperatures at sections where fluid
enters and leaves tubes respectively
220.0021+ 825.7240
Ave. Tube Surface Temp., Ts = = 522.8631 ℃
2
= 973.1535℉ = 1433.1535 °R
Temp. of gas, Tg = 825.7240 ℃ =1518.3032 ℉ = 1978.3032 °R
Notice that the values ∈c and ∈w shown in figure 6-41 and 6-42, Pp
266-267 PPTD by Potter, are plotted with values PL as parameters. P is
the partial pressures of gas expressed in atmospheres and L is the radiant
beam length for the gas expressed in ft.
f. 5.1 Evaluating PL
From table 6-1 Pp. 268 PPTD by Potter,

P a g e | 348
We used (L = 2.8 x clearance) since the tubes are spaced in equilateral

triangles. Also, the clearance of the tube will be equal to tube diameter. In
this case, clearance = 2 inches as what was previously used in this
1 ft
solution. Thus, L = 2.8 (2 in.) ( ) = 0.467 ft
12∈.

P a g e | 349
In addition, the partial pressures, P, of gases are proportional to the volumetric

analysis of wet flue gas. In this case we only have H2O and CO2. Then,
Pc = partial pressure of CO2
Pw = partial pressure of H2O
From Wet flue gas analysis:
Mol CO2 = = 0.070318 CO2
Mol SO2 =
Mol O2 =
mass O2 1.3046
Mol H2O = = = 0.07248 Mol H2O
MW O 2 18
Mol N2 =
Total Number of mole = 0.586883 mole
Volumetric Analysis:
0.070138
% CO2 = x 100 = 11.98 %
0.586883
0.000313
% SO2 = x 100 = 0.0533 %
0.586883
0.011772
% O2 = x 100 = 2.01 %
0.586883
0.07248
% H2O = x 100 = 12.35%
0.586883
0.432
% N2 = x 100 = 73.61 %
0.586883
Thus,
PcL = (0.1198 atm)(0.467 ft) = 0.05595 ft-atm
PwL = (0.1235 atm)(0.467 ft) = 0.05767 ft-atm
From figure 6-43 Pp. 268 PPTD by Potter;(shown below)

Cw = 1.04 kJ/kg-°K

P a g e | 350
f. 5.2. Evaluating emissivity, ∈

From Figure 6-41:
with Tg = 1518.7240 ℉ and PcL = 0.05595 ft-atm
∈cg = 0.062
With Ts = 973.1535 ℉ and PcL = 0.05595 ft-atm
∈cs = 0.064
From Figure 6-42:
With Tg = 1518.7240 ℉ and PwL = 0.05767 ft-atm
∈wg = 0.035
With Ts = 973.1535 ℉ and PwL = 0.05767 ft-atm
∈ws = 0.052
Thus,
a = ∈cs + ∈wsCw = 0.064 + 0.052 (1.04) = 0.1181
∈g = ∈cg + ∈wgCw = 0.062+ 0.035 (1.04) = 0.0984
Thus,
A = Abo. - Afur, tube
Where:
Afur, tube = Furnace tube heating surface
Abo = 4952.0087 m2 (from previous solution)
A fur ,tube=π dLn
Where:

P a g e | 351
d = furnace tube diameter = 88.9 mm

L = length of tubes = height of furnace
= 16.187 m
n = no. of tubes = 699 tubes
Then,
Afur, tube = π (0.0889m)(16.187 m)(699) = 3160.0589 m2
So,
A = 4, 952.0087 m2 – 3160.0589 m2 = 1791.9498 m2
A = 1791.9498 m2 ( 1m )
3.2808 ft 2
= 19287.9181 ft 2
Qr = 0.1723(19, 287.9181)(0.8)
[ ( 1978.3032° R 4
) ( )]
4
1433.1535 ° R
0.0984 −0.1181
100 100
Qr = 26, 824, 822.26 Btu/hr ( 1.0551

1 BTU )( 3600 )
kJ 1 hr
= 7, 861.1632 kW
f. 6 Total Energy Transferred, Q

Q = Qr + Qtubes + Qwalls
Where:
Qr = heat transfer by radiation from gases = 7, 861.1632 kW
Qtubes = heat transfer to the tubes = 24317.9413 kW
Qwalls = energy transfer to the water walls = 105, 545.3227 kW
Q = 7, 861.1632 kW + 24317.9413 2 kW + 105, 545.3227 kW
Q = 137, 724.4372 kW
f. 7 Evaporation, E
Q
E=
h s −hfw
Where:
hs = enthalpy of steam leaving the boiler/superheater
hfw = enthalpy of feedwater entering the boiler/economizer

P a g e | 352
137 ,724.4372 kJ /s
E=¿ kJ kJ = 57.9950 kg/s
3120.3359 −745.57
kg kg
f. 8 Factor of evaporation, F.E
h s−hfw
F . E=
2257
kJ kJ
3120.3359 −745.57
E kg kg = 1.0522
¿
2257
*Reduce the number of riser tubes*

f. 9 Allowable Evaporation, A.E
A.E = F.E (ms)
= 1.0522 (44.9668 kg/s) = 47.3141 kg/s
f. 10 Total Energy to be Transferred, Qtotal

Qtotal = A.E (hs – h36)
kJ kJ
= 47.3141 kg/s (3120.3359 −607.2147 )
kg kg
Qtotal = 118, 906.0678 kW
f. 11 Heat Transfer in Convection Zone

Qc = Qtotal - Qwalls - Qr
Qc = 118, 906.0678 kW – 105, 545.3227 kW – 7, 861.1632 kW
Qc = 5499.5819 kW
f. 12 Actual Steam Evaporated by Convection

Qc
ms =
hs ,sup erheater−hfw , economizer
where: hs = enthalpy of steam entering superheater
hfw = enthalpy of feedwater leaving economizer
5499.5819 kW
kg
ms = kJ kJ = 2.9592
2802.1077 −943.6367 s
kg kg

P a g e | 353
f. 13 Actual Area of Riser Tubes

Q= AU ( ΔT lm )
where:
Qc = 5258.0213 kW
U = 0.0352 kW/m2-°C
∆Tlm = 775.0509 ℃
kW
5499.5819 kW = A (0.0352 2 ) (775.0509 °C)
m ℃
A = 201.5843 m2
f. 14 Actual no. of Tubes

A= π dLn
2
201.5843 m
A ¿
n=
πdL π ( 2∈.)
1 ft
(
1m
12∈. 3.2808 ft
8m )
n = 157.8876 tubes = 158 tubes
5. DOWN COMERS
In a water-tube steam generator, a mixture of steam and water leaves the
risers and enters the drum. The term dryness fraction refers to the amount of
steam in this mixture of steam and water and may be express as a fraction by
volume or by weight. When dryness fraction is expressed as weight ratio, it
represents the quality of the mixture. Top dryness fraction applies to the mixture
leaving the tubes. The Top Dryness Fraction (TDF) is an extremely important
design factor because the inside surface of the tubes must be wet at all times to
ensure satisfactory heat transfer.
To determine the size of down comers, from previous calculations the boiler
is with 158 tubes of 2-inch diameter tubes with length of 8.0 m. The tubes have
two 90-degree bends. The down comer is 8 m and 2 bends.
a. Calculation of Top Dryness Fraction:

From PPTD Pp 214, eq's 6-3 and 6-4
TDF v =0 . 8−0 . 000133 ( P−250 )

P a g e | 354
( TDF v ) v f
TDF w =
v g −( TDF v ) v fg
Where:
ft 3 steam
TDFv = top dryness fraction by volume, 3
ft mixture
lb steam
TDFw = top dryness fraction by weight,
lbmixture
P = boiler operating pressure, psi,a
vf, vfg and vg = are specific volume as given in steam tables at
operating pressure, ft3/lb
From section 1a in this chapter, the boiler operating pressure is
P = 2228.7969 kPa,gage. Then,
P = 2228.7969 kPa + 101.325 kPa
= 2330.1219 kPa,abs = 338.0488 psi
From table A-5E Pp.935, Thermodynamics, An Engineering Approach by
Cengel et.al @ 2330.1219 kPa
Pressure, kPa Specific Volume, m3/kg

2250 0.001187 0.088717
2330.1219 vf vg
2500 0.001197 0.079952
By interpolation;

P a g e | 355
3
1 kg (3.2808 ft ) ft 3
vf = 0.0011902 m /kg x 3
x = 0.01906
2.205lb 1m3 lb
3
1 kg (3.2808 ft ) ft 3
vg = 0.0859079 m /kg x
3
x = 1.3761
2.205lb 1m
3
lb
ft 3
vfg = vg - vf = 1.3570
lb
Then,
TDFv = 0.8 – 0.000133(338.0488 psi – 250 psi)
ft 3 steam
= 0.7883
ft 3 mixture
Also,
(0.7883)(0.01906)
TDFw =
( 1.3761 )−(0.7883)1.3570
lb steam
= 0.049041
lbmixture
b. The Circulation Ratio

1 1
Circulation ratio = =
TD F W 0.049041
lb water
¿ 20.3911
lb steam
c. Total Circulation
Total Circulation Ratio = Circulation ratio x steam flow
= 20.3911 (
lb steam s )(
lb water 44.9668 kg steam 2.2046 lb
1 kg )( 160mins )
lb
= 121286.8427
min
d. Density of Mixture in the Steaming Section, ρm

P a g e | 356
[ ] ( )
ρw
ln
ρt
ρm= ρw
ρw
−1
ρt
where:
ρm = mean density of mixture in the steaming section in
the tubes, lb/ft3
ρw = density of saturated water, lb/ft3
ρt = density at top dryness fraction, lb/ft3
1
1 3
lb
ρw = = ft = 52.4659
vf 0.01906 ft
3
lb
ft 3 steam
¿ 0.7883 3
TDF v ft mixture lb
ρt = = = 11.8611 3
v g (TDF w ) ft 3
lb ft
1.3761 (0.049041) steam
lb lb mixture
[ ]( 11.8611 )
52.4659
ln
lb
ρm = 52.4659
( 52.4659
11.8611 )
3
ft
−1
m = 22.788 lb
ρ
ft 3
e. Pressure Loss in Risers and Downcomers
Pressure loss in downcomers consist of:
 loss at entrance and exit: 1/2 and 1 elbow equivalent, respectively.

 loss due to changes in tube flow area: 1/4 to 1/2 equivalent elbow
 loss due to bends: 3/4 equivalent elbow for 90° bend
 loss due to straight tube
From PPTD by potter Pp. 56

P a g e | 357
2
0 . 01214 fLW
ΔP risers =
ρm d 5
where:
f = friction factor = 0.02 (taken from Pp. 215 PPTD by Potter)
this will give sufficiently accurate results for many purposes
W = mass flow rate, lb/min
d = tube inside diameter, in: ID = 1.71 and OD = 2 in (previous
design data)
ρm = density of mixture in the steaming section, lb/ft3
= 22.788 lb/ft3
L = equivalent length of tube, ft (includes losses in fittings)
The equivalent length of a fitting is that the length of a straight pipe,

which would have the same friction loss as the fitting over and above
the friction loss in a straight piece of pipe physically the same length as
the fitting.
 loss at entrance: 1/2 elbow,
 loss at exit: 1 elbow

loss due to changes in flow area: use 1/2elbow

loss due to 90 deg. bends: 3/4 elbow
Total elbows 2.75 elbows

Length of tube: 8.0 m = 26.2464 ft.
From figure 2-22, Pp. 71, PPTD by Potter:

With 1.71 in ID; Le = 5 ft/elbow
Total equivalent length will be:
ft
L = 26.2464 ft + 5 (2.75 elbows)
elbow
= 39.9964 ft.

P a g e | 358
Where:
121286.8427lb/ min
Wrisers =
157.8876 tubes
= 768.1847 lb/min/ tube
For 157.8876 riser tubes, there are 157.8876 riser tube/50 riser tube per 2
downcomer set = 6.3155 or 7 downcomers. Then, the mass flow rate per
downcomer is;
lb
121286.8427
Wdowncomers = min = 17, 326.6918 lb/min
7 downcomers
∆ Prisers = 0.01214 (0.02)(39.9964 ft )¿ ¿

∆ Prisers = 17.1994 psi
Solving for pressure in downcomers:

From eq. 6-1 Pp.213, PPTD by Potter:
Z
ΔP downcomers= ( ρ −ρ )
144 D m
where:
Z = system height in, ft = 22.9656 ft
ρD = density of water in the downcomers
1
1 3
lb
= = ft = 52.4659 3
v f 0.01906 ft
lb
lb
ρm = mean density of water steam mixture = 22.788 3
ft
22.9656 ft lb
∆P downcomers = (52.4659 – 22.788) 2
144 ft
∆P downcomers = 4.7731 psi
f. Size of Downcomers Tubes

The size of downcomers tubes to give this pressure loss can be
determined by trial and error. Try nominal size of 200 mm with ID = 202.7
mm = 7.98 in. and OD = 219.1 mm. The design no. of downcomers be 11.

P a g e | 359
From figure 2-22, Pp 71, PPTD by Potter:

With ID = 202.7 mm = 7.98 inches; Le = 17 ft/elbow
Thus, the equivalent length of each downcomer will be:
ft
L = 26.2464 ft + 17 (2.75 elbows) = 72.9964 ft
elbow
Thus,
∆ P downcomer = 0.01214 (0.02)(72.9964 ft )¿ ¿
∆PD = 3.1339 psi
Thus, using a nominal size of 200 mm is good.
6. STEAM DRUM
Drum size will be determined largely by the space requirement for all the
internals to perform the steps of steam purification. Purification devices depend
largely to the manufacturer so the drum size is not well determined. The pressure drop
of steam flowing through a separator is from 0.5 to 2 psi.
For this Design, use 2 m diameter drum equipped with gauge glass, high and
low water alarms, etc. Lower drum is about ½ of the diameter of upper drum, thus
lower drum diameter is 1 m.
7. SUPERHEATER DESIGN
Superheating the steam supplied to prime movers increases efficiency of a
plant both because it increases the cycle efficiency and because it increases the
efficiency of the steam engines or turbines. This design uses convection type
superheaters.
Inlet gas temperature:

Tg, in = 825.7240 ℃
a. Conditions of Throttled Steam Leaving the Superheater: (at state 1)
Temperature, t1 = 343.2260 ℃
Pressure @ P1 = 2068.2774 kPa
Mass of steam,ms = 44.9668 kg/sec
Enthalpy, h1 = 3120.3359 kJ/kg

P a g e | 360
b. Conditions Steam Entering Superheater:

Pressure = 2317.9488 kPa
t = tsat at 2317.9488 kPa = 220.0021℃
h = hg at 2317.9488 kPa = 2802.1077 kJ/kg
From section 11.5.1.3, PSME Code For high pressure superheated steam.
Steam Velocity range from 3050 to 4750 m/min. Use average steam velocity,
V = 3900 m/min
Vsteam = 65 m/sec

P a g e | 361
Steam tube data: 20.07 mm ID and 25.4mm OD or nominal size 20,

Schedule 40 seamless steel pipe. (this data is so chosen since it is also
used in example no. 2 Pp.279, PPE by Morse).
c. Energy Transferred to the Steam. Qs

Energy transferred to the steam = energy release by the gas
Qs =ms ( hs −h g )=Q gas
Where:
ms = 44.9668 kg/s
hs = 3120.3359 kJ/kg
hg = 2802.1077 kJ/kg
Thus,
Qs = 44.9668 kg/s (3120.3359 – 2802.1077) kJ/kg
Qs = 14309.7038 kW
d. Determine the Log. Mean Temperature Difference, LMTD

From Table 6-40 (a), from PPTD by Potter Pp. 262 (shown below)
With, Tgas = 825.7240 ℃= 1518.3032 °F (value is taken from section 5-h.4
of this paper)
Approximate CP of flue gas:

P a g e | 362
Btu 1.055 kJ 2.2046 lb 1.8℉

CP = 0.306 x x x
lb−℉ 1 Btu kg ℃
= 1.2811 kJ/kgoC
Also,
Q=mC p ( ΔT )
Q=m gas C p , gas ( T gas−T g ,o )
Where:
mgas = gas flow = 44.1407 kg/s
Tgas = temperature of flue gas entering superheater
Tg,o = temperature of gas leaving superheater
kg kJ
s ¿
14309.7038 kW = 44.1407 (1.2811 kg °C (825.7240 –Tgo) ℃
Tgo = 572.6728 ℃
Where:
Tgas = temperature of the gas leaving the risers/entering
superheater = 825.7240 ℃
Tgo = temperature of gas leaving superheaters
= 572.6728 ℃
To = temperature of steam leaving superheater
= 343.2260 ℃
Ti = temperature of steam entering superheaters
= 220.0021 ℃
Thus,
ΔT 1 −ΔT 2
LMTD=
( )
ΔT 1
ln
ΔT 2
Where:
∆T1 = T gas,in – T steam leaving superheater
= 825.7240 °C – 343.226 °C = 482.4980 °C
∆T2 = T gas, out – T steam, entering superheater

P a g e | 363
= 572.6728 °C – 220.0021 °C = 352.6707 °C

482.4980−352.6707
LMTD =
ln ⁡
482.4980
352.6707 (= 414.1988 ℃
)
e. Determine the Overall Thermal Coefficient, U
Solutions in this part is all based on example no. 2 Pp 279, PPE by
F.T. Morse. For reliability purposes, some data used in the example are also
use in this design.
1 1 1 1
= + +
U h1 U t h2
Where:
h1 = Steam film conductance
h2 = Gas film conductance
Ut = metal film conductance
U = overall thermal coefficient
e. 1 The Steam film coefficient, h1
( )
0. 8
G
h1 =3 .7 x 10 D −0. 2 k 1 S
−3
1 ui
Where:
Gs = the steam mass flow, kg/s-m2
ui = viscosity of steam
k1 = conductivity
D1 = inside tube diameter
ms , per ,element
GS =
A tube ;
ms = mass of steam per element
A = area of tube
2
π ( 0. 02007 m )
A= =0. 0003164 m 2
4 /tube
Also, use the data below for the corresponding Ave. pressure
and temperature:
2068.2774 kPa+2317.9288 kPa
Pave = = 2193.1131 kPa
2

P a g e | 364
= 22.3629 kg/cm2
343.226+220.0021
T= = 281.6141°C
2
Thus, at 2193.1131 kPa and 281.6141°C
Specific volume, Ѵ = 0.10912 m3/kg
Volume flow rate:
V = ms (Ѵ)
= 44.9668 kg/s (0.10912 m3/kg)
= 4.9068 m3/s
Steam velocity, vs = 65 m/s
From figure 9-6 Pp. 270, Morse; with T = 281.6141°C and P = 2193.1131 kPa

P a g e | 365
kCal
ki = 4.5 x 10 -2
hr m° C
kg s
u1 = 24 x 10-7
m
D1 = 0.02007 m
Total Area:
V=Av
Thus,
3
4.9068 m /s
A= = 0.0755 m2
65 m/s
No. of element:
A total 0.0755 m
2
N= =A= = 238.5869 elements
Atube 2
0.0003164 m /element
N = 239 elements
Steam flow rate per element:
( )
2 3
m 0.0003164 m m
65 = 0.0206
s element s
Mass flow of Steam per elements:
( )
3
m
0.0206
s kg
m= 3 = 0.1888
m s
0.10912
kg
Steam mass flow per m2:

kg
0.1888 kg
Gs = s = 596.7130
s m2
0.0003164 m2
Thus,
( )
0.8
kg
2
596.7130
kCal sm
h1 = 3.7 x10 (0.02007m) (4.5 x 10 )
-3 -0.2 -2
hr m° C −7 kg s
24 x 10
m
kCal
= 1893.8613 2
hr m °C
Transfer this to the 25.4 mm diameter:

P a g e | 366
20.07 kCal
h1 = 1893.8613 x = 1496.4487 2
25.4 hr m ° C
e. 2 Gas Film Coefficient:

- Spacing between centers on elements = 70 mm. this value is reliably chosen
since it is also use in example 2 Pp.279, PPE by Morse.
- Design length of 3 m for headers to 180° bond
Gas film coefficient:
From PPE by Morse, Pp. 280,
( )
0. 6
Gg
h2 =0 . 0841 k 2 D −. 0 . 4 Pr 0. 33
2 u2 2
Free area for gas flow per element:

70−26.667
A = 3m m = 0.1300 m2
1000
Steam flow per element:
kg
m = 0.1888
s
Gas flow per element:
kg kg
= 2 x 0.1888 = 0.3776
s s
Mass flow of gas:
kg
0.3776 kg
Gg = s = 2.9046 2
2 m s
0.1300 m
Tube Temperature:
t gas,∈¿
t tube = t steamleaving superheater + ¿
2
343.226+825.7240
= °C = 584.4750 °C
2
Film Temperature:
t gas, out +t tube

t film =
2
572.6728+ 584.4750
t film = °C = 578.5739 °C
2

P a g e | 367
From PPE by Morse, figure 9-6 Pp. 270, Film Temperature = 578.5739 ℃ and
P = 2193.1131 kPa. (Note: values representing the Air curve in figure 9-6 is used)
k 2 = 5 x 1 0 - 2
kCal
hr m° C
kg s
μ2 = 39 x 10-7
m
Using air properties as a substitute for those combustion products,
From table A-9E Properties of Dry Air at Atmospheric Pressure 1 atm (page
912 Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications by Cengel and Cimbala.)
Pr20.33 = 0.69500.33 = 0.887
[ ]
0.6
2.9046 kCal
h2 = 0.0841(0.05) (0.0254) -0.4
(0.887) = 54.0716 2
39 x 10−7 hr m ℃
e. 3 Tube Coefficient:
From Table 9-1 Pp. 267 by Morse;

P a g e | 368
kCal
For Steel, k = 39.7
hr m℃
k
Ut=
dt
Where:
25.4 mm−20.07 mm
dt = thickness of tube = = 2.6650 mm
2
kCal
39.7 kCal
Ut = hr m℃ = 14896.8105
hr m2 ℃
0.002665 m
Then,
1 1 1 1
= + +
U h1 h2 U t
1 1 1 1
U
= + +
1496.4487 54.0716 14896.8105
kCal 4.1868 kJ 1hr kW
U = 52.0038 2 = 0.0605 2
hr m ℃ kCal 3600 s m ℃
f. Determine Area and Length Element:

Q= AU ( ΔT lm )
kW
14309.7038 kW = 0.0605 (414.1988 ℃) A
m2 ℃
A = 571.0399 m2

P a g e | 369
Area per Element:

2 2
A¿ element = 571.0399m = 2.3893 m
239 elements elements
OD per Linear Meter:
2
OD ¿meter = (0.0254m) π = 0.0798 m
m
Length of Element:
2
m
A¿ element 2.3893
elements m
Length ¿meter = = = 29.9411 elements
OD¿ meter m 2
0.0798
m
8. ECONOMIZER DESIGN
a. Feedwater Entering the Economizer:
t= 176.0001 ℃
P = 2068.2774 kPa
h = hf @ 176.0001 ℃ = 745.57 kJ/kg
f. Feedwater Leaving Economizer
t = 220.0021 ℃
P = 2317.9488 kPa
h = hf at 2317.9488 kPa = 943.6367 kJ/kg
Temperature of flue gas entering the economizer = temperature of flue gas
leaving the superheater
Ti,gas = 572.6728 °C
c. Energy Absorbed by Feedwater, Qfw
Heat Absorbed by Feedwater = Heat Released by the Flue Gas
Qfw = Qfg
Qfw = mfw (h2 – h1)
where:
mfw = mass of feedwater = m36 = 45.6516 kg/s
Qfw = 45.6516 kg/s (943.6367 – 745.57) kJ/kg
Qfw = 9042.0618 kW
d. Log. Mean Temp. Difference, ∆Tlm
Flue gas flow = 44.1407 kg/sec (see part 2-h)

P a g e | 370
From Table 6-40 (a) Pp. 262 Potter:
At Tgas = 572.6728 °C = 1062.110 ℉

Btu 1.055 kJ 2.2046 lb 1.8℉
CP = 0.292 x x x = 1.2225 kJ/kg-oC
From Equation:
Q = mg CPg (∆t)
9042.0618 kW = 44.1407 kg/s (1.2225 kJ/kg-°C) (572.6728 °C – tgo)
Tgo = 405.1093 °C
ΔT 1 −ΔT 2
LMTD=
( )
ΔT 1
ln
ΔT 2
Where:Tgas = temperature of flue gas entering economizer

= 572.6728 °C
To = temperature of feedwater leaving economizer
= 220.0021℃
Tgo = temperature of gas leaving economizer
= 405.1093 °C
Ti = temperature of feedwater entering economizer
= 176℃
Where:
∆T1 = T gas,in – T steam leaving economizer
= 572.6728 °C – 220.0021°C = 352.6707 °C

P a g e | 371

∆T2 = T gas, out – T steam, entering economizer
= 405.1093 °C – 176 °C = 229.1093 °C
352.6707−229.1093
LMTD =
ln ⁡ (
352.6707
229.1093 )
= 286.4623 ℃
e. Determine the Overall Thermal Coefficient

Average water Temperature,
220.0021℃+176 ℃
tave = = 198.0011 ℃
2
From Table A.23 Physical Properties of Selected Fluids (Page 832.
Engineering Thermodynamics by Bughardt et. al)
@ Temp = 198.0011 °C = 471.1511 K

Prandtl Number, Pr = 0.9648
Thermal Conductivity, k = 0.6653

ρ = 864.5675 kg/m3
Use, Diameter of Tube, ID = 77.92 mm and OD = 88.90 mm.
This is so chosen since it is also used in previous design.

P a g e | 372
e.1 Determine h1:
Nu =
h(0.0889)
Nu = = 0.1336h
0.6653
Re =
Where:
= fluid velocity = 2.69 m/s
864.5675 kg
2
m3 kg s
ρ = mass density = = 88.1312 4
9.81 m m
2
s
kg s
μ = 0.001 2
m
0.0889(2.69)(88.1312)
Re = = 21075.7833
0.001
Nu = CrexPrx From table by Morse P. 270 (cross-flow over tube
banks)
c = 0.33, x = 0.6, y= 0.33, De = Do = 0.0889
0.1336 h = 0.33(21075.7833)0.6 (0.9648)0.33
kCal
h = 959.0517
hr m2 ℃
kW
h = 1.1154 kW/m2 2
m ℃
e. 2 Calculate Ut:
k
Ut=
dt

P a g e | 373
Where, from table 9-1 Pp. 267 PPE by Morse

kCal
k = 39.7 , for steel
hr m2 ℃
0.0889 m−0.07792 m
dt = thickness = = 0.00549 m
2
39.7 kCal
kCal
Ut = hr m2 ℃ = 7231.3297
hr m℃
0.00549 m
Ut = 7231.3297 = 8.41
hr m℃ kCal 3600 s m℃
e. 3 Gas Film Coefficient
220.0021℃+176 ℃
t tube = t ave = = = 198.0011 ℃
2
t gas ,∈¿ 198.0011℃+572.6728 ℃
t film = t tube + ¿=
2 2
= 385.3370 ℃
From Fig. 9-6, PPE by Morse Pp. 270,
Temperature = 385.3370 ℃
kCal
k2 = 0.04
hr m℃
kg s
μ2 = 33 x10-7
m2
Using air properties as a substitute for those combustion products
Pr20.33 = 0.884 (PPE by Morse, Pp. 280)

P a g e | 374
( )
0. 6
Gg
h2 =0 . 0841 k 2 D −. 0 . 4 Pr 0. 33
2 u2 2
D2 = 0.0889 m
Gg = 44.1407kg/s = gas flow
Design: D = 2 m; Spacing of 128 mm on Centers
Gas flow per Element = 2(Steam flow) = 2x 44.1407 kg/s = 88.2814

kg/s
kg
Mass flow of gas = 88.2814 / 0.1m2
s
= 882.814 kg/m2s
[ ]
0.6
882.814 kCal
h2 = 0.0841(0.04)(0.0889) -0.4
(0.884) = 891.5808 2
33 x 10−7 hr m ℃
h2 = 89, 158.0807 2 =1.0369 2
hr m ℃ kCal 3600 s m ℃
Thus,
1 1 1 1
= + +
U h1 U t h2
1 1 1 1
U
= + +
1.1154 8.41 1.0369
kW
U =0.5051
m2 ℃
f. Surface Area of Economizer, A
Thus,
Qfw = AU (∆Tlm)
kW
9042.0618 kW = A (0.5051 ) (286.4623 ℃)
m2 ℃
A = 62.4917 m2
g. Outside Surface per Linear Meter:
OD surface linear/m = π (OD) = π(0.0889 m)
= 0.2793 m
h. Number of elements:

P a g e | 375
m fw
¿ of , elements=
m¿ element A ID
where:
mfw = mass flow rate of feedwater
= 45.6516 kg/s
m/element = mass flow per element
kg
= 882.814
m2 s
AID = inside cross-sectional area of the tube
2
π (0.07792m)
= =0.00477 m2
4
kg
45.6516
s
Number of Element = 882.814 kg = 10.6160 elements
s 2
(0.00477 m )
element
Number of Element = 11 elements
i. Area per element:

A economizer 62.4917 m2
Area/element = = = 5.6811m2
Number of Element 11
j. Length of Element
2
Area /element 5.6811m
Length of Elements = = = 20.3405 m
OD surface linear /m 0.2793 m
k. No. of Passes
20.3405 m
No. of Passes = = 10.1702 ≈ 11 passes
2
9. AIR PREHEATER
Inlet air temperature, Ti,air = 20 ℃ (ambient air temperature)
A 15.685 kgair 2.8421kg fuel kg air
Mass of air, ma = mf = = 44.5783
F kg fuel s s
Leaving air temperature, To,air = 150 ℃
Inlet flue gas temperature, Ti,gas = temp of flue gas leaving economizer, Tgo

P a g e | 376
Ti,gas = 405.1093 ℃
From table A-2, Cengel and Boles Thermodynamics
¯¿
CP of air = CP MW air ¿
Cp ¯
¿ a+bT + cT 2+ dT 3
Where; a = 28.11
b = 0.1967 x 10−2
c = 0.4802 x 10−5
d =−1.966 x 10−9
150+20
T = T ave = = 85 °C = 358.15 K
2
Cp bar = 28.11 + (0.1967 x 10−2 ¿ ( 358.15 ) +¿ (0.4802 x 10−5 ¿ ( 358.15 )2 +¿
(−1.966 x 10−9 ) ( 358.15 )3
kJ
¿ 29.3401
Kmol . K

P a g e | 377
kJ
29.3401
Kmol. K kJ
CP of air = =¿ 1.0129
kg kg−K
28.966
Kmol
a. Energy Absorbed by Air, QA
Energy Absorbed by Air = Energy Released by the Flue Gas
QA = Qfg
QA = mair Cp, air (∆Tair)
kg air kJ
= 44.5783 (1.005 ) (150 – 20)K
s kg air K
= 5824.1549 kW
b. Log. Mean Temp. Difference, ∆Tlm

Flue gas flow = 44.1407 kg/s (see part 2-h)
From Table 6-40 (a) Pp. 262 Potter:

P a g e | 378
At Tg,in = 405.1093 °C = 761.1967 °F

Btu 1.055 kJ 2.2046 lb 1.8℉
CP = 0.277 x x x = 1.1597
kJ
kg ℃
From Equation:
Q = mgCPg(∆t)
kg kJ
5824.1549 kW = 44.1407 (1.1597 ) (405.1093 °C – To,gas)
s kg ℃
To,gas = 291.334 °C
ΔT 1 −ΔT 2
LMTD=
( )
ΔT 1
ln
ΔT 2
where: Ti,gas = temperature of flue gas entering preheater

= 405.1093 °C
To,air = temperature of air leaving preheater
= 150℃
To,gas = temperature of gas leaving preheater
= 291.334 °C
Ti,air = temperature of air entering preheater
= 20 ℃
where:

P a g e | 379
∆T1 = Tgas,in – Tair, leaving

= 405.1093 °C – 150°C = 250.1093 °C
∆T2 = Tgas, out – T air, entering
= 291.334 °C – 20 °C = 271.334 °C
250.1093−271.334
LMTD =
ln ⁡ (
250.1093
271.334
= 260.5776 ℃
)
c. The Overall Thermal Coefficient, U
The Preheater is tubular type, air is passed aside the tube and flue gas inside the
tube
Average Air Temperature:

150+20
t ave = °C = 85°C = 185 oF = 358.15 K
2
From Table A-9E Properties of Dry Air at Atmospheric Pressure 1 atm (page
911 Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications by Cengel and Cimbala).
@ t = 185 oF
kg air
ρ = 0.06154 lb/ft3 = 0.9825 3
m
3
m
νair = 1/ρ = 1/0.9825 = 1.0178
kg air
Thus,
Volume flow rate of Air: Vair
Vair = mair vair
3
kg air m m
3
Vair = 44.5783 (1.0178 ) = 45.3718
s kg air s
Design Velocity of air = 10 m/s
Area of Ducts (for air only):

P a g e | 380
3
m
45.3718
s
Aducts = = 4.5372 m2
m
10
s
Find the Density of Flue Gas:

Pg
ρ g=
Rg T g
Where:
Pg= 101.325 kPa
T preheater ,∈¿+T 405.1093 ℃+291.334 ℃
Ti,gas = preheater ,exit
¿=
2 2
= 348.2217 ℃
To find R of gas:
Where: Gravimetric Analysis

mCO2 = 3.094 kg
mSO2 = 0.02 kg
mO2 = 0.3767 kg
mH2O = 1.3046 kg
mN2 = 12.091 kg
Total mass = 16.8863

Percentage Gravimetric Analysis:
% CO2 = 18.3225 %
% SO2 = 0.1184 %
% O2 = 2.2308 %
% H2O = 7.7258 %
% N2 = 71.6024 %
Thus,
mwg = 0.183225(44) + 0.001184(64) + 0.022308 (32) +
0.077258(18) + 0.716024 (28)

P a g e | 381
kg flue gas
mwg = 30.2908
kmol gas
kJ
8.314
kmol gas K kJ
Rgas = = 0.2745
kg kg K
30.2908
kmol gas
101.325 kPa kg gas
ρ=
kJ = 0.5940 3
0.2745 ( 348.2217+ 273.15 ) K m
kg K
Specific Volume of Gas:

1 3
1 kg gas = 1.6835 m
vg = =
ρ 0.5940 3 kg gas
m
Volume flowrate of gas:

Vgas = mgas vgas
kg gas m3 m
3
Vgas= 44.1407 (1.6835 ) = 74.3109
s kg gas s
From PSME code (boiler design):

Design Velocity of Gas = 10 m/s
Area needed for the flue gas:

m3
74.3109
s
A ducts, gas = = 7.4311 m2
m
10
s
Steel pipe Specification for Flue Gas:
Use Nominal size 4 in: schedule 40 steel pipe

Nominal OD, mm
Size, mm ID, mm
Schedule Schedule
40 80
15 21.34 15.80 13.88
20 26.67 20.93 18.85

P a g e | 382
25 33.40 26.64 24.30

35 42.16 35.04 32.46
40 48.26 40.90 38.10
50 60.33 52.51 49.25
60 73.03 62.65 59.01
75 88.90 77.92 73.66
100 114.3 102.3 97.18
125 141.3 128.2 122.2
150 168.3 154.1 146.4
200 219.1 202.7 193.7
250 273 254.5 242.9
300 323.9 303.3 289
ID = 102.3 mm
OD = 114.3 mm
Area of Pipe:
π D2i π (0.1023 m)2
A= = = 0.00822 m2
4 4
No. of pipe needed:
A gas 7.4311m
2
Number of pipe = = = 904.0268 pipes
A pipe 0.00822m 2
Pipe Thickness:
114 . 3 mm−102 .3 mm
=6 mm=0. 006 m
t= 2
Gas mass flow:
kg 36002
44.1407 ( ) kg
Ggas = s hr = 21383.9835 2
2 hr m
7.4311 m
Coefficient of Heat Transfer:

From PPE by Morse, equation 9-14
U = A + BG
Where:
A = 1.95
B = 0.0045
Thus,
U = 1.95 + 0.0045(21383.9835)

P a g e | 383
kCal
U = 98.1779 2
hr m ℃
kw
U = 0.1142 2
m ℃
Tube Coefficient of heat transfer:
Thickness = 0.006 m
K, (for steel pipe) = 39.7
39.7 kCal kW
Ut = = 6616.6667 2 = 7.6952 2
0.006 hr m ℃ m ℃
Then,
1
1 1 kW
Uoverall = + = 0.1125
kW kw m2 ℃
7.6952 0.1142
m2 ℃ m2 ℃
d. Calculation of total no. of tubes

Qfg = Qa = 5824.1549 kW = m Cp ∆ t
m = ρgVg
ρg = 0.5940 kg/m3
Vg = nq
where:
n = no. tubes
q = gas flow rate per tube = Av
2
π d 2 π (0.1023 m)
A= = = 0.008219 m2
4 4
v = 10 m/s
Thus,
q = 0.008219 m2 (10 m/s) = 0.08219 m3/s
Vg= n (0.08219)
m = 0.5940 x 0.08219 n = 0.0488 n
Then,
Q = 5824.1549 kW = 0.0488 (n) (1.1597) (405.1093 – 291.334)
N = 904.5227≈ 905 tubes

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e. Total length of tube

Q = AU (LMTD)
5824.1549 kW = π (D)(L)(U)(LMTD)
5824.1549 kW = π (0.1143m)(L)(0.1125)(260.5776 ℃ )
L = 553.2829 m
f. Length per tube

L/tube = 553.2829 m / 905 tubes = 0.6114 m/tube
10. INDUCED DRAFT FAN CAPACITY

Data:
Mass of flue gas = 44.1407 kg/s
Density of gas = 0.5940 kg/m3
kg
44.1407
s m3
Volume flow rate of gas = = 74.3109
kg s
0.5940 3
m
0.5940 x 9.81 kN
δ = ρg = = 0.00583 3
1000 m
The fan capacity is design to develop a static head of 400 mm of H2O
hs = Pswhsw
hs = hT = 558.3473 m of flue gas

Then,
Fluid Power = δQh
= 0.00583 (74.3109) (558.3473)
1 hp
= 241.8942 kW x = 324.2550 hp
0.746 kW
Typical fan efficiency 65 % (PPE by Morse, Pp. 487)
324.2550hp
Fan Power =
0.65
= 498.8538 hp
Use: 500 hp motor

P a g e | 385
11. DUCT DESIGN

Duct enclosing air-preheater:
Equivalent area due to 70 mm spacing with 905 tubes of 26.67 mm OD
A = 905 x 26.67 x 70
1 m2
= 1, 689, 544.5 mm x 2
(1000 mm)2
= 1.6895 m2
π
Outside cross-sectional area of tube = (0.02667m)2
4
= 0.0005586 m2
Total required area = 1.6895 m2
For square ducts for this design, L = W
Thus:
A=LxW
A = L2
L2 = 1.6895 m2
L = 1.2998 m
W = 1.2998 m
12. SAFETY VALVES
i. Boiler Safety Valves:

Steam Rating = 11.97
0.97
Ps A
Steam rating =
60(1+0.0065 ts)
Where:
Ts = T1 – Teconomizer = 343.226 ℃ – 220.0021 ℃
= 123.2239 ℃ = 253.8030℉
P = pressure, 2068.2774 kPa = 300.0610 psi
2.2046(11.97) = ¿ ¿
A = 16.5913 in2
If valve diameter = 2.5 inch

P a g e | 386
Valve lift = L = A/ π D = 16.5913 / π (2.5)
L = 2.1125 in. = 0.0537 m.

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P a g e | 326

VII. STEAM GENERATOR AND AUXILIARIES DESIGN

1. DESIGN DATA AND PRELIMINARY CALCULATION

b. Conditions of Steam at Boiler

Values above are taken from Pp. 263 of PPE by Morse.

Chapter 7 | Steam Generator and Turbine Auxiliaries

Calculating for the design temperature, tdesign

c. Conditions Steam Entering Super heater:

d. Conditions at Boiler Blow Down: (at state 48)

e. Feedwater Entering the Economizer: (at state 36)

Chapter 7 | Steam Generator and Turbine Auxiliaries

h = hf at 2317.9488 kPa = 943.6367 kJ/kg

Table 10-1. FURNACE HEAT RELEASE RATES

DESIGN VALUES – KCAL PER M3 PER HR

Pulverized coal Below 1149oC Above

Solid refractory………………………………………. Never 111250 133500

Oil or gas…………………………………………………………………………………………. 222500-445000

a. To find Volume of Furnace:

Chapter 7 | Steam Generator and Turbine Auxiliaries

Table 11. Approximate Preheating Temperatures for Fuel Oil

Gravity, Temperature, Gravity, Temperature, Gravity, Temperature,

10-12 275-325 16-18 150-200 22-24 70-100

For °API = 12.024, the preheating temperature 220.660 ℉ =

Chapter 7 | Steam Generator and Turbine Auxiliaries

b. Dimensions and No. of Tubes of Furnace

Chapter 7 | Steam Generator and Turbine Auxiliaries

For this rectangular furnace, the designer chooses a length = 5 m and

So, height of furnace = Vf/LW = 323.7395 /(5x4) = 16.187 m

With 88.9 mm tube diameter and spaced to 152.4 mm on centers.

c. Calculation of Radiant Heating Surface, AP

d. Effective Radiant Surface, Ar

; is reasonable assumption for this type of wall.

Chapter 7 | Steam Generator and Turbine Auxiliaries

e. Determine the available Sensible Heat, QS

Since; tg = gas temperature = 1316 ℃

From PPE by Morse, figure 5-5 Pp. 138

Chapter 7 | Steam Generator and Turbine Auxiliaries

Thus, for SO2:

Mean CP = 0.2 x 4.187

Ultimate analysis of fuel: Bunker oil no.6 - (mass basis)

Chapter 7 | Steam Generator and Turbine Auxiliaries

Flue Gas Analysis:

Fuel Excess Air, % Fuel Excess Air, %

Use average e = 11.5 %

Actual = Theoretical (1+e) = 14.067(1 + 0.115)

Chapter 7 | Steam Generator and Turbine Auxiliaries

= 0.115 x 14.12 x 0.232

mN2 = (1 + e)( )theo(0.768)

Atmospheric Pressure = 101.325 kPa

Chapter 7 | Steam Generator and Turbine Auxiliaries

Relative Humidity = 70%

Wet bulb temperature = 16.5 ℃

Chapter 7 | Steam Generator and Turbine Auxiliaries

mCP = [3.094(1.2061)] + [(0)(1.154)]+[1.3046(2.2878)] +

f. Determination of Latent Heat, QL:

g. Heat Absorbed and carried off by the product of combustion

Chapter 7 | Steam Generator and Turbine Auxiliaries

Q = [hfg + QL](mf) = [2,344.7 + 2,679.992] x 2.8421kg/s

h. Gas Flow, mgas

= 3.094 kg fuel + 0.016 kg fuel + 0.375 kgfuel + 12.046 kgfuel

Gas per kg fuel = 15.531

mgas= 15.531 kggas/ kgfuel x 2.8421kgfuel/s

i. ERS (effective Radiant surface)per 1000kg gas

Reduce the number of riser tubes