46 SHAFT POWER CYCLES

There are no pressure losses m the inlet ducting, combustion

chambers, exhaust ducting, and ducts
connecting the
(d) The working fluid has the same composition throughout the cycle and
is a perfect gas with constant specific heats.
(e) The mass flow of gas is constant throughout the cycle.
(f) Heat transfer in a heat-exchanger (assumed counterflow) is
'complete', so that in conjunction with the temperature rise
on the cold side is the maximum exactly equal to the
temperature on the hot side.
Assumptions that the combustion chamber, in which fuel
is introduced and replaced by a heater with
an external heat source. reason, as far as the calculation of
performance of ideal cycles is it makes no difference whether
one is of them as 'open' or 'closed' cycles. The diagrammatic
sketches of plant will be drawn for the normal case of the open cycle.

Simple gas turbine

The ideal cycle for the gas turbine is the Joule Brayton) cycle,
i.e: cycle 1234 in 2.1. The relevant flow energy equation is
. , + 2i rc·2
Q = (IZ2 - hi) iv
I + ,·.
, 2 - c2)
where Q and Ware the heat and work transfers per unit mass flow. Applying
this to each component, we have
W12 =
Q23 =
W34 = (h3 -

Fuel= Heal
Tl

Compressor Turbine

s
HG. 2.1 Simple cycle
74 SHAFT POWER CYCLES

2.3 Design point performance calculations

Before assessing the effect of component losses on the general performance

curves for the various cycles considered in section 2.1, it is necessary to
outline the method of calculating the performance in any particular case
for specified values of the design parameters. These parameters will include
the compressor pressure ratio, turbine inlet temperature, component
efficiencies and pressure losses.
Several examples will be used to show how these effects are incorporated
in realistic cycle calculations. For the first example we consider a single-
shaft unit with a heat-exchanger, using modest values of pressure ratio and
turbine inlet temperature, and typical isentropic efficiences. A second
example shows how to calculate the performance of a simple cycle of high
pressure ratio and turbine temperature, which incorporates a free power
turbine. Finally, we will evaluate the performance of an advanced cycle
using reheat, suitable for use in both simple and combined cycle
applications: this example will illustrate the use of polytropic efficiencies.

EXAMPLE 2.1
Determine the specific work output, specific fuel consumption and cycle
efficiency for a heat-exchange cycle, Fig. 2.20, having the following specification:
Compressor pressure ratio 4-0
Turbine inlet temperature 1100K
lsentropic efficiency of compressor, T/c 0-85
Isentropic efficiency of turbine, T/i 0-87
Mechanical transmission efficiency, T/h 0-99
Combustion efficiency, T/h 0-98
Heat-exchanger effectiveness 0-80
Pressure losses-
Combustion chamber, 6.Pb 2% comp. deliv. press.
Heat-exchanger air-side, 6.Pha 3% comp. deliv. press.
Heat-exchanger gas-side, 6.h,g 0-04 bar
Ambient conditions, Pa, Ta 1 bar, 288 K

FIG. 2.20 Heat-exchange cycle

DESIGN POINT PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS 75

Since Toi = Ta and p 01 = Pa, and y = 1-4, the temperature equivalent of the

l
compressor work from equation (2.11) is

(y-1)/y
[( 0 )
To2 - Ta = ~: :: -1

= 288 [4 1/ 35 - l] = 164· 7 K
0-85

Turbine work required to drive compressor per unit mass flow is

Wt,= Cp0 (To2 - Ta)= 1-005 X 164-7 = 167 _2 k:J/kg

'T/m 0-99

p03 = Po2 ( I - -D.Pb - -

D.pha) ·
- = 4-0(1 - 0-02 - 0-03) = 3-8 bar
Po2 Po2

Po4 = Pa + D.p1ig = 1-04 bar, and hence p03/po4 = 3-654

Since y = 1-333 for the expanding gases, the temperature equivalent of the
total turbine work from equation (2.13) is

To3 - To4 = 'T/tT03 [ 1 - (

I )(r-llhl
p03/po4

= 0-87 x 1100 [1 - (- 1-)

3-654
114
] = 264-8 K
Total turbine work per unit mass flow is

wt= Cpg(T03 - To4) = 1-148 x 264-8 = 304-0 kJ/kg

Remembering that the mass flow is to be assumed the same throughout

the unit, the specific work output is simply

W, - Wt,= 304 - 167-2 = 136-8 kJ/kg (or kW s/kg)t

(It follows that for a 1000 kW plant an air mass flow of 7-3 kg/s would be
required.) To find the fuel/air ratio we must first calculate the combustion
temperature rise (T03 - Tos).
From equation (2.22),

heat-exchanger effectiveness= 0-80 = Tos - T 02

To4 - To2

t Note: l kW s/kg = 0-6083 hp s/lb.

76 SHAFT POWER CYCLES

T02 = 164-7 + 288 = 452-7 K, and T04 = 1100 - 264-8 = 835-2 K

Hence
T05 = 0-80 x 382-5 + 452-7_= 758-7K
From Fig. 2.17, for a combustion chamber inlet air temperature of 759 K
and a combustion temperature rise of (1100 - 759) = 341 K, the
theoretical fuel/air ratio required is 0-0094 and thus
f = theoretical/= 0-0094 = 0 _0096
'T/b 0-98
The specific fuel consumption is therefore
SFC = f = 3600 x 0-0096 = 0-253 kg/kW ht
W1 - Wrc 136-8
Finally, the cycle efficiency is
3600 __ 36_0_0_ _ = 0-331
r;=-----
SFC X Qnet,p 0-253 X 43 100

EXAMPLE 2.2
Determine the specific work output, specific fuel consumption and cycle
efficiency for a simple cycle gas turbine with a free power turbine
(Fig. 2.21) given the following specification:
Compressor pressure ratio 12·0
Turbine inlet temperature 1350K
Isentropic efficiency of compressor, T/c 0-86
Isentropic efficiency of each turbine, ry1 0-89
Mechanical efficiency of each shaft, 'T/m 0-99
Combustion efficiency 0-99
Combustion chamber pressure loss 6% comp. deliv. press.
Exhaust pressure loss 0-03 bar
Ambient conditions, Pa, Ta 1 bar, 288 K

Ii...< - - - - - - - i . - 1 >I Power turbine

Gas generator

FIG. 2.21 Free turbine unit

t Note: l kg/kWh =l-644 lb/hp h.

DESIGN POINT PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS 77

Proceeding as in the previous examrle,

T02 - Toi = 288 [12 1! 3·5 - l] = 346:3 K

0-86
'w = 1-005 X 346·3 = 351 _5 kJ/k
tc 0-99 g

Po2 = 12-0(1 - 0-06) = 11-28 bar

The intermediate pressure between the two turbines, p 04 , is unknown, but
can be determined from the fact that the compressor turbine produces just
sufficient wbrk to drive the compressor. The temperature equivalent of the
compressor turbine work is therefore

To3 - T04 = Wic = 35 l· 5 = 306-2K

Cpg 1-148
The corresponding pressure ratio can be found using equation (2.12)

To3 - To4 = 'IJ1To3_[1 - G 03 ~P04y-I/yl

5
306·2 = 0-89 X1350 [l - ( _ l )O-Z ]
\po3/p04

Po3 = 3-243
Po4
T 04 = 1350 - 306·2 = 1043-8 K
The pressure at entry to the power turbine, p 04 , is then found to be 11.28/
3-243 = 3-'1-78 bar and the power turbine pressure ratio is 3-478/
(1 + 0-03) = 3-377.
The temperature drop in the power turbine can now be obtained from
equation (2.12),

0 25
To4 - To5 = 0-89 x 1043-8 [1 - ( -1-) . ] = 243-7K
3.377
and the specific work output, i.e. power turbine work per unit air mass
flow, is
= Cpg(T04 - Tos)'l]m
wtp
= l-148(243-7)0-99 = 277-0kJ/kg (or kW s/kg)
W1p
The compressor delivery temperature is 288 + 346·3 = 634-3 K and the
combustion temperature rise is 1350 - 634-3 = 715-7K; from Fig. 2.17, the
theoretical fuel/air ratio required is 0-0202 giving an actual fuel/air ratio of
0-0202/0-99 = 0-0204.
78 SHAFT POWER CYCLES

The SFC and cycle efficiency, r;, are then given by

SFC = _[_ = 3600 x 0-0204 = 0-265 kg/kWh
wtp 277-9

= 3600 = 0-315
'r/ 0-265 X 43100

It should be noted that the cycle calculations have been carried out as
above to determine the overall performance. It is important to realize,
however, that they also provide information that is needed by other groups
such as the aerodynamic and control design groups, as discussed in section
1.9. The temperature at entry to the power turbine,' T 04 , for example, may
be required as a control parameter to prevent operation above the
metallurgical limiting temperature of the compressor turbine. The exhaust
gas temperature (EGT), T 05 , would be important if the gas turbine were to
be considered for combined cycle or cogeneration plant, which were first
mentioned in Chapter 1, and will also be discussed in section 2.5. For the
cycle of Example 2.2, T 05 = 1043-8 - 243-7 = 800-l Kor 527 °C, which is
suitable for use with a waste heat boiler. When thinking of combined cycle
plant, a higher TIT might be desirable because there would be a
consequential increase in EGT, permitting the use of a higher steam
temperature and a more efficient steam cycle. If the cycle pressure ratio
were increased to increase the efficiency of the gas cycle, however, the EGT
would be decreased resulting in a lower steam cycle efficiency. The next
example will illustrate how the need to make a gas turbine suitable for
more than one application can affect the choice of cycle parameters.

EXAMPLE 2.3
Consider the design of a high pressure ratio, single-shaft cycle with reheat at
some point in the expansion when used either as a separate unit, or as part
of a combined cycle. The power required is 240 MW at 288 K and 1-0 l bar.
Compressor pressure ratio 30
Polytropic efficiency
(compressor and turbines) 0-89
Turbine inlet temperature
(both turbines) 1525K.
!::..p/po 2 (1st combustor) 0-02
!::..p/po4 (2nd combustor) 0-04
Exhaust pressure 1-02 bar
The plant is shown in Fig. 2.22. A heat-exchanger is not used because it
would result in an exhaust temperature that would be too low for use with
a high-efficiency. steam cycle.
DESIGN POINT PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS 79

Reheat chamber

HPturb.
LP !urb.

FIG. 2.22 Reheat cycle

To simplify the calculation it will be assumed that the mass flow is

constant throughout, ignoring the effect of the substantial cooling bleeds
that would be required with the high turbine inlet temperatures specified.
The reheat pressure is not specified, but as a starting point it is reasonable
to use the value giving the same pressure ratio in each turbine. (As shown
in section 2.1, this division of the expansion leads to equal work in each
turbine and a maximum net work output for the ideal reheat cycle.)
It is convenient to start by evaluating (n - 1)/n for the polytropic compression
and expansion. Referring to equations (2.19) and (2.20), we have:

for compression, n - 1 =
n
- -(r - 1)
1
'f/ooc y
= - 1- ( 0 ·4 )
0-89 l •4
= 0-3210

for expansion, n- 1= n
n '' 001
(r -y 1) = 0-89 ( 0 ·333)
1-333
== 0·2223

Making the usual assumption that p 01 = Pa and T01 = Ta, we have

To 2 = (30)°" 3210 T02 = 858-1 K

Toi
To2 - Toi= 570-1 K
Po2 = 30 x 1-01 = 30-3 bar
p 03 = 30-3(1-00 - 0-02) = 29-69 bar
Po6 = 1-02 bar, so P03 = 29-11
Po6
Theoretically, the optimum pressure ratio for each turbine would be
,/(29-11) = 5-395. The 4 per cent pressure loss in the reheat combustor has
to be considered, so a value of 5.3 for p 03 /p 04 could be assumed. Then

To3 = (5-3)02223 To4 = 1052-6K

To4 '
Po4 = 29-69/5·3 = 5-602 bar
Pos = 5-602(1-00 - 0-04) = 5-378 bar
Pos!Po6 = 5-378/1-02 = 5-272
Tos = ( 5.272 )02223 To6 = 1053-8 K
To6
80 SHAFT POWER CYCLES

Assuming unit flow of 1-0 kg/s, and a mechanical efficiency of 0-99

Turbine output, Wr = l ·O x l · 148{ (1525 - 1052-6)
+ (1525 - 1053·8)} X 0-99
= 1072·3 kJ /kg
Compressor input, We = 1·0 x 1·005 x 570-1
= 573.0 kJ /kg
Net work output, WN = 1072·3 - 573-0 = 499-3kJ/kg
Flow required for 240 MW is given by

m = 240000 = 480-6kg/s
499.3
The combustio11 temperature rise in the first combustor is (l 525 - 858) =
667 K, and with an inlet temperature of 858 K the fuel/air ratio is found
from Fig. 2.17 to be 0-0197. For the second combustor the temperature
rise is (1525 -1052-6) = 472-4K giving a fuel/air ratio of0-0142. The total
fuel/air ratio is then
f == 0-0197 + 0·0142 = 0-0342
0-99
and the thermal efficiency is given by
= 499.3 = 33-9%
T/ 0·0342 X 43 100
This is a reasonable efficiency for simple cycle operation, and the specific
output is excellent. Examination of the temperature at turbine exit,
however, shows that T06 = 1053-8 K or 780-8 °C. This temperature is too
high for efficient use in a combined cycle plant. A reheat steam cycle using
conventional steam temperatures of about 550-575 °C would require a
turbine exit temperature of about 600 °C.
The turbine exit temperature could be reduced by increasing the reheat
pressure, and if the calculations are repeated for a range of reheat pressure
the results shown in Fig. 2.23 are obtained. It can be seen that a reheat
pressure of 13 bar gives an exhaust gas temperature (EGT) of 605 °C; the
specific output is about l O per cent lower than the optimum value, but the
thermal efficiency is substantially improved to 37.7 per cent. Further
increases in reheat pressure would give slightly higher efficiencies, but the
EGT would be reduced below 600 °C resulting in a less efficient steam
cycle. With a reheat pressure of 13 bar, the first turbine has a pressure
ratio of 2-284 while the second has a pressure ratio of 12-23, differing
markedly from the equal pressure ratios we assumed at the outset. This
example illustrates some of the problems that arise when a gas turbine
must be designed for more than one application.
SIMPLE TURBOJET CYCLE 113

mentioned earlier are incorporated because they inevitably introduce

additional frictional losses. Another factor is the amount of swirl in the gases
leaving the turbine, which should be as low as possible (see Chapter 7). We· ·
shall assume a value of 0-95 for T/j in the following cycle calculations.

3.3 Simple turbojet cycle

Figure 3.11 shows the real turbojet cycle on the T-s diagram for
comparison with the ideal cycle of Fig. 3.5. The method of calculating the
design point performance at any given aircraft speed and altitude is
illustrated in the following example.

EXAMPLE 3.1
Determination of the specific thrust and SFC for a simple turbojet engine,
having the following component performance at the design point at which
the cruise speed and altitude are M 0-8 and 10 000 m.
Compressor pressure ratio 8-0
Turbine inlet temperature 1200K
Isentropic efficiency:
of compressor, T/c 0-87
of turbine, T/t 0-90
of intake, T/; 0-93
of propelling nozzle, T/j 0-95
Mechanical transmission efficiency T/m 0-99
Combustion efficiency T/b 0-98
Combustion pressure loss 6..pb 4% comp. deliv. press.

s
FIG. 3.11 Turbojet cycle with losses
114 GAS TURBINE CYCLES FOR AIRCRAFT PROPULSION

From the ISA table, at 10000m

Pa= 0-2650bar, Ta= 223·3 K and a= 299-5m/s
The stagnation conditions after the intake may be obtained as follows:
c~ = (0-8 x 299-5) 2 = 28 _6 K
2cp 2 X 1-005 X 1000
c2
Toi = Ta +-a =; 223-3 + 28-6 = 251-9 K
2cp
2 ]y/(y-l) 3.5
Poi = [ l + '17;_.S_ = [l + 0-93 x 28·6] = 1_482
Pa 2cpTa 223-3
Poi = 0-2650 x 1-482 = 0-393 bar
At outlet from the compressor,

Po2 =~:~)Poi= 8-0.x 0-393 = 3-144bar

(y-l)/y ] 9
Po2 )
To2 - Toi = Toi [~ -1 = 251 · [8-01/.3·5 ~ 1] = 234-9 K
'17c 01 0-87
To2 = 251-9 + 234-9 = 486-8 K
W, = Wc/'17m and hence
To 3 _ T04 = Cpa(To2 - Toi)= 1-005 x 234-9 = 207 _7 K
Cpg'l7m 1-148 X 0-99
To4 = 1200 - 207·7 = 992-3 K

Po3 = Po2 (1 - tlpb)

Po2
== 3-144(1 - 0-04) = 3-018 bar
, . 1 · 207-7
T 04 = To3 - -(To3 - T04} = 1200 - - - = 969-2 K
.,,, 0-90

. p 04 =p03 (T~
To3
4 )y/(y-l)= 3-018( 969 "2 ) 4 = l-284bar
1200.
The nozzle pressure ratio is therefore
Po4 = 1-284 == 4 _845
Pa 0-265
The critical pressure ratio, from equation (3.14), is
Po4__ - - - - - -1~ · - - , - = 1 = 1-914
Pc [ 1
1- - --
(y-
l)]y/(y-l) [l _ _1 (.0-333)] 4
0-95 2-333
771 y+l
SIMPLE TURBOJET CYCLE 115

Since p 04 /pa > p 04 /pc the nozzle is choking. t

T = T = (-2-)T, = 2 x 992.3 = 850-7K

S C y+l 04 2•333

l ) 1-284
Ps = Pc = Po4 ( - - = - - = 0-671 bar
Po4/Pc 1-914

= ~ = 100 X 0-671 =. 0 .275 k /m3

Ps RTc 0-287 x 850·7 g
l l
C 5 = (yRTc) 2 = (1-333 x 0-287 x 850-7 x 1000)2= 570-5m/s
I

As 1 1 = 0-006 374 m 2 s/kg

m p 5C5 0-275 x 570-5
The specific thrust is

Fs = (Cs As
- Ca) +-(Pc -pa )
m
= (570·5 - 239-6) + 0-006 374(0-671 - 0-265)10 5
= 330-9 + 258-8 = 589-7 N s/kg
From Fig. 2.17, with T 02 = 486-8 Kand T 03 - T 02 = 1200 - 486.8 = 713.2 K,
we find that the theoretical fuel/air ratio required is 0-0194. Thus the actual
fuel/air ratio is
f = 0-0194 = 0-0198
0-98
The specific fuel consumption is therefore
SFC = j_ = 0-0198 x 3600 = 0-121 k /h N
Fs 589-7 g
For cycle optimization, calculations would normally be done -on the basis
of specific thrust and SFC. A common problem, however, is the
determination of actual engine performance to meet a particular aircraft
thrust requirement. The engine designer needs to know the airflow, fuel
flow and nozzle area; the airflow and nozzle area are also important to the
aircraft designer who must determine the installation dimensions.
If, for example, the cycle conditions in the example were selected to meet a
thrust requirement of 6000 N, then
,
F 6000
m = - = - - = 10-17 kg/s
Fs 589-7
The fuel flow is given by
m1 =Jm = 0-0198·x 10·17 x 3600 = 725-2kg/h

t The next example in this chapter shows how the calculation is performed when the nozzle is
unchoked.