SPECIFICATIONS FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES

PART I COMMON

MARCH 2012

JAPAN ROAD ASSOCIATION

 Preface

The First Five-year Road Improvement Program started in 1954. This marked the beginning
of full-fledged road construction and improvement in Japan. Since then, 12 five-year plans for
road construction have been carried out. Since 2003, the program for road construction and
improvement has been a part of the Priority Plan for Social Infrastructure Development. At
present, the Second Priority Plan for Social Infrastructure Development is being pushed
forward. At the same time, road networks have been actively constructed and improved in
response to the rapid growth of road traffic. Still, there is strong demand for the construction
and improvement of road networks in both urban and rural areas.
On March 11, 2011, the Great East Japan Earthquake struck Japan. This event made us realize
anew that in Japan, where various disasters occur, it is essential to construct a secure
homeland. For this purpose, we have to take actions to improve such a vulnerable national
land structure. In addition to this, we are also being confronted with the rapid decrease in
population, an aging society, limited resources and energy, environmental constraints, social
and economic changes, as well as changes in the international situation. Against this backdrop,
people’s needs have diversified in terms of the need for the functions that roads supply as well
as road space. Accordingly, appropriate actions are also required to be taken to improve road
quality.
Meanwhile, the land of our nation contains precipitous terrain and many rivers, as well as a
number of urban areas with strict spatial constraints due to highly concentrated land use.
Therefore, bridges are essential structures for the construction and improvement of roads. It is
necessary to move forward with their construction and improvement in an appropriate manner
while reducing their life cycle cost and the burdens of their maintenance and management.
The “Construction Standard for National and Prefectural Highways” were established as
Japan’s first road-structure standards in 1886. The design live load was first specified in these
standards. Since then, technical standards for road bridges have gradually been revised to
support various changes such as the development of automobile traffic and the advancement
of bridge technologies. Originally, the standards were laid down as part of the road structure
standards. In 1939, the “Draft Design Specifications for Steel Highway Bridges” was first
established as independent technical standards for road bridges. Since then, standards have
been gradually designed and revised for various bridge structures and members.
From 1972 to 1980, these standards were organized into the present style consisting of Part I:
Volume on Common, Part II: Volume on Steel Bridges, Part III: Volume on Concrete Bridges,
Part IV: Volume on Substructures and Part V: Volume on Seismic Design.
Since then, the standards have also been revised several times to establish performance-code
type technical standards. In 1993, the design live load, etc. was revised in response to the
revision of the Highway Structure Ordinance; in 1996, they were revised to strengthen
seismic design, etc. in response to the occurrence of the Great Hanshin Earthquake; and in
2001, they were revised to specify required performances, etc.
In particular, in the Great East Japan Earthquake, no fatal damage from earthquake ground
motions was found on bridges that had been designed or repaired in accordance with the 1996
seismic standards or subsequent versions. This fact suggests that the revision of the standards
contributed to the improvement of the seismic performance of the bridges. In addition, we
now recognize the possibility of the consecutive occurrence of earthquakes as a factor
contributing to the risk of earthquake ground motions. We have also reconfirmed the necessity
for constructing road networks consistent with local tsunami disaster prevention plans.
In addition, the appropriate maintenance and management of road structures including bridges
is becoming increasingly important. Accordingly, it is necessary to take proper measures from
the design stage so that reliable maintenance and management can be easily performed.
In March 2002 the Japan Road Association published the “Specifications for Highway
Bridges with Commentaries.” However, the “Technical Standards for Bridges and Highway
Viaducts” have been revised mainly to enrich the content related to actions, maintenance and
management on the basis of the lessons learned from the Great East Japan Earthquake. In
response to this revision of the technical standards, we have revised every volume of the
“Specifications for Highway Bridges with Commentaries” and have published the revised
volumes.
We cordially hope that readers will have an accurate understanding of the purpose of the
revision, and that the standards will contribute to the further promotion of the construction
and improvement of high-quality bridges in the future.

March 2012
Kotaro Hashimoto, Chairman of the Japan Road Association
 Foreword

“Part III. Concrete Bridges” of the Specifications for Highway Bridges was announced as the
“Technical Standards for Bridges and Highway Viaducts” by the Ministry of Construction in
1978. It was established by integrating various standards, such as the “Specifications for
Reinforced Concrete Highway Bridges” issued in 1964 and the “Specifications for Prestressed
Concrete Highway Bridges” issued in 1968, as part of the systematization of road bridge
specifications.
After that, in 1996, it was revised mainly in terms of provisions related to seismic design. In
2001, it was revised again mainly to specify required performance levels, change the format
of the provisions, strengthen the provisions for durability, etc. in order to establish
performance-code type technical standards.
In this revision, Part I. Common Matters has been revised from the viewpoint of the proper
measures that should be taken from the design stage with consideration given to maintenance
and management. It has also been revised on the basis of the information, etc. that has been
obtained since the last revision from the achievements of investigations and studies,
performance records, and the disaster cases that have occurred in recent years. Part III.
Concrete Bridges has also undergone various revisions. For example, new provisions have
been added in order to support new structures based on recent technical developments and to
improve durability.
The following are the major review points.
For Part I. Common Provisions:
1. It has been stipulated that the reliability of maintenance and management as well as the
ease with which they can be performed be taken into consideration as a basic design
concept;
2. It has been stipulated that methods for the maintenance and management scheduled to be
performed during the in-service period, and the facilities, etc. required for the maintenance
and management be appropriately taken into consideration from the design stage;
3. It has been stipulated that various records on investigations, design, construction, quality
control, etc. that are required for appropriate maintenance and management during the
in-service period be kept so that the records can be effectively used for the maintenance and
management;
4. It has been stipulated that structural design be performed with consideration given to the
possibility that the damage, etc. of some members may lead to fatal states, such as bridge
collapse;
5. Reinforcements (SD390 and SD490) with a high yield point have been newly adopted as
usable materials.
For Part III. Concrete Bridges:
1. Applicable ranges, allowable stress, internal radii of bending, etc. have been specified for
reinforcements (SD390 and SD490) with a yield point higher than conventionally specified
yield points;
2. Provisions that were conventionally given as structural details in chapters and sections have
been revised so as to clearly express the purposes for specifying the details and items being
 required, and the structure of the specifications has also been revised;
3. In order to streamline design, provisions for the joints between the girders and slabs of
composite girder bridges have been revised;
4. The classification used in the specifications has been changed from the conventional
classification by bridge types to classification by structures. For example, chapters on
continuous structures and rigid-frame structures have been added;
5. Provisions for large-eccentricity external cable structures have been expanded and a new
chapter on external cable structures has been added;
6. Basic provisions for the safety, durability, etc. of the joints of composite structures have
been specified for the first time;
7. Provisions for construction have been expanded in order to enhance durability;
8. Provisions for truncated portions in pier crowns have been deleted because truncated
portions in pier crowns have only rarely been adopted in actual construction in recent years.
The present standards contain not only the provisions of the specifications but also the
commentaries of backgrounds to the provisions and grounds for them, differences from
previous specifications, etc. Therefore, in actual application of the specifications, careful
reading of both the provisions and their commentaries will deepen the reader’s understanding
of the specifications.
We cordially hope that the present standards will serve as specifications for the design and
construction of road bridges and will contribute to ensuring higher safety and durability.

March 2012
Committee on Bridges
Subcommittee on General Bridge Structures
Subcommittee on Concrete Bridges
 Members of Committee on Bridges
Chairman:
Michio OKAHARA

Former Chairman:
Asao YAMAKAWA

Members:
Taisuke AKIMOTO Hirokazu IEMURA
O Tadayoshi ISHIBASHI Yasuhiro ISHIHARA
Kimihiko IZUMI Yasuo INOKUMA
O Shigeki UNJO Hidemi OHTA
Akio OHTSUKA Kunio OHMORI
O Masafumi OGASAWARA Atsuo OGAWA
Motoi OKUDA Satoji OSHITA
Masataka KATSURAGI O Michio KANAI
Kazuhiko KAWASHIMA O Hirotaka KAWANO
O AkinobuKISHI Shoji KIMURA
O Tetsuro KUWABARA O Junichi KOSEKI
Kazuo KOMORI Chikashi SAITO
O Kazuo SASAKI O Hiroshi SATO
Yukitake SHIOI Osamu SHIMOYASU
Takeshi SHIRASUNA O Toshiyuki SUGIYAMA
O Akitoshi SUZUKI Eiji SUZUKI
Katsumune SUZUKI O Motoyuki SUZUKI
O Yasuyuki SUZUKI Fumio TATSUOKA
O Keiichi TAMURA O NorioTERADA
O Shoichi NAKATANI Atsushi NANJO
O Yoshihiko NISHIGAKI O Kazuhiro NISHIKAWA
Sadahiro NOMURA Atsushi FUKASAWA
Jiro FUKUI Yozo FUJ1NO
O Torn FUJIWARA O Minoru FUJIWARA
O YusukeHONJO Naoto MATSUI
Osamu MATSUO O Takashi MATSUDA
Harutoshi MATSUTANI Tetsuo MATSUMURA
Kyuichi MARUYAMA O Masanori MIURA
Chitoshi MIKI O Hiroshi MUTSUYOSHI
Kunihisa MORI O Takeshi MORI
Yukihiro YAMAUCHI O Eiki YAMAGUCHI
Kazunori YUKI Takehiko YUKIMOTO
Koichi YOKOYAMA Atsushi YOSHIOKA
O Satoshi YOSHIDA Eiichi WATANABE

Secretary :
Satoru ABE O Masahiro ISHIDA
Satoshi ISEDA Tatsuo OGATA
Hiroyuki OGAWA Kengo OCHI
O Kiyoshi ONO Yutaka KATSUNO
O Yoshitomi KIMURA O Junichi SAKAI
O Yoichi SAKAI Kosei SAKUMA
O Takashi TAMAKOSHI Hiroaki TERAMOTO
O KeitaNAKASU O Toshiaki NANASAWA
Yoshinobu HARADA Keitaro FUJIOKA
O Junichi HOSHIKUMA Akihiko HOSOMI
Atsushi HONMA Kazuyuki MIZUGUCHI
O Jun MURAKOSHI O Kazuya MURAYAMA
Yasuo MORITA O Yoshitaka MORITO
O Hiroshi WATANABE
O member as of March,2012
 Members of General Structure Sub-Committee

Chairman:
Masanori MIURA

Members :
Keiichi AOKI Kenichiro ASHIZUKA
Hiroyuki IKEDA Masahiro ISHIDA
Kimihiko IZUMI Shigeki UNJO
Katsuya OGIHARA Kiyoshi ONO
Masahiro KANEKO Hirotaka KONO
Takao KIMIZU Yoshitomi KIMURA
Junichi SAKAI Yoichi SAKAI
Tsutomu SAKIMOTO Tetsuya SASAKI
Akihiro SANADA Toshiyuki SUGIYAMA
Satoru SUNADA Yusuke SETO
Takashi TAMAKOSHI Keiichi TAMURA
Naoki TERASAWA Keita NAKASU
Shoichi NAKATANI Toshiaki NANASAWA
Kenji NAMIKAWA Tadashi NISHIKAWA
Nobuhiko HAMADA Koichiro FUMOTO
Junichi HOSHIKUMA Yusuke HONJO
Jun MURAKOSHI Kazuya MURAYAMA
Yoshitaka MORITO
 Members of General Sub-Committee

Chairman:
Katsumune SUZUKI

Former Chairmen:
Shoji KIMURA
Osamu SHIMOYASU
Atsushi FUKASAWA
Yoshitaka MORITO

Members :
Keiichi AOKI Masato ASAHI
Satoru ABE Takefumi IKEUCHI
Hiroyuki IKEDA Nobutaka ISHII
Mitsugu ISHIDA Yasuhiro ISHIHARA
Satoshi ISEDA Yasuo INOKUMA
Osamu UEMURA Shigeki UNJO
Takahide OKUBO Masafumi OGASAWARA
Tatsuo OGATA Norio OGATA
Katsuya OGIHARA Naoyuki ODAGIRI
Soichiro KAKO Yutaka SHIKATUNO
Naonobu KATO Masahiro KANEKO
Masashi KAWAGUCHI Mitsuru KAWAMATA
Yukio KAWAMURA Yoshitomi KIMURA
Takaaki KUSAKABE Motohisa KUBOTA
Hiroshi KOJIMA Yoichi SAKAI
Tetsuya SASAKI Yasuhiro SHOJI
Hideki SUGITA Kaname SUGIHASHI
Shuichi SUZUKI Yusuke SETO
Susumu TAKAMIYA Takashi TAMAKOSHI
Keiichi TAMURA Norio TERADA
Hiroaki TERAMOTO Torn TERAYAMA
Yuichi TOYAMA Hiroshi DOBASHI
Keita NAKASU Shoichi NAKATANI
Toshihiko NAGANUMA Toshiaki NANASAWA
Kenji NAMIKAWA Atsushi NANSO
Takumi NISHIKAWA Toshio NOMURA
Fumio HAKAMADA Kensaku HATA
Nobuhiko HAMADA Masahiro HAYASHI
Mikio HAYASHI Yoshinobu HARADA
Hisamitsu HANNO Jiro FUKUI
Hiroshi FUJITRA Junichi HOSHIKUMA
Kiyoshi HONJO Atsushi HONMA
Toshiaki MABUCHI Kazuyuki MIZUGUCHI
Hidetoshi MIYAUCHI Jun MURAKOSHI
Kazuya MURAYAMA Yasuo MORITA
Furitsu YASUDA Kazunori YAMAGUCHI
Tetsuya YOKOTA Yota WATANABE

members from July,2011

 Members of General Planning and Coordination Sub Committee

Chairman :
Yozo FUJINO

Chairman (Sub)
Kazuhiro NISHIKAWA

Members
Kimihiko IZUMI Shigeki UNJO
Michio OKAHARA Atsuo OGAWA
Akira KASUGA Yoshitaka KISHIMOTO
Masahiko KITAZAWA Osamu KUSAKABE
Kazuyoshi TAKATSU Takeo NAKAJIMA
Minoru FUJIWARA Koichi MAEKAWA
Kyuichi MARUYAMA Tsutomu YOKOTA

Secretary
Masato ABE Makoto KIMURA
Takashi SHINDO Kunitomo SUGIURA
Takashi TAMAKOSHI Hiroaki TERAMOTO
Shoichi NAKATANI Jiro FUKUI
Junichi HOSHIKUMA Kazuyuki MIZUGUCHI
Eiki YAMAGUCHI

members from June,2004

 Members of Working Group on English Edition of the Specification

Chairman:
Hiroshi DOBASHI

Former Chairman:
Hiroshi KOJIMA

Members :
Keiichi AOKI O Hitoshi ISHII
Hiroki ISHIKAWA O Yosuke ISHIHARA
Koji ISHIMARU Takaoki ICHIOKA
O KenICHIDA Osamu UEMURA
Yasushi UCHIUMI O Hiroyuki UCHIBORI
Hiroyuki OKA Tomoaki OKADA
Masazumi OKADA Kazuhiro KAI
Akira KASUYA Masashi KAWAGUCHI
Akinobu KISHI O Iwao KURODA
Kazuya SASAKI O Akira SHIRATORI
Masanao SUZUKI Yoshihiko TAIRA
Kazuhiko TAKATA Nobuhiko TAKAGI
Tsutomu TAKECHI Osamu TSUKAHARA
Tadahiko TSUTSUMI Yoshio TOMITA
O Mitsuhiro NARISAWA O Seiki NAKAI
O Hideki NAGATANI Masahiro HAYASHI
Masahiro HIMUKAI Takeshi HIROSE
O Manabu HOSOTANI Shinichiro HIYAMIZU
Takeshi MATSUMOTO Kazunori YAMAGUCHI
O member as of October, 2014
Contents

CHAPTER 1 GENERAL 1
1.1 Scope 1
1.2 Definitions 2
1.2.1 Definitions 2
1.2.2 Meaning of Language 3
1.3 Basic Principles of Design 4
1.4 Investigation 7
1.5 Planning 7
1.5.1 Selection of Bridging Location and Bridge Type 7
1.5.2 Relationship with Crossing Objects 9
1.6 Basic Principles of Design 10
1.6.1 Design Method 10
1.6.2 Considerations Related to Structural Designs ... . 11
1.7 Matters to be Described on Design Drawings, etc. . 15

CHAPTER 2 LOADS 19

2.1 Types of Load 19

2.2 Loads 20
2.2.1 Dead Load , 20
2.2.2 Live Load 21
2.2.3 Impact 31
2.2.4 Prestress Force 35
2.2.5 Influence of Creep and Drying Shrinkage of Concrete 42
2.2.6 Earth Pressure 51
2.2.7 Water Pressure 56
2.2.8 Buoyancy or Uplift 60
2.2.9 Wind Load 61
2.2. 10 Effect of Temperature Change 74
2.2. 11 Effect of Earthquakes 78
2.2. 12 Snow Load 78
2.2.13 Effect of Ground Displacement and Support Movement 79
2.2.14 Wave Pressure 81
2.2.15 Centrifugal Load and Braking Load 82
2.2.16 Construction Load 83
2.2.17 Collision Load 83

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CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS 86

3.1 Steel Materials 86

3.2 Concrete 98
3.2.1 General 98
3.2.2 Materials for Concrete Mixture 99
3.2.3 Concrete Strength 102
3.3 Physical Constants Used in Design Calculation 103

CHAPTER 4 BEARING AND EXPANSION JOINT 107

4.1 Bearing 107

4.1.1 General 107
4.1.2 Forces Acting on a Bearing Assembly 108
4.1.3 Amount of Bearing Movement 111
4.1.4 Connection Between Bearing and Superstructure or Substructure 114
4.1.5 Consideration of Durability 117
4.1.6 Installation of Bearings 119
4.2 Expansion Joint 120
4.2.1 General 120
4.2.2 Design Amount of Expansion or Contraction 122
4.2.3 Forces Acting on Expansion Joint 124

CHAPTER 5 ACCESSORIES AND OTHERS 125

5.1 Bridge Guard Fence 125

5.1.1 General 125
5.1.2 Effect of Bridge Guard Fence on Deck Slab 125
5.2 Drainage 127
5.3 Bridge Pavement 128
5.4 Inspection Facilities 130
5.5 Accessory Facilities 130
5.6 Affixed Articles 131
5.7 Others 132

CHAPTER 6 RECORDS 133

6.1 Bridge Ledger 133

6.2 Bridge Nameplate 133
6.3 Matters Concerning Design and Construction 134

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 I COMMON

CHAPTER 1 GENERAL

1.1 Scope

(1) The Specifications for Highway Bridges shall be applied to the design and construction
of a bridge with a span length of 200 m or less. For a bridge exceeding 200 m in span
length, the Specification can be applied with necessary and appropriate modifications
according to the type, structure, site conditions, etc. of the bridge.

(2) The Specifications consist of Part I: Common, Part II: Steel Bridges, Part III: Concrete
Bridges, Part IV: Substructures and Part V: Seismic Design, and the scope of each
volume shall be as follows:
1) Part I: Common Load and other matters common to all
volumes, and bearing supports, expansion
devices, accessories, etc.

2) Part II: Steel Bridges Steel superstructures, in the main

3) Part III: Concrete Bridges Concrete superstructures, in the main

4) Part IV: Substructures Substructures in the main

5) Part V: Seismic Design Seismic design

(1) It is stipulated that the scope of the Specifications shall be applied bridges with a span
length of 200 m or less. However, many fundamental matters stipulated in the
Specifications can be applied to bridges exceeding 200 m in span length. In this
respect, application to such a bridge is allowed with necessary modification.
When designing a bridge with a span length that is close to or exceeds the maximum
span length for the structural type of the bridge, it is necessary to examine stress and
deformation analysis, material control and other appropriate investigations as the need
arises.

(2) In the scope of each volume, the Volume on Steel Bridges shall be applied to the steel
parts, and the Volume on Concrete Bridges to the concrete members. At the same time,

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 the Volume on Substructures shall be applied to the matters related to a substructure,
including the pier body and steel piers of a rigid-framed bridge, and the Volume on
Seismic Design to the matters related to seismic design.
For the concrete work in the Volumes on Steel Bridges and on Substructures, the
provisions laid down in each volume should be applied, but in addition, it is good to
apply the provisions in the Volume on Concrete Bridges with necessary modifications.

Because a bridge is a structure of a road as a whole, the structural standards for bridges
shall obey the provisions of the Road Structure Ordinance, For the matters not
stipulated in the Specifications, it is desirable to investigate them referring to related
technical standards and the like as the need arises.

1.2 Definitions

1.2.1 Definitions

(1) Superstructure The girders and the other structures installed on the
abutments and piers.
(2) Substructure The abutments and piers and their foundations, which
form a structure to transfer loads from the superstructure
to the foundation ground.
(3) Steel bridge The bridges in which the major structural members
forming the superstructure are made of steel materials.
(4) Concrete bridge The bridges in which the major structural members
forming the superstructure are made of concrete.
(5) Roadway The portion of a roadway area (roadway, median strip,
shoulders and the like) on which motor vehicle can run.
(6) Sidewalk and the like The sidewalk, bicycle track and bicycle and pedestrian
track defined in Article 2 of the Road Structure
Ordinance.
(7) Principal load The loads that shall be considered to act at all times
when designing the major structural parts of a bridge.

(8) Secondary load The loads that do not always or frequently act but shall
always be considered in combinations of loads when
designing the major structural parts of a bridge.

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(9) Special load The loads that shall be specially considered when
designing the major structural parts of a bridge,
depending on the type, structure, site condition and the
like of the bridge.

(5) The roadway refers to the portion of road on which motor vehicle can run in a physical
sense. Specifically, it refers to the portion other than where automobile traffic is
physically excluded by installing steps, curbs, guard fences or the like, as shown in
Figure C. 1.2.1.

Sidewalk and Sidewalk and

the like Roadway Separator Roadway the like

I
Figure C. 1.2.1 Division of Roadway, Sidewalk and the like, and Separator

(6) Since the live loads acting on a sidewalk, bicycle track or bicycle and pedestrian track
have much the same property, these are collectively defined as the sidewalk and the like
and are supposed to assume the same load in the Specifications.

(7), (8) and (9) In the Specifications, the loads are divided into three types: principal,
secondary and special, from the viewpoint of the frequency of exertion, way of acting,
influence on the structure, and the like. When considering only the principal loads and
special loads equivalent to principal loads, overdesign of allowable stress shall not be
allowed. When considering the secondary loads and special loads equivalent to
secondary loads, overdesign of allowable stress is allowed.

1.2.2 Meaning of Language

The meanings of the language used in the provisions shall be described in Table 1.2.1.

Table 1.2.1 Meaning of Language

Language Meaning of Language

shall (1) Mandatory term.
Mandatory language is used when providing
requirements that must be followed exactly as
written or referenced, as in specifications.

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 shall generally (2) Mandatory term
This mandatory language is used when providing
requirements in practical use to be compatible
with circumstances.
should (3) Advisory term
be recommended Advisory language allows certain flexibility in
be desirable to application to accommodate design constraints.
should (4) Permissive term
may Permissive language is used when an excessive
can inclination to the safe side is obvious.

This clause is laid down in order to define the phrases used in a sentence of the specifications
and to prevent doubts in application.

1.3 Basic Principles of Design

In designing a bridge, the fitness to the purpose of use, safety of structures, durability,
securing of construction quality, reliability and ease of maintenance, environmental
compatibility, and economy shall be taken into consideration.

This clause gives, as basic principles of design, the performance required from a whole bridge
and the basic matters to which to pay attention at all times in designing a bridge.

Individual principles are not necessarily independent from, or parallel to, each other. All shall
always be kept in mind throughout all stages, from investigation, planning, and design to
maintenance. In addition, it is important to design bridges rationally and appropriately by
observing the other clauses of these Specifications.

The fitness to the purpose of use means the bridge's function of being available for traffic as
planned, including the serviceability for users to use safely and comfortably.

Safety of structures means that the bridge has appropriate safety against dead loads, live loads,
influence of earthquakes, and other types of loads.

Durability means that, even if deterioration from aging occurs in the bridge, the required
performance can be secured without a significant degradation in the fitness to the purpose of
use or the safety of structures. For example, the bridge shall have durability against fatigue
due to a repeated load or corrosion of steel materials.

Securing of construction quality means having the property of being capable of sure
construction to secure the fitness to the purpose of use, the safety of structures and the
durability, and the bridge shall also have safety during construction. For this purpose, you

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shall give consideration to ensuring that construction quality greatly influences the durability
in the design stage and shall make efforts to secure construction quality. At the same time,
careful consideration shall be given to structural details that cannot be identified simply
through design calculations, while still in the design stage, as these can be closely related to
durability.

Reliability and ease of maintenance means that routine inspections in service, regular
inspections, examinations undertaken after an earthquake or other disaster to check the
conditions of a bridge to verify the presence and degree of damage, examinations carried out
when deterioration or damage has occurred, repair, and reinforcement work, etc. can be
performed easily and rationally; these are related to durability and economy as design
preconditions.

In the old Specifications, this clause referred only to the ease of maintenance. Thus, for
example, this meant that while one was required to make it as easy as possible to conduct
inspections and other maintenance operations in areas designated as inspection sites in
advance in the design stage, one needed not necessarily give consideration to reducing the
number of a bridge's hard-to-inspect areas in preparation for possible future contingencies.
However, the revised Specifications clearly stipulate that due attention shall be paid not only
to the ease of carrying out inspections and other maintenance activities that are planned in the
design stage but also to the reliability of maintenance; for example, as many areas as possible
in which it is difficult to conduct inspections and other maintenance work shall be eliminated.

Appropriate maintenance should be implemented the cycle of inspection, diagnosis and action
in a stable manner throughout a bridge's in-service period. This means that planning specific
maintenance methods and other aspects of maintenance while still in the design stage as
design preconditions is essential to ensure that the various inspections scheduled to be carried
out during the in-service period as well as the inspections that will need to be carried out in
the event of abnormal situations can be implemented properly. In particular, it is vital to be
able to swiftly identify the conditions of structures to judge whether a bridge can remain in
service after being hit by an earthquake or other disaster. In order to ensure that planned
maintenance can be implemented without fail, it is important to take due care and give due
consideration to allow inspections and other maintenance activities to be carried out reliably
and easily.

Environmental compatibility means alleviating or conforming the influence of the bridge on

the social and natural environments around the construction site. It also means forming a
landscape that is appropriate to the peripheral environment. Given the nature of bridges, a
consideration of environmental factors, such as landscape features and modifications to the
surrounding landforms, that focuses on individual bridges in isolation will not necessarily

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result in good compatibility with the environment across entire routes. As such, it is important
to consider compatibility with the environment from many different perspectives while still in
the planning stage.

For economy, the life cycle cost must be minimized. From this point of view, it is important
not only to minimize the construction cost, but also to try to reduce the comprehensive cost
including the maintenance costs for inspection, repair, and the like. However, attempting to
optimize economy by focusing on individual bridges in isolation does not necessarily result in
economically efficient road sections or routes that include such bridges. Therefore, what is
important is to pay attention throughout all processes, from construction to maintenance, in
order to maximize economy not only for a given bridge but also for the entire road section
related to it.

The bridge is an important structure forming the road, and it is desirable to design the bridge
to minimize even a temporary loss of the function as a road during replacement or large repair.
Therefore, it is indispensable for effective realization of the basic design principles to suppose
the period of the bridge's being kept in good condition in the design stage on condition that
appropriate maintenance will be executed.

There is an argument that specific target periods should be set as the target design period
based on the technical knowledge from the past achievements and current state. This period is
closely related to the setting of load values used in the design. No grave trouble has occurred
in the structures designed using the current provisions, and there is no sufficient data
accumulation worthwhile to review. Therefore, no specific target periods have been set and
many of the current provisions were followed in the revision. For the matters related to
durability, the concept of time is necessary in order to set design targets to check performance.
Therefore, 100 years were set as a guideline for the matters whose knowledge has been gained
to a certain level.

The purposes for which bridges are put into service vary depending on routes, regions and
expected users. However, the stages of investigation, planning, design and maintenance of a
bridge are closely related to one another. Thus, to allow bridges to fulfill the functions that
they are required to perform during their in-service periods, it is necessary to consider what to
keep in mind in each of the above stages in an integrated manner, not in isolation.

Another important item is to make the most of the knowledge acquired through investigating,
planning, designing and maintaining bridges that have been constructed thus far, including
those that are currently in service in order to construct new bridges as well as to improve the
bridges that are currently in service.

-6-
1.4 Investigation

Necessary investigation shall be done for appropriate bridge design, construction and
maintenance according to the construction site conditions, structure scale, etc.

Investigation shall be performed in accordance with the provisions in this and other volumes.

Investigation necessary for the design and construction of bridges may involve an extremely
wide range of items depending on the type of structure, scale, and other factors related to the
bridge, including topography, geological conditions, and meteorology of the construction site
and surrounding areas; conditions related to adjacent structures, buried objects, etc.; and items
to keep in mind as well as restraints regarding the region and environment. As such, it is
desirable to conduct examination to identify what investigation items are necessary, as well as
the methods and implementation period for investigation, at the earliest possible point in time,
e.g., when the bridge is still in the planning stage, so that no unnecessary rework arises before
the completion of the bridge and so that the required performance can be achieved without
fail. Investigation shall be conducted in accordance with the provisions not only in this
volume but also those in other volumes, as investigation-related provisions are provided in
Chapter 2 of the Volume on Substructures and in 1.4 of the Volume on Seismic Design, in
addition to provisions concerning durability evaluation and construction-related investigation
in the Volume on Steel Bridges and the Volume on Concrete Bridges.

1.5 Planning

1.5.1 Selection of Bridging Location and Bridge Type

In planning a bridge, a bridging location and bridge type shall be selected considering the
route alignment, topography, geology, meteorology, crossing objects, and other various
external conditions, and the fitness to the purpose of use, safety of structures, durability,
securing of constmction quality, reliability and ease of maintenance, compatibility with the
environment, and economy, as well as coherence to local disaster prevention plans and
relevant road network plans.

Because a bridge is comprised in a part of the road, it is necessary for the bridge to fit to the
route alignment when selecting the bridging location. At the stage of finalizing route

-7-
alignment, which is the most fundamental element of a road plan, what is important is to take
great care to ensure that the safest, most credible possible road structures, including highway
bridges, cuts, embankments, etc., are put into the plan, so the road can eventually perform the
functions that it is expected to perform for the route or for the specific section. In reality,
however, there have been some cases in which bridges that are not necessarily desirable from
the perspectives of bridge design, construction or maintenance, such as skew bridges with
ridiculously small skew angles, bridges having unstable widths or curves, bridges supported
by extremely shaky foundations, and bridges that are extremely unlikely to remain in service
after a disaster or suffering contingent damage, have been put into plans as a result of too
much emphasis being placed on the road alignments adopted in high level road plans, which
do not necessarily pay due attention to details. It is for this reason that adequate attention
should be paid to the above conditions.

The 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake caused significant damage to bridges in the affected
area. For example, many coastal bridges collapsed under tsunami waves, while many others
were put out of service due to collisions with or deposition of driftage, sliding off of back fills,
etc. However, even now, it is still difficult to accurately estimate the impacts that tsunami
waves caused by an earthquake may have on a bridge. Therefore, in designing highway
bridges in areas that are at risk of inundation, special care should be taken to select an
appropriate bridging location, structural type, etc. in line with the relevant local disaster
prevention plans so as to allow the bridge to perform its expected functions without
interfering with evacuation routes, rescue or relief efforts, etc. in the event of a disaster.

What is important is to consider specific maintenance conditions, such as the methods of

inspections planned to be carried out during the in-service period of the bridge, while still in
the planning stage, in order to ensure that appropriate maintenance can be performed in a
reliable, rational manner.

Paying due attention to such items in selecting a bridging location and bridge type is essential
if the performance intended for the bridge in the design stage is to be achieved without fail.
This is why the above clause is formulated as it is.

In addition, the overall alignment of an entire route often depends on bridges. This is another
reason that bridging locations need to be selected with the utmost care by taking all relevant
conditions into account.

The following are examples of selections of bridging locations and bridge types that require
special consideration:

-8-
- Selection of continuous types in which driving comfort and other factors are taken into
account;

- Selection of bridge types and substructure positions in which bridging location- and bridge
function-related conditions that are peculiar to specific bridges and require special attention
(e.g., those concerning the presence of a fault, the possibility of landslides or other
diastrophisms, inundation caused by tsunami waves, etc.) are taken into account; and

- Planning for structural types and maintenance equipment for overpasses in which
maintenance-related restraints are taken into account to ensure that regular inspections,
inspections that will need to be carried out in the event of abnormal situations (e.g.,
typhoons), repairs, and restoration work that will need to be performed to deal with future
deterioration and damage caused by disasters, etc. can be implemented properly.

1.5.2 Relationship with Crossing Objects

The bridging location, span arrangement, pier position, pier shape, space under the bridge,
and the like shall be decided upon through due negotiation with the administrators of the
crossing objects by taking into account the fitness to the purpose of use, safety of structures,
durability, securing of construction quality, reliability and ease of maintenance,
environmental compatibility, and economy.

In planning a bridge, due negotiations shall be held with the administrator of the intended
bridging site (crossing object). Lack of adequate consideration of the relationship with the
crossing object can result in the bridge not achieving satisfactory performance in terms of the
fitness to the purpose of use, safety of structures, durability, securing of construction quality,
reliability and ease of maintenance, environmental compatibility, and economy. This is
particularly true of inspections planned in advance as design preconditions, post-disaster
investigations and similar maintenance work, and future repair work (e.g., re-application of
corrosion proofing), as it is usually difficult to change the conditions related to such work
once a bridge has been put into service. Therefore, it is necessary to carefully plan them in
advance to ensure that they can be implemented properly in the future. Below are the main
conditions for different types of crossing objects. In making decisions about the space under a
bridge, not only the space required by the crossing object under the bridge but also the space
required for maintenance by both the bridge itself and the crossing object shall be taken into
consideration.

(1) Bridging over a river or the like

-9-
 1) In deciding the bridging location, bridge length and abutment positions, consider
the shape and improvement plan of the river.

2) In deciding the span length, clearance under the bridge, and pier shape, consider the
design high water level, design flood discharge, conditions for vessel passage, and
adjacent structures.

3) In deciding the top height of the foundation, consider the river improvement plan
and scouring conditions.

(2) Bridging over a strait or canal

In deciding the span length and the clearance under the bridge, consider the size of
vessels passing on the route.

(3) Bridging over a road or railway

1) In deciding the bridge length, span length, clearance under the bridge, and pier
position and shape, consider the road, railway width, track clearance, sight distance
and the like.

2) In deciding the position and shape of the abutments, piers and foundations, consider
the underground-buried objects, underground structures, and the like.

1.6 Basic Principles of Design

1.6.1 Design Method

The design shall be executed based on theoretically valid methods, experimentally verified
methods or other appropriate knowledge.

These Specifications are stipulated in a performance-based manner. Therefore, each

stipulation basically consists of a requirement and specific methods, etc. that are considered to
satisfy the requirement, which are provided together in a clause.

Therefore, for above reason, by following the methods considered to satisfy specific
requirements, it is possible to design to satisfy the required performance. On the other hand,
it may be also possible to employ methods that are not strictly following the provisions
stipulated to satisfy specific requirements if required performance is verified. However,
careful judgment must be required whether the requirements are genuinely satisfied in such a

- 10 -
case. Originally, these Specifications should provide explicit criteria forjudging whether
methods satisfy the requirements as well as clearly specify how to evaluate the methods. In
these specifications, however, such a system has yet to be established. As such, at present it is
stipulated only that such judgments shall be made based on theoretical validity and
well-grounded knowledge obtained through experimental verifications or other reasonable
means according to the conditions of each bridge, with adopting methods that can achieve
performance equivalent or superior to the performance that would be achieved by following
the stipulated provisions to satisfy the requirements.

At the same time, on the other hand, it is also possible to evaluate the performance of new
technologies or methods for which the efficiency and reliability are theoretically difficult to
verify by, for example, implementing construction on a trial basis at a site where the actual
bridging and construction conditions can be faithfully simulated or by conducting
experiments on an adequate scale. In particular, technologies or methods that reflect the
conditions of actual construction sites are often very efficient and effective for technologies
and methods that are relatively susceptible to local conditions, as they allow for directly
checking the effectiveness in actual construction work of specific quality management
standards, construction procedures, etc.

1.6.2 Considerations Related to Structural Designs

In designing a bridge, structural design shall be carried out by considering the following
matters:

(1) The probability that some members of the bridge will be damaged, resulting in a
collapse or other fatal situation for the bridge;

(2) Installation of maintenance equipment required to conduct in-service inspections,

investigations to assess the conditions of the bridge in the event of an accident or
disaster, and systematic maintenance work (inspection facilities, etc. shall be installed
as stipulated in 5.4); and

(3) Maintenance methods, etc. for members that are likely to be replaced during the
in-service period of the bridge shall be carefully planned in advance so that such
members can be replaced reliably and easily.

This clause stipulates matters besides the basic principles of design to which due
consideration should be at least given when examining specific bridge types and structural
designs.

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Each of the above items requires comprehensive judgments to be made in consideration of
many different related requirements, such as economy and securing of construction quality.
As such, it is difficult to stipulate methods and other aspects concerning them in the general
provisions. Nevertheless, it is still true that in order to allow a bridge to achieve the
performance expected of it without fail, it is essential to pay adequate attention to these items
while still in the design stage; therefore, the above clause is stipulated.

In the design stage, it is desirable to take these items into account on an as-needed basis.

(1) In designing a bridge, the states in which the bridge is expected, at the time of design, to
be in during its in-service period, as well as the impacts that the bridge may experience
during its in-service period, need to be considered. At the same time, however, once
highway bridges are put into service, they may be subject to contingent external
influences and damage that cannot be predicted and reflected in their designs.

Even in such cases, fatal situations (e.g., total collapses) that may be caused by the
condition of the bridge must be avoided whenever possible. This is particularly important
in the sense that bridges are required to retain fitness to the purpose of use for as long as
they remain in service. The phrase “fatal situation” includes a situation in which a bridge
must be closed to traffic for an extended period of time or re-bridging is required for
safety reasons because the bridge has become deformed in such a way that it may
collapse even if it has not yet actually fallen down or collapsed.

Damage- or abnormality-derived influences on some members of a bridge can make the

entire bridge unstable or lead the extent of damage to expand successively, putting the
entire bridge into a fatal situation, depending on the structural type, scale, etc. of the
bridge. In order to consider specific measures to prevent such fatal situations from arising
in the design, it is vital to have clearly defined verification standards in place. However,
due to a lack of accumulated knowledge and experience, there are not yet any systems by
which to verify, in the design stage, the likelihood of occurrence of such fatal situations
according to uniform evaluation criteria.

In accordance with the above, these Specifications stipulate that it should be kept in mind
while still in the design stage that the occurrence and progression of damage and
abnormalities in some members of a bridge can severely impair the overall performance
of the bridge and that it is thus desirable to consider, while still in the design stage as
needed , measures to prevent the damage, etc. done to some members of a bridge from
causing the whole bridge to be put into a fatal situation, although no specific verification
standards are provided in these clauses.

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Damage- or abnormality-derived influences on some members of a bridge can make the
entire bridge unstable or lead the extent of damage to expand successively, putting the
whole bridge into a fatal situation. To avert this, the following matters shall be
considered:

(D Securing of structural complementarity or substitutability of the entire bridge;

(2) Prevention of self-excited and hard-to-control phenomena, such as explosive

oscillations; and

(3) Availability of a fail-safe function.

“Structural complementarity or substitutability of the entire bridge” can be said to be

secured when the bridge will not be put into a fatal situation even if the target members
are destroyed because the functions of the members can be complemented by other
members with similar functions, to which stresses will be redistributed, or when the
bridge itself can escape being put into a fatal situation although the lost functions of the
target members may result in a load-carrying mechanism or structural characteristics
different than the original ones. As it is considered difficult to clearly distinguish
complementarity from substitutability, there is no need to specifically distinguish
between the two when considering them in the design stage. What is important is to
check directly whether the bridge has a good chance of escaping being put in a fatal
situation under given conditions. In doing this, different levels of damage and destruction
need to be considered for members having different structures and characteristics. Thus,
bridges should be examined individually. Further, maintenance-related conditions should
also be considered to make more comprehensive judgments as to the securing of
structural complementarity or substitutability. For example, establishing a maintenance
scheme to detect without fail abnormalities before they develop into severe deformations
can save the effort of simulating destruction, at least for some members.

Also, there are cases that self-excited vibrations occur in cable members. Once such
vibrations begin to occur, their vibration responses rapidly increase larger in response to
small increases in wind speed. The occurrence of such self-excited phenomena depends
on slight differences in conditions. As such, it is effective to establish the conditions that
are least likely to produce such phenomena in advance. For more information on
self-excited vibrations associated with wind, please refer to the “Wind-Resistant Design
Handbook for Highway Bridges” (Japan Road Association in January 2008).

A “fail-safe function” prevents the whole bridge from being put into a fatal situation by
allowing members that have been set up separately and that do not function during

- 13 -
 normal times to begin to work to make up for the functions of the target members that
have been lost.

In considering these matters, it is also important to remember that the economy of the
bridge can be significantly affected by the scope and scale of external forces to which
specific considerations are given. As such, it cannot be said as a rule as to how much
consideration should be given to these matters, because it depends on many different
factors, including the purpose of use and the structural characteristics of the bridge.

(2) The performance of a bridge should also be considered from the perspectives of
durability and reparability, which are important elements for keeping the bridge in the
required condition. To ensure a bridge continues to deliver the performance expected of it
throughout its in-service period, it is essential to first make systematic inspections,
diagnoses, and judgments, and then to perform repairs, follow-up monitoring, etc. to
appropriately maintain the bridge.

As for the serviceability of individual bridges, their reparability is directly affected by

whether it is possible to accurately identify their conditions when they have been or are
suspected to have been damaged due to various factors.

Therefore, in designing bridges, while still in the design stage it is important to

specifically ensure that, in the event of a contingent accident or disaster, the conditions of
members affecting the situation of the bridge may be rapidly identified in the forms of
preconditions related to durability, seismic performance, etc.

When checking members for deformation, fatigue cracks, etc. during an earthquake, it is
sometimes necessary to get close to the members. In addition, some sites that are
designated as items needing special attention in maintenance inspections require
maintenance personnel to regularly get close to them. As such, it is important to carefully
plan what kinds of maintenance operations will need to be undertaken while in the
structural planning stage and to ensure that necessary maintenance work can be carried
out reliably and easily by giving adequate consideration to items such as whether specific
maintenance equipment should be set up, the necessary scope and necessary structural
types of equipment, etc.

(3) Depending on the bridging environment and conditions of use, it may be difficult or
irrational to attempt to ensure equal long-term durability for all members. In such a case,
after good deliberation regarding the overall life cycle cost of the whole bridge, it is
permitted to design some specific members of the bridge such that they will need to be
replaced during the in-service period of the bridge. However, if taking this approach, it is

- 14 -
 necessary to specify how to repair and replace such members while still in the design
stage, as well as clarify the methods for judging when to repair and replace them, the
inspection and investigation methods for making such judgments, the reliability of
construction after taking into consideration the conditions of service, and the influences
of such members on road functions. As a general rule, it is important to reduce the
number of potential future obstacles to serviceability and impacts on logistics and other
aspects as much as possible in accordance with the performance expected of each bridge.

In addition, based on the roles of the routes, there are conditions under which bridges are
not permitted to lose their serviceability even temporarily. In these cases, special
consideration must be required for such conditions throughout all stages, starting from
selection of bridges and structural types.

1.7 Matters to be Described on Design Drawings, etc.

The following matters shall be at least described on design drawings, etc.

(1) Route name and bridging location

(2) Bridge name

(3) Responsible engineer

(4) Date of design

(5) Major design conditions

1) Bridge classification

2) Design outline

3) Load conditions

4) Topographical, geological and ground conditions

5) Material conditions

6) Manufacturing and construction conditions

7) Maintenance conditions

8) Other relevant matters

- 15 -
Design drawings, etc. are necessary not only to appropriately implement construction work in
accordance with the preconditions that have been considered in the design stage but also to
properly carry out repair, reinforcement and other maintenance work during the in-service
period of the bridge. This clause stipulates what shall be at least included in design drawings,
etc., as a general rule.

In the event of an earthquake or other disaster, design drawings and specifications as well as
investigation-, construction- and quality management-related information are vital for
carrying out the necessary maintenance work, including various inspections, repair and
reinforcement work, and installation and replacement of additional equipment. As such, it is
important to carefully examine these materials before the bridge is put into service to ensure
their accuracy and to store them appropriately so that they can be referred to for maintenance
purposes throughout the in-service period of the bridge.

As for highway bridges, various temporary members are often installed on the main bodies of
bridges to facilitate the shape retention, transport, or bridging required in the construction
stage. Inadequacy or lack of information about them may lead to inappropriate responses
during inspections of disaster- or damage-derived deformation, repair or reinforcement work,
etc.

Therefore, all members attached to the body of a bridge, including those that have been left to
become part of the bridge (e.g., as a result of being buried in concrete) need to be described in
drawings, as well as all other materials used in the maintenance stage, irrespective of whether
they have been considered in the structural calculations.

The phrase “design drawings, etc.” refers to drawings and other bridge design-related
materials that are prepared in order to provide reference information for maintenance
purposes during the in-service period of the bridge; rather than focusing only on design
information, this phrase covers a comprehensive range of information, including construction
conditions that should be considered in the design stage and other matters related to
manufacturing and construction.

Consideration has been given to all stages starting from the planning of highway bridges to
their launches into service. As such, while this clause mainly concerns information on the
stages up to design completion, separate stipulations are provided in Chapter 6 regarding
information on all stages up to construction completion, including the various records that
should eventually be stored in the maintenance stage. The purpose of these stipulations and
this clause is finally to ensure that the information required for rational maintenance
operations is appropriately transferred to later stages.

- 16 -
(5) Major design conditions

1) Some clauses of these Specifications stipulate different requirements for different

classifications of bridges (e.g., those based on classification of performance in terms of
live load, seismic design, etc.) As such, before designing a bridge, it is necessary to
clarify which classifications apply.

Considerations related to structural design,” not only because such information is

indispensable in evaluating the validity of the design but also because it will be vital
when making rational responses during evaluations of the post-disaster condition of the
bridge, during future repair and reinforcement work, and so on; for this reason the
information required to develop an accurate understanding of the design of a bridge
should be organized and stored so as to facilitate transfer to later stages in the form of a
design outline.

3) The design of highway bridges may involve dealing with special loading methods for
unusual loads, which the clauses of these Specifications alone cannot specify, or setting
of load strengths separately, depending on the structural and bridging conditions. As
information on such load conditions is essential in order to accurately evaluate the
load-carrying capacity of a bridge in the maintenance stage, all loading conditions that
cannot be identified based on the clauses of these Specifications alone, if any, need to be
recorded and stored so that they can accurately be transferred to later stages.

4) In making judgments as to the serviceability of a bridge or examining restoration methods

when a bridge has been deformed or damaged in some other way due to an earthquake,
scour, etc., information on the topographical, geological, and ground conditions of the
bridging site is often very important. In addition, a lack of information on the geological
or ground conditions of the bridging site can make it impossible to make rational,
informed decisions regarding taking measures to improve the functions of the bridge e.g.,
by reinforcing it in such a way as to increase the dead load or widening the bridge.

5) The quality and characteristics of materials used to build bridges change with the times,
affected by changes in the relevant standards and technological advancement. This means
that information on the types, specifications, characteristics, and quality, etc. of materials
used in a bridge needs to be accurately recorded to ensure appropriate maintenance of the
bridge in the future.

6) Many of the stipulations related to design of a bridge included in these Specifications

specify the manufacturing and construction methods on which the stipulations are
premised as well as the acceptable quality levels. If any inconsistency with these

- 17 -
 preconditions arises in the manufacturing or construction stage, the result will be that the
performance originally intended to be realized in the design stage will be unable to be
achieved. Therefore, it is vital to clarify the design preconditions in order to ensure that
manufacturing and construction processes will be implemented in line with such design
preconditions without fail.

7) In designing a bridge, it is necessary to clarify the specific conditions for maintenance

methods, including what methods should be used to inspect the bridge during its
in-service period, how often it should be inspected, and what inspections should be
carried out in the event of an earthquake or other disaster, and to reflect these conditions
in the design. For example, items such as corrosion proofing specifications what
members (and what parts of the members) may be allowed to be damaged, if any, when
the bridge is attacked by an earthquake, and what maintenance equipment is to be
installed on the bridge from the start (inspection paths, etc.) need to be in agreement with
the maintenance conditions adopted in the design stage.

8) Besides the above, other matters that need to be transferred to the maintenance stage shall
also be described. Design drawings, etc. shall describe the matters specified not only in
this volume but also those specified in other volumes.

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 CHAPTER 2 LOADS

2.1 Types of Load

The following loads shall be considered in the design:

Principal load ( P ) 1. Dead load ( D )

2. Live load ( L )
3. Impact ( I )
4. Prestress force ( PS )
5. Influence of concrete creep (CR)
6. Influence of drying shrinkage of concrete (SH )
7. Earth pressure ( E )

8. Hydraulic pressure ( HP )
9. Buoyancy or uplift ( U )
Subordinate load (S) 10. Wind load ( W )

11. Influence of temperature change ( T )

Special load equivalent to
principal load ( PP )
Special load equivalent to
subordinate load ( PA )
12. Influence of earthquakes ( EQ )
13. Snow load ( SW )
14. Influence of ground displacement (GD)
15. Influence of support displacement(SZ))
16. Wave pressure (WP )
17. Centrifugal load ( CF )
18. Braking load ( BK)
19. Erection load ( ER )
20. Collision load ( CO )
21. Others

This clause enumerates the types of load to be considered when designing bridges. However,
these may be selected or omitted depending on the site conditions or the types of structure,
and it is not always necessary to select all.

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2.2 Loads

2.2.1 Dead Load

( 1) The dead load shall be set based on an appropriate estimation of unit weight of
materials.

(2) For calculation of dead load, the unit weights given in Table 2.2.1 may be used.

Table 2.2.1 Unit Weights of Materials (kN/m3)

Material Unit weight

Steel, cast steel and forged steel 77.0
Cast iron 71.0
Aluminum 27.5
Reinforced concrete 24.5
Prestressed concrete 24.5
Concrete 23.0
Cement mortar 21.0
Wood 8.0
Pitch (for waterproofing) 11.0
Asphalt pavement 22.5

(1) In designing a bridge, dead load has a large influence. Therefore, the unit weight of
materials shall be established based on an appropriate estimation in advance by, for
example, finding the actual weight.

(2) The values given in this clause are employed based on investigation results to give a
standard unit weight of various materials. However, somewhat larger values are
chosen among the various measured ones.

25 kN/m3 may be used as a standard value for the unit weight of prestressed concrete
r
\

when using a high strength concrete exceeding 60 N/mm in design standard strength,
according to the “Report on Joint Research on High Strength Concrete Member Design
Methods: Design and Construction Guidelines for Prestressed Concrete Highway
Bridges Using High Strength Concrete (Draft)” (published by the Public Works
Research Institute, Ministry of Construction, et al., November 1995).

The unit weight of wood differs with the age of the tree and moisture content. 8.0
kN/m is somewhat excessive for ordinary wood; however, this value is employed as a
value including nails, clamps, bolts and other hardware.

For the unit weight of soil, refer to the commentary to 2.2.6.

- 20 -
2.2.2 Live Load

(1) -
The live load shall include vehicle load (T load and L-load), sidewalk live load, and the
vehicle load on the street railway, and it shall be divided into A-live load and B-live
load depending on the traffic of large vehicles.

(2) B-live load shall be applied in designing bridges of a national expressway, national
highway or prefectural road, or a municipal road that forms a trunk road network with
those three classes of road. A-live load or B-live load shall be applied depending on the
traffic situation of large vehicles in designing bridges of the other municipal roads.

(3) Live load in designing a slab or floor system

The live load in designing a slab or floor system shall be set as follows:

1) The roadway portion shall be loaded with the T-load shown in Figure 2.2.1. The
T-load shall consist of one set of loads in the bridge's longitudinal direction and
unlimited number of sets of loads in the bridge's transverse direction . These sets of
loads shall be loaded to cause the most unfavorable stress for the structural
members to be designed. The loading position of the T-load in the bridge's
transverse direction shall be such that the center of the loaded surface is at up to
250 mm from the end of the roadway portion. The side length of the loading area
shall be 200 mm and 500 mm in the bridge's longitudinal and transverse directions
respectively.
The factor shown in Table 2.2.2 shall be multiplied to the sectional forces
calculated by loading the T-loads in designing the floor system of a bridge to which
the B-load should be applied. However, this factor shall not exceed 1.5.
For a stringer with an especially long span, it shall be designed using either the
T-load or L-load, whichever will cause the most adverse stress.
2) The sidewalk shall be loaded with a uniform load of 5.0 kN/m as a sidewalk live
load.
3) The street railway shall be loaded with either the vehicle load on the street railway
or the T-load, whichever will cause the most adverse stress in the structural
members to be designed. The number of vehicles on the street railway shall have no
limitation, and the occupied width and the load of that street railway shall be set
according to the stipulations of the railway.

- 21 -
 Bridge's longitudinal Bridge's transverse
direction direction

Occupied width of
200kN one set of T-loads
Loaded 2750
surface
LlOOkN lOOkN o
E3-
W /M/7M7? CM

500
Unit: mm
500 1750 500

Figure 2.2.1 T-load

Table 2.2. 2 Factor to be Used in Design of Floor System when B-live Load is Applied

Span length of structural

L 4 4<L
member L (m)
L 1
Factor 1.0 — +—
32 8

(4) Live load in designing main girders

When designing main girders, the live load shall be set as follows:

1) The roadway portion shall be loaded with the L-load consisting of two kinds of
uniform load p\ and p2 shown in Figure 2.2.2 and Table 2.2.3. One set of loads p\
shall be loaded per bridge. For the L-load, the uniform loads p\ and p2 (live load on
main lanes) shall be loaded on a width of up to 5.5 m and its respective halves (live
load on secondary lanes) to the remaining portion to cause the most adverse stress
for the point or members to be designed.
For main girders or slab bridges with an especially short span, however, it shall be
designed using either the T-load or L-load, whichever will cause the most adverse
stress. In designing using the T-load, the T-load shall consist of up to two sets of
loads in the bridge's longitudinal direction and the third and following sets shall be
reduced to a half. The factor shown in Table 2.2.2 shall be multiplied to the
sectional forces calculated by loading the T-loads in designing bridges to which the
B-live load should be applied. However, this factor shall not exceed 1.5.

L\ and L2 shown in Figure 2.2.3 shall be employed for the span length L in Table
2.2.3 for the suspended girders and the cantilever girders of Gerber bridge,
respectively.

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 Uniform load p {

Uniform load p2

i
H .

i Loaded length D I
i
I l

11
,!j
p 3 «5
TD
eo
o
—
i |
l CSJ
T3
£
cO
o

p *
s
fi
*-n CVJ
c2
*
C
i
£
S
«

o
£

Bridge's longitudinal
direction

Figure 2.2,2 L-load

Table 2.2.3 L-load

Live load on main lanes (width 5.5 m)

Uniform load p ) Uniform load p7
Live load
Load (kN/m2) Load (kN/m2)
Load on
Loaded For For L < 80 80 < L < 130 1 3 0 < Z secondary
length D calculation calculation
lanes
( m) of bending of shearing
moment force
A-live load 6 50% of live
10 12 3.5 4.3 - 0.011 3.0 load on
B-live load 10 main lanes
L: Span length (m)

U
-z-o A
U

Figure 2.2.3 How to Take the Span Length L in a Gerber Girder

2) The sidewalk shall be loaded with the uniform load shown in Table 2.2.4 as a
sidewalk live load.

Table 2.2.4 Uniform Load Imposed on Sidewalk

Span length L (m) Z, < 80 80< L < 130 130 < L

Uniform load (kN/m2) 3.5 4.3 - 0.011 3.0

3) The street railway shall be loaded with either the vehicle load on the street railway
or the L-load, whichever will cause the most adverse stress in the structural
members to be designed. The number of vehicles on the street railway shall have no
limitation, and the occupied width and the load of that street railway shall be set
according to the stipulations of the railway. If there is a street railway roadway in
which automobile traffic is not allowed, this portion may be removed from the
loaded width of the L-load.

- 23 -
(5) Live load in designing a substructure

In designing a substructure, the live load to be imposed on the superstructure shall be

the load stipulated in (4) as a general rule.

According to the stipulations in the Road Structure Ordinance, Article 35, this clause
considers 245 kN as the design vehicle load, and stipulates a live load taking the traffic of
large vehicles into consideration.

( 1) The influence of vehicles on the bridge depends on the frequency of large vehicles.
Therefore, the live load is divided into two categories; the B-live load assumes a
relatively high traffic volume of large vehicles with a total weight of 245 kN, and the
-
A live load assumes a relatively low traffic volume of large vehicles with a total weight
of 245 kN.

Live loads are divided under the comprehensive names A-live load and B-live load.
A- and B-live loads both comprise the vehicle load (T-load and L-load), sidewalk live
load, and the vehicle load on the street railway. For the vehicle load on the street
railway and the sidewalk live load, there is no difference between A- and B-live loads.

(2) For the national expressways, national highways, prefectural roads, and so-called
arterial municipal roads forming a trunk road network together with these highways, it
is stipulated that the B-live load should be applied considering their roles as an arterial
road and the functional continuity as a network. For the other municipal roads, it is
stipulated that either the A- or B-live load should be applied according to the traffic of
large vehicles.

(3) In general, there are differences between the loads bringing about adverse stresses in the
slab and floor system and the loads bringing about adverse stresses in the main girder
concerning their distribution ranges and possible frequency of occurrence. Therefore,
it is stipulated that the live load should be classified into the load used in design of a
slab or floor system as in the past and the load used in design of a main girder.
However, if a safety check is to be conducted on the slab as a part of the main girder,
the load used in design of the girder should be applied, or another appropriate load
should be used.

It is stipulated that the T-load should be used in design of a slab or floor system except
for a sidewalk and street railway roadway. In design of a slab or floor system, loading
per vehicle is dominant, so it is stipulated that the same T-load should be applied for
both A- and B-live loads.

- 24 -
The T-load should consist of one set of loads in the bridge's longitudinal direction and
an unlimited number of sets of loads in the bridge's transverse direction, and these
should be applied to cause the most adverse stress. The loading position of the T-load
in the bridge's transverse direction should be such that the center of the loading area is
at up to 250 mm from the end of the roadway portion, as shown in Figure C. 2.2.1.
1750mm 250mm 1750mm 250mm

-
T load -
T load

Figure C. 2.2.1 Loading Position of T-load

This T-load does not represent the axle loads of an actual vehicle, but represents one set
of concentrated loads substituting for the adjacent axles of the vehicle. The T-load of
200 kN was determined from the influence of the axles considering the durability of a
slab and floor system.

In design of the floor system of a bridge to which the B-live load is to be applied, it is
necessary to consider the influence of adjacent vehicles if the span length exceeds a
certain length. To consider this influence, a factor was laid down as shown in Table
2.2.2, and the sectional force (bending moment, shearing force, reaction, deflection)
calculated from the T-load should be multiplied by the factor according to the span
length of the structural member. The span length of a structural member here means
the span length of the member measured parallel to the running direction of vehicles.
In general, it indicates the span length of the stringer irrespective of the design of the
crossbeam or stringer. On the other hand, the A-live load assumes a relatively low
traffic frequency of large vehicles. Therefore, the influence of adjacent vehicles does
not have to be considered, and the sectional force calculated from the T-load should not
be multiplied by the factor in Table 2.2.2.

As the span length of a stringer increases, the influence of the L-load stipulated in 1) of
(4) becomes larger than that of T-load. Therefore, for a stringer with an especially
long span length, it is stipulated to design using either the T- or L-load, whichever will
cause the most adverse stress. In general, for a span length of less than 15 m, the
T-load may be employed as the load that will cause the most adverse stress. For a
span length of 15 m or over, the L-load may be employed. For the sectional force
calculated from the L-load, the factor shown in Table 2.2.2 is not applied.

In design of the slab or floor system under a sidewalk, it is stipulated to impose a

uniform load of 5.0 kN/m as a sidewalk live load. It may happen that an unforeseen

- 25 -
 large concentrated load should act on the floor system under a sidewalk, for example,
during snow removal work in the winter or by surfacing work during erection. The
values given above have some allowance considering these, but a special load may have
to be considered as the need arises.

If the floor system extends over the roadway portion and the sidewalk, the sidewalk
portion should be loaded with the sidewalk live load .

(4) The probability of the bridge's being fully loaded with large vehicles is considered to be
fairly small. Therefore, the concept to be taken in the design of main girders is that the
bridge should be loaded with a train of large vehicles running at the place where they
will cause the most adverse stress at the point or in the structural member as well as
loaded with other kinds of vehicles running around (Figure C. 2.2.2). Here, this
situation may be realized by one set of uniform load p\ acting over a certain length and
a uniform load p2 imposed over the entire length. The loaded length of the uniform
load p\ is taken to be 10 m for the B-live load, and it is decreased to 6 m for the A-live
load because of the lower traffic frequency of large vehicles.
zzzzzzzzzz//zzzzzzzzzz//zzzz//z//z/zz////zs// , /

ZZZZZZZ/ZZZZZ//ZZZ/Z//ZZ//////////, °
/y 'A 2 *
a>
A
_
^
A
2
'ZZZZZ//,
Traffic of large
automobiles
A 1
y, $

^ ° ^
V/zz/Z/z

Figure C. 2.2.2 L-load

y
For the uniform load p\ , 10 kN/m is supposed to be used in calculation of bending
>

moment, and 12 kN/m in calculation of shearing force.

In calculation of sectional forces other than bending moment or shearing force, 10

9 9
kN/ m shall be used for calculation of axial force or deflection, and 12 kN/m for
y <

calculation of reaction or twisting moment as a general rule. However, 12 kN/m is

required to be used for the uniform load p\ for the diagonal members of a truss, the
vertical members of an arch bridge, and other axial force members acting effectively
against shear or designed under reaction.

The uniform load p2 represents all kinds of loads (automobiles, pedestrians, or bicycles)
other than large vehicles. Of these, the vehicle load has a dominant influence, and 3.5
'y
kN/m is considered to be appropriate. In a special case, the pedestrian load on the
roadway portion can exceed this value. However, such an incident will happen very
rarely. Therefore, such a load is excluded from the normal design load.

- 26 -
In relationship between the uniform load p2 and the span length L , it is appropriate to
decrease p2 as L increases. The load was set to a constant value for a span length of 80
m or less, and its minimum is set to 3.0 kN/m for more than 80 m considering this
decrease.

It is stipulated to impose the L-load on the roadway portion so that the loading will
cause the most adverse stress at the point or for the structural members. That is, the
live load on main lanes should be imposed over a width of up to 5.5 m and the live load
on secondary lanes should be imposed on the other part of the roadway portion.
Therefore, the live load on main lanes and the live load on secondary lanes will be
loaded in an area where their influence line has the same positive or negative sign in
both the bridge's longitudinal and transverse directions.

In the bridge's longitudinal direction, if the influence line changes its sign in a shorter
section than the loaded length of the uniform load p\ , this load should be imposed only
in the section of the same sign within the loaded length, as shown in Fig. C. 2.2.3.
Loaded length D

vz
p
' mnm nr „
El
mnrlii I imuimuHuii

Influence line of shearing force in section A

Figure C. 2.2.3 Loading Method of Uniform Load p\

In designing a skew or curved bridge, the uniform load p\ is loaded to cause an adverse
stress at the point or for the structural members. That is, it is stipulated to establish a
reference line to determine the loading area of the uniform load p\ on that reference line
and parallel to a cross section to be designed, as shown in Figure C. 2.2.4. As a
general rule, the reference line in this case shall be the centerline of the structure. A
skew bridge with the cross section to be designed parallel to the bearing line is shown in
Figure C. 2.2.5.

- 27 -
 Loaded lengthD = A + B

Reference line

Cross section under consideration

Figure C. 2.2.4 Example of Loading of Uniform Load p\

Loaded length D
Reference line

Cross section under

consideration
\

V
Bearing line y'

Figure C. 2.2.5 Example of Loading of Uniform Load p\ on Skew Bridge

In the bridge’s traverse direction, the influence line of the reaction in the main girder A
takes the form of (b) in the Figure C. 2.2.6. Therefore, no load is supposed to be
imposed on the portion of C. This is the same with the calculation considering the
contribution of other girders between main girders (Figure C. 2.2.7).
Q n
( a)

©
A ( b)
©
8

Figure C. 2.2.6 Influence Line in Main Girder A

For a bridge with a large width, the bridge is seldom fully loaded with large vehicles in
the transverse direction. Therefore, it is rational to design a wide bridge using a
somewhat reduced value of the load. For this reduction, the following method is
stipulated referring to the methods practiced in foreign countries. That is, as shown in
Figure C. 2.2.8, at section C, two vehicles assumed in the design may run side by side

- 28 -
exerting the largest influence on the main girder ®, and this situation is thought to
happen frequently. However, it happens very seldom that a similar additional load
should stand beside them at the same time. Therefore, it is stipulated to reduce the
loading in this area to a half of the uniform load.
Loaded width of live
load on main lanes Loaded width of live
(within 5.5 m) load on secondary lanes

Pi > Pz 1_A J J 2_
2 *2 *
urn n
I I I I !I I
A |
©

8© Reaction influence line in

main giijder A

1 1 r Portion not
Pit P2 2 Pi > 2 P?: loaded

Figure C. 2.2.7 Loading Method of L-load

r—© v O

1
Yph
1
~
Vh- w
==1
to
u
a<
a>
S<u S3
3 S
©

c ob *

-CV
Pi » Pz
_
] •
£ © © •S .S

I .eto*.
CV3 .c2 wB
o>
CtJ

£ A
A C B

Figure C. 2.2.8 Reduction of Load in Bridge’s Transverse Direction

In designing main girders, the L-load should generally be used. However, the T-load
exerts a larger influence than the L-load as the span length decreases. Thus, it is
stipulated to design main girders or slab bridges with an especially short span using the
L- or T-load, whichever will cause the most adverse stress. In this case, the L-load
may generally be employed for 15 m and over and the T-load for less than 15 m as the
load which will cause the most adverse stress. In designing using the T-load, the
sectional forces calculated from the T-load should be multiplied by the factor given in
Table 2.2.2 for a bridge to which the B-live load is to be applied. The span length of a
structural member at this time should conform to the span length used for finding the
impact factor described in 2.2.3. On the other hand, for a bridge to which the A-live

- 29 -
 load is to be applied, it is stipulated not to multiply by the factor in Table 2.2.2 in the
same way as is described in (3). If three or more sets of T-load are loaded in the
bridge's transverse direction, the third and following sets should be reduced to half
(Figure C. 2.2.9).

T-load
Half of T-load

1000 ( mm )
1750 1750 1000 1750 1000 1750
250

Figure C. 2.2.9 Loading of T-load in Designing a Main Girder

In designing main girders, the pedestrian load of 3.5 kN/m should be loaded on the
sidewalk irrespective of whether the T-load or the L-load is used for the live load on the
roadway portion. For a bridge with a span length of 80 m or more, the load should be
reduced in the same manner as the roadway portion.

(5 ) In designing a substructure, the live load imposed on the superstructure should be the
load stipulated in (3) or (4), whichever will exert the most adverse influence. However,
the load stipulated in (4) exerts the most adverse influence in most cases. Therefore,
this load should be imposed as a general rule.

- 30 -
2.2.3 Impact

(1) For the imposition of a live load, impact shall be considered. The impact shall be
calculated using the span length, and the structural properties of the bridge, the ratio of
dead load to live load.

(2) When calculating the impact according to the provisions in (3) and (4), (1) is deemed to
be satisfied.

(3) The impact shall be calculated using the impact factor of the superstructure from Table
2.2.6 using the span length described in Table 2.2.5. However, the impact shall not be
applied to the uniform load imposed on the sidewalk and the live load used for
designing the main cable or stiffening girder of a bridge.

Table 2.2.5 Span Length for Finding the Impact Factor

Type Structural member L ( m)

Simple girder Girder and bearing Span length
Chord member, end column and bearing Span length
Hanging member of through truss Span length of floor beam
Post of deck truss Span length of floor beam
Truss
Diagonal and other similar members of Span length of floor beam
subdivided panel
Other kinds of web 75% of span length
© © ® ® L\ for loaded at ©
Continuous girder L2 for loaded at ©
A
Lx L2 ( L\+L2 )/ 2 for loaded at ®
© ®@ L\ for loaded at ©
©

Lx
ijJUI Li
®

L3
A
L2+L3 for loaded at ©
For loaded at ©:
Cantilever girder L3 for suspended girder
® ® ® ® © Z,2+L3 for cantilever arm and
A A o A
anchor girder
L$ Li Lx ( L\+L2+L3 )/ 2 for loaded at ©

® © ® L\ for loaded at ©
( L\+L2 )/2 for loaded at ©
Lx L

L\ for loaded at ©
© ®©® For loaded at ©:
Rigid frame
o A L2 for suspended girder
Li L%
L2+L3 for cantilever arm and
rigid frame
Lx For loaded at ® :
L\ for rigid frame
L2+L3 for cantilever arm

- 31 -
 Arch rib, chord member of arch, stiffening
girder, chord member of stiffening truss, tie of Span length
Arch bearing and tied arch
Arch with Web member of arch and stiffening truss 75% of span length
stiffening girder
Post of deck arch Span length of floor beam
Hanging member of through arch Span length of floor beam
Suspension bridge Hanger Span length of floor beam
Main girder Conforms to continuous girder
-
Cable stayed
Conforms to support of
bridge Cable
continuous girder

Table 2.2.6 Impact Factor

Bridge type Impact factor i Load Types

20
Steel bridge i = T-load/L-load
50 + L
20
i = T-load
Reinforced 50 + L
concrete bridge 7
i = L-load
20 + L
20
i - T-load
Prestressed 50 + L
concrete bridge 10
i= L-load
25 + L

(4) In designing a substructure, the impact caused by a live load shall not be considered.
However, for the bearing, steel pier, concrete overhanging beam, rigid frame pier, or
other similar light structural bodies, the impact caused by a live load shall be
considered.

(1) Actual travelling load exerts a larger influence on the bridge structure than a static load
for various reasons such as unevenness of the bridge surface, acceleration and
deceleration of vehicles, and synergy with vehicles ahead and behind. This is
generally called the impact and the degree of impact is represented by the impact factor.

This impact factor differs with span length, structural properties, the ratio of dead load
to live load.

(3) Table 2.2.6 stipulates the calculation formula for impact factor considering the actual
situation of various structures and referring to foreign stipulations.

The impact should be considered for all other live load, and the stress generated by
impact should be calculated multiplying the impact factor by the live load-induced

- 32 -
stress. However, impact should not be considered for a pedestrian load acting on the
sidewalk and the like and a live load acting on the main cables and the stiffening girders
of a suspension bridge, because of the nature of the load and the structural properties,
respectively.

1) Simple girder
Applied to a solid-web girder and the like that is simply supported. This is also
applied to a floor system or slab that is designed as being simply supported,
however, the clause under "continuous girder" should be applied to a stringer or
slab that is designed as a continuous girder. For the way of taking the span length
of a floor system or slab, the clauses in the Volume on Steel Bridges and the
Volume on Concrete Bridges should be applied, respectively.

In the calculation of the shearing force at the joint between floor systems, the
influence of impact should be considered.

2) Truss
The term "diagonal and other similar members of subdivided panel" means the
diagonal members and hanging members shown in Figure C. 2.2.10. The loaded
length of a web member generally varies from 50% to 100% of the span length,
therefore, 75% is stipulated by taking the mean.

\
D = Diagonal member of subdivided panel
H = Hanging member

Figure C. 2.2.10 Diagonal and Hanging Members of Subdivided Panel

3) Continuous girder
When the end support or the end span is loaded, the end span length Li should be
taken. When the intermediate span is loaded, the span length L2 should be taken.
When the intermediate support is loaded, the mean span length (Xy + L2 )I 2 should
be taken.

4) Cantilever girder
Load © is a load placed on an anchor girder or end support (if the end span is an
anchor girder). Take a span length L\ for this. Load © is a load placed on a
cantilever arm. Take the overhanging length of the cantilever arm plus the span

- 33 -
 length of the suspended girder for this. Load © is a load placed on a suspended
girder or end support (if the end span is a suspended girder). For this, take the
span length of the suspended girder for calculating the stresses of the suspended
girder and its bearings, and take the sum of the span length of the suspended girder
and the overhanging length of the cantilever arm for calculating the stresses of the
cantilever arm, anchor girder and their bearings. Load © is a load placed on an
intermediate support. For this, take a half of the sum of span length of the anchor
girders on both sides of it, the length of the cantilever arm, and the span length of
the suspended girder.

5) Rigid frame
Load © is a load placed on the horizontal member of a rigid frame. Take the span
length of the loaded portion for this. Load © is a load placed on an intermediate
support. For this, take the mean of span length on both sides of the load. For a
cantilevered rigid frame, one may think of a cantilever girder and rigid frame in
combination.

6) Arch and arch having stiffening girder

Arches include rib arches and braced arches. The arch rib means the rib of a rib
arch and the chord member and web member mean the chord and web members of
a braced arch. The posts of a deck arch and the hanging members of a through
arch may be applied to both the rib arch and braced arch.

7) Suspension bridge
Because the main cables and stiffening girder of a suspension bridge are flexible
and easily absorb impact, the impact by a live load has not to be considered.
However, the impact should be taken into consideration for the hangers.

8) Cable-stayed bridge
The main girders and cables of a cable-stayed bridge are acted on by live
load-induced impact, and this impact should be calculated by treating the supports
elastically supported by the cables on an equal basis with the supports on the piers
and abutments.

However, Table 2.2.5 assumes that the vertical displacement of a main girder is
constrained at the cable-attaching points. If the way of taking span length in this
table is employed for a cable-stayed bridge of the multiple cable type or with a long
span length, the properties of vibrations caused by vehicular traffic will be quite
different from the actual conditions and the impact factor may be overestimated.

- 34 -
 Therefore, it is desirable to investigate independently referring to the shape of the
influence line, and the like.

(4) Because the substructure is influenced by impact generally in a confined extent, the
influence of impact does not have to be considered for the superstructure reaction in
designing a substructure. However, the bearing portion is liable to the influence of
impact, and the influence of impact-induced bending stresses cannot be neglected in a
steel pier, concrete overhang or rigid frame pier. For these structural types and the
main body of a slender columnar concrete pier with two or three columns or of the pile
bent type, the influence of a live load-induced impact should be considered. In this
case, calculate the impact factor from Table 2.2.6.

2.2.4 Prestress Force

(1 ) Prestress force shall be considered appropriately when a prestress force is to be

introduced in the structure.

(2) A prestress force shall be divided into the prestress force immediately after prestressing
and effective prestress force, and each shall be considered appropriately.

(3) If a statically indeterminate force is caused by the prestress force, it shall be considered
appropriately.

(4) When designing in accordance with the provisions of (5) and (6), (1) and (2) are
deemed to be satisfied, and designing in accordance with the provisions of (7), (3) is
deemed to be satisfied.

(5) The prestress force immediately after prestressing shall be calculated from the tensile
force imposed at the pull end of the prestressing steel, considering the following
influences:

1) Elastic deformation of concrete

2) Friction between prestressing steel and sheath
3) Anchor set

(6) The effective prestress force shall be calculated from the prestress force immediately
after prestressing calculated according to the provisions of (5) considering the following
influences:

1) Creep of concrete

- 35 -
 The continuing load to be considered in this case shall be the prestress force
immediately after prestressing and the dead load.

2) Drying shrinkage of concrete

3) Relaxation of prestressing steel
(7) The statically indeterminate force caused by an effective prestress force shall be
calculated multiplying the statically indeterminate force caused by the prestress force
immediately after prestressing by the effective factor of prestressing steel tensile force
averaged over the entire structural member.

(5) Part of the imparted prestress force is lost immediately after prestressing. For this loss,
in the pretensioning method, the elastic deformation of concrete should be taken into
account, and in the post-tensioning method, the elastic deformation of concrete, the
friction of prestressing steel, the friction on the anchor and inside the jack, and anchor
set should be taken account.

1) Part of the tensile stress in prestressing steel is lost due to the elastic deformation of
concrete. In the pretensioning method, a prestress is introduced in the concrete at
one time. Therefore, this loss of stress can be calculated multiplying the concrete
stress at the centroid of the prestressing steel by the ratio (n) of Young's modulus of
prestressing steel to that of concrete. In the post-tensioning method, the
prestressing steel is generally tensioned one bar by one bar or one group of bars by
one group of bars. Thus, the tensile force of the prestressing steel already
anchored varies successively in the tensioning stage. Therefore, the amount of
stress loss should be calculated considering these factors.
The tensile stress in prestressing steel is partly lost due to the elastic deformation of
concrete, and the mean value of this stress loss may be calculated using Equation C.
2.2.1 and C. 2.2.2.

(a) In the pretensioning method

A a p - n - oCPS (C. 2.2.1)

(b) In the post-tensioning method

N -1
AG p — —12 n CT cpg
N
(C. 2.2.2)

where

- 36 -
 A a p : Loss of tensile stress of prestressing steel (N/mm )

n: Ratio of Young's modulus n = EP

Ec
Ep : Young's modulus of prestressing steel (N/mm )

Ec : Young's modulus of concrete at the time of tensioning (N/mm )

ocpg : Stress in concrete due to prestressing steel tensioning at the
centroid of the prestressing steel (N/mm )
N: Number of times of prestressing steel tensioning (number of
prestressing steel bars)

2) Part of the tensile force of prestressing steel is lost by friction, and this friction
occurs mainly between the prestressing steel and its sheath. Depending on the
work method, friction occurs on the anchor and inside the jack. It is necessary to
consider the influence of these frictions.
The tensile force of prestressing steel will vary if the friction between the
prestressing steel and sheath is taken into account, and it will vary with the type of
the prestressing steel and sheath, placement configuration, and the like. In general,
the tensile force of prestressing steel can be calculated using Equation C. 2.2.3
considering the bend of the centroidal line of the prestressing steel and the length of
the prestressing steel.

-
Px = Pi e- ( lia+te ) (C. 2.2.3)

where

Px : Tensile force of prestressing steel in the design cross-section (N)

Pi.' Tensile force of prestressing steel at the position of the jack (N)
p: Coefficient of friction per radian of bend of prestressing steel
n
a:

X:
Curvature (radians) of prestressing steel a =
^
i=l
a;

Coefficient of friction per meter of prestressing steel length

x: Length from the pull end of prestressing steel to the design cross-section
(m)
If the prestressing steel length is about 40 m or less and the bend of the prestressing
steel is about TI/6 radians (30 degrees) or less, the prestressing steel tensile force
considering the influence of friction may be calculated using Equation C. 2.2.4.

- 37 -
 Px = PrQ - Ma ~ te) (C. 2.2.4)

For the values of p and X in these equations, the values in Table C. 2.2.1 may
generally be used. If a friction-reducing measure is taken by applying a silicon
resin or otherwise or if prestressing steel is coated with grease or the like before
being covered with a polyethylene sheath or the like, the coefficient of friction may
be determined in a different way referring to experimental values or the like.

Table C. 2.2.1 Coefficient of Friction Between Prestressing Steel and Sheath

M•
Uncoated stress-relieved steel wires 0.004 0.30
Steel wire strands 0.004 0.30
Steel bars for prestressed concrete 0.003 0.30

3) The prestressing steel tensile force is partly lost due to the influence of anchor set,
and the amount of this loss varies with the various prestressing work methods. In
screwed or buttoned anchoring, the amount of set is very slight and its influence is
negligible. In wedged anchoring, however, the set is relatively large in amount, so
the loss of prestressing steel tensile force should be calculated considering the
influence of the set.

If there is no friction between the prestressing steel and sheath, the loss of
prestressing steel tensile force due to set may be calculated by Equation C. 2.2.5.

AP = Ep Ap • Al / 1 (C. 2.2.5)

where

AP : Loss of prestressing steel tensile force due to the influence of

prestressing steel set (N)
/: prestressing steel length ( mm)
A / : Amount of set (mm)

Ap : Cross-sectional area of prestressing steel (mm2)

Ep : Young's modulus of prestressing steel (N/mm )

If friction occurs between the prestressing steel and sheath, the calculation becomes
complicated. Therefore, the loss of prestressing steel tensile force may be
determined using the graphical method shown below.

Assuming that the frictional resistance when tensioning the prestressing steel is
equal in value to that when loosening the prestressing steel, the tensile force in the

- 38 -
 prestressing steel is distributed as shown in Figure C. 2.2.11. That is, if the
prestressing steel is tensioned at the end a, the tensile force in the prestressing steel
takes the curve a'b'co' immediately before anchoring. The prestressing steel
tensioning force at the pull end is P, immediately after tensioning but decreases to
Pt after anchoring.
PC steel Pull end of
PC steel
b
Placement of PC steel o
a'

b' " ASP

7A a0
Tensile force of PC steel o
b"

Figure C. 2.2.11 Loss of Prestressing Steel Tensile Force due to Set

In this case, a’b'c and a"b"c are symmetrical about the horizontal axis cao, and the
area ARP enclosed by a'b'cb"a" divided by Ap • Ep represents the amount of anchor
set (see Equation C. 2.2.6).

A/ = ^ EP
A - E„
p p
(C. 2.2.6)

where

A / : Amount of prestressing steel set (mm)

ARP : Area enclosed by a'b'cb"a" shown in Figure C. 2.2.11 (N • mm)

A p : Cross-sectional area of prestressing steel (mm )
E p : Young's modulus of prestressing steel (N/mm )

Therefore, find the point c at which A E p is equal to A / • A p • E p and determine the line
cb"a". This line represents the distribution of prestressing steel tensile force that
considers the loss of prestressing steel tensile force due to set.

(6) The effective prestressing force Pe can be determined by subtracting the loss of
prestressing force due to the creep and drying shrinkage of concrete and the apparent
relaxation of prestressing steel from the prestressing force immediately after
prestressing.

- 39 -
If there is a bond between concrete and prestressing steel, the loss of prestressing steel
tensile stress due to the creep and drying shrinkage of concrete may be calculated by
Equation C. 2.2.7.

cp + i? p s
Aa p<P
i
(C. 2.2.7)
® cpt
1+ n a +f )
where

A<3p p : Loss of prestressing steel stress due to creep and drying shrinkage of
(

concrete (N/mm2)

<p : Creep coefficient of concrete given in Table 2.2.7

e, : Drying shrinkage of concrete given in Table 2.2.8

n: Ratio of Young’s moduli n = EP

Ec
Ep :
i ••
Young's modulus of prestressing steel given in Table 3.3.1 (N/mm2)
/

•y
Ec : Young's modulus of concrete given in Table 3.3.3 (N/mm )
acp : Stress due to a continuing load in a concrete cross-section at the centroid of
>
prestressing steel (N/mm ). The continuing load here is the prestressing
force immediately after prestressing and the dead load.
® pt '
• Tensile stress in prestressing steel immediately after prestressing (N/ mm )
Gcpt • Compressive stress in concrete immediately after prestressing and at the
centroid of prestressing steel (N/mm )

However, when the part of the dead load acts after the introduction of prestress, it is
desirable to consider its influence as the need arises.

If there is no bond between the prestressing steel and concrete as in the case of outer
cable structure, it is desirable to calculate the loss of tensile stress in the prestressing
steel due to the creep and drying shrinkage of concrete considering the influence of
nonexistence of a bond.

The loss of tensile stress in the prestressing steel due to the relaxation of prestressing
steel may be calculated by Equation C. 2.2.8.

ACT pr = Y B p, ’ (C. 2.2.8)

- 40 -
 where

Aopr : Loss of tensile stress in prestressing steel due to relaxation of prestressing

steel (N/mm2)
y: Apparent relaxation factor of prestressing steel stipulated in Table 3.3.2
• o
&pt *
Tensile stress in prestressing steel immediately after prestressing (N/mm )

For the effective prestressing force, the prestressing force before completion of concrete
creep and the like should be considered as the need arises.

(7) In a statically indeterminate structure, statically indeterminate forces generally occur

because its members are restrained against deformation due to prestressing force.
Therefore, these statically indeterminate forces should be considered in calculation of
the stress in a cross section.

The statically indeterminate force occurring immediately after the imposition of the
prestressing force varies as the part of the prestressing steel tensile force is lost due to
the creep and drying shrinkage of concrete and the relaxation of prestressing steel.
The amount of this variation differs at different cross-sections, therefore, finding the
ultimate statically indeterminate force in a strict way involves a very complicated
calculation, however, the result will generally take a small value. Assuming that
concrete was uniform, a strict calculation was carried out considering only the
variations with time of tensile force of prestressing steel. According to the result, the
statically indeterminate force due to prestressing steel tensile force variations is about
10% of the statically indeterminate force immediately after prestressing and takes the
opposite sign to the latter force. According to a calculation stipulated in this clause,
this statically indeterminate force is 10% to 15% of the value immediately after
prestressing and the difference from the strict calculation is negligible. On the other
hand, the value of effective factor r\ (= PJPt ) at the various cross-sections is generally
80 to 85%. However, its mean averaged over the entire structural member takes a
larger value than this. Therefore, the method stipulated in the clause may be applied in
ordinary cases.

It is thought that the statically indeterminate force due to prestressing force may be
treated in the same manner in an approximation whichever there is a change occurring
in the structural system or not. Therefore, even if there is a change occurring in the
structural system, the statically indeterminate force due to prestressing force may be
calculated using the mean of effective factors.

- 41 -
2.2.5 Influence of Creep and Drying Shrinkage of Concrete

(1) In designing a concrete structural member, the influence of creep and drying shrinkage
of concrete shall be considered appropriately.

(2) When designing in accordance with the provisions (3) to (7), (1) is deemed to be
satisfied.

(3) The creep strain of concrete shall be calculated by Equation 2.2.1.

=
^ 9 (2.2.1)

where

scc ' Creep strain of concrete

ac : Stress due to sustained load (N/mm )

Ec : Young's modulus of concrete (N/mm )
cp : Creep coefficient of concrete

(4) The values in Table 2.2.7 shall be used as standard creep coefficients of concrete for
calculation of the loss of prestress or statically indeterminate force.

Table 2.2.7 Creep Coefficient of Concrete

Age (days) of concrete when sustained

4 to 7 14 28 90 365
load is imposed
High-early-strength
2.6 2.3 2.0 1.7 1.2
Creep Portland cement
coefficient Normal Portland
2.8 2.5 2.2 1.9 1.4
cement

(5) The values in Table 2.2.8 shall be used as standard degree of drying shrinkage strain of
concrete for calculation of the loss of prestress.

Table 2.2.8 Drying Shrinkage Strain of Concrete

(For normal or high-early-strength Portland cement)

Age (days) of concrete when
4 to 7 28 90 365
prestress is introduced
Drying shrinkage strain 20 x 10-5 18 x 10 5 ‘
16 x 10 5
‘
12 x 10-5

(6) When it is inappropriate to apply (4) or (5), the creep coefficient and the drying
shrinkage strain of concrete shall be determined in an appropriate way considering the

- 42 -
 humidity around the structural member, shape and dimensions of member sections, age
of concrete when the load acts on it.

(7) The statically indeterminate force due to the influence of creep or drying shrinkage of
concrete shall be calculated according to the following provisions:

1) The structural system unchanged during construction

When the whole structure is erected on staging at once, there is no change in the
structural system between during and after erection, the creep of concrete does not
have to be considered in general. In calculating the statically indeterminate force
due to the influence of drying shrinkage, the strain of drying shrinkage of concrete
shall be 15 x 10 5. When the amount of steel in the longitudinal direction is less
than 0.5% of the concrete sectional-area of the structural member, the strain of
drying shrinkage shall be 20 x 10 5.
'

2) The structural system changed during construction

When the whole structure is not erected at once, there is a change in the structural
system between during and after erection . The statically indeterminate force due to
the influence of creep shall be calculated using the values stipulated in (4) or (6).
The sustained loads to be considered in this case shall be the dead load, prestressing
force, and the influence of drying shrinkage. The statically indeterminate force
due to the influence of drying shrinkage shall be calculated according to the
stipulations in (6).

( 1) For concrete structural members and for steel structural members which the combined
action of the steel girder and concrete slab is expected in designing, the influence of
creep and drying shrinkage of concrete shall be considered. In the calculation of stress
of the reinforcement in the structural members of a statically determinate structure, the
influence of creep and drying shrinkage does not have to be considered for reinforced
concrete members unless the members contain especially large amount of
reinforcement.

(3) For the creep strain in concrete, Equation 2.2.1 is considered appropriate if the stress
due to the sustained load is less than about 40% of the compressive strength of the
concrete. Generally, for ordinary structural members, sustained load induces stress
less than 40% of the compressive strength of the concrete. When 40% is exceeded, the
creep strain should be determined experimentally or in another way.

- 43 -
(4 ) The creep strain in concrete is thought to be the sum of a component that will vanish if
the sustained load is removed and a component that will not, as shown in Figure C.
2.2.12. In a calculation of prestress loss, there is no significant difference in the results
between if the creep strain is divided into these two components and if not divided.
Therefore, the creep coefficient shown in Table 2.2.7 can be used without modification
(see Comment in 2.2.4 (6)). If the age of concrete when a sustained load is imposed
lies between ages shown in Table 2.2.7, the creep coefficient can be obtained by linear
interpolation.

(5) The concrete shrinkage is classified into two types: the shrinkage when the moisture in
the concrete dissipates to the outside to dry and the shrinkage due to moisture
consumption in the concrete by cement hydration (self-shrinkage). The term drying
shrinkage used here contains these two shrinking mechanisms. However, because the
self-shrinkage may become large if the water-cement ratio is especially small, the
drying shrinkage in such a case may be calculated according to the “Standard
Specifications for Concrete Structures” (Japan Society of Civil Engineers, 2008.3).

The amount of drying shrinkage of concrete shown in Table 2.2.8 is stipulated assuming
a relative humidity of 70% and an equivalent member thickness of about 400 mm. If the
age of concrete when a prestress is introduced lies between values shown in Table 2.2.8,
the shrinkage strain can be obtained by linear interpolation.

(6) It is inappropriate to apply (4) and (5) for the pretensioned members that are subjected
to prestressing in an especially early stage of concrete aging and for steel girder bridges
that are designed to expect combined action with the concrete slab considering the
influence of creep and drying shrinkage of concrete. In such a case, the creep coefficient
and the drying shrinkage strain should be determined experimentally considering the
various factors given in this clause. If experimental determination is not employed,
they may be determined according to the following method. Because the factory-made
PHC piles are cured in different ways and have high strength compared to ordinary
concrete, it is desirable to determine the amount of creep and drying shrinkage by
laboratory tests. However, the creep coefficient of 2.0 and drying shrinkage strain of
20 X 10 5 can be taken for the PHC piles.
'

1) Creep coefficient
<P ( t , t0 ) = (Pdo - Pd ( t ~
O + (Pf « { Pf ( 0 Pf ( o}
“
(C. 2.2.9)

where

- 44 -
p ( t , to ) : Creep coefficient of concrete at an age of Mh day, with a sustained
(

load imposed on the concrete at an age of to-th day.

to and t : Age of concrete (days) when the sustained load is imposed and when
the value of creep coefficient is calculated. The age to and t should
be calculated by Equation C. 2.2.10, according to the concrete
temperature and cement type.

to or t — a
I (T + 10;- Af (C. 2.2.10)
30
2.0 : High - early - strength Portland cement
a= <
1.0 : Normal Portland cement
T : Concrete temperature (°C)
At' : Number of days during which the concrete temperature is T° C
(pdo : Creep coefficient for the strain that will vanish with the passage of
time (delayed elastic strain, see Figure C. 2.2.12) if the sustained load
is removed. 0.4 can be taken in general.

Prf (Mo) '• Function of the time (Mo) days since the imposition of the
sustained load. The value is given in Figure C. 2.2.13. If the time
(Mo) days since the imposition of the sustained load exceeds 3 month,
$dj-to ) = 1 may be taken.

Vfo -- Creep coefficient for the creep strain that will not vanish (flow strain,
see Figure C. 2.2.12) even if the sustained load is removed. The value
is given in Table C. 2.2.2 according to the environmental conditions.

P/ (t) : Function of the age t (days) of concrete and the equivalent member
thickness hth given by Equation C. 2.2.11. The value is given in Figure
C. 2.2.14.

hth X 4 (C. 2.2.11)

u
hth : Equivalent thickness of member (mm)
X : Coefficient related to environmental conditions. The value
is given in Table C. 2.2.2.
Ac : Cross-sectional area of member (mm )
u : Peripheral length of member exposed to the open air (mm)

- 45 -
 tj
u>

U)

0 /0 t
where
ec : Strain of concrete
sce : Elastic strain of concrete
zcc •' Creep strain of concrete
8/ : Concrete strain that will not vanish (flow strain)
8d : Concrete strain that will vanish (delayed elastic strain)

t : Age of concrete (days)

to : Age of concrete (days) when a sustained load is imposed

Figure C. 2.2.12 Creep Strain of Concrete

1.00
0.80
y
•
ts
0.60
0.40
0.20
0 2 4 6810 100 .000 10,000
U ~ t o ) ( days )

Figure C. 2.2.13 Value of fa ( t - to )

Ultimate value
1.80 -1.85
1

1.60 - 1.70

m-
-1.55
1.40
1.20
VM
-
7
-1.40
- 1.25
1.00
/
/ 7
y
-1.12
/
^ 0.80
0.60 y
J
z
z
j /

ZzZL
0.40 /

0.20
0
4 68 0 00 1.000 10.000
Age of concrete t (days)

Figure C. 2.2.14 Value of P/ (t)

- 46 -
Table C. 2.2.2 Value of (pyo and X Depending on Environmental Conditions

Environmental condition 9/ o X
In water 0.8 60
Relative humidity 90% 1.3 10
Relative humidity 70% 2.0 3
Relative humidity 40% 3.0 2
Note: Apply if the concrete slump is 50 to 100 mm.

2) Drying shrinkage

£cs (4 to ) — £so ’ P, ( t to) (C. 2.2.12)

where

&cs ( t , to ) : Drying shrinkage strain of concrete from the drying starting age at
to-th day to the age at t-th day

to and t : Age of concrete (days) of Portland cement hardened by wet curing.

The value is calculated by Equation C. 2.2.13, according to the
concrete temperature.

to or t =
I (r + 10) - At ' (C. 2.2.13)
30

T: Concrete temperature(°C)

At' : Number of days during which the concrete temperature is

rc.
£50 : Basic drying shrinkage strain of concrete. The value given in Table C.
2.2.3 may be used according to the environmental conditions.

ps (t) : Function of the age of concrete at the t-th day and the equivalent
,
member thickness h h (calculated by Equation C. 2.2.11). The value
given in Figure C. 2.2.15 may be used.

Table C. 2.2.3 Value of e o Depending on Environmental Conditions

^
Environmental condition £50
In water -10 x 10 5'

Relative humidity 90% +10 x 10 5 ’

Relative humidity 70% +25 x 10 5 '

Relative humidity 40% +50 x 10 5 ‘

Note: Apply if the concrete slump is 50 to 100 mm.

- 47 -
 Ultimate value
2
1.9

1.6
W 1.5
1.2
/
7 1.05

0.8 0.8
0.75

0.4

0
1
y

10 100
m
1,000
m ’

10 ,000
0.7

Number of elapsed days, t , since the start of drying

Figure C. 2.2.15 Value of (3 (0

^
Cracks and deflections caused problems in recent years are thought to be derived
from excessive shrinkage of concrete. Therefore, it has been becoming more
general concern that the type of aggregates can have a significant impact on the
amount of drying shrinkage of concrete. When the strain generated by drying
shrinkage of concrete exceeds the allowable value considered in the design stage,
the prestress estimated in the design will not be introduced. In addition, there is also
a possibility that the statically indeterminate force will differ significantly from the
value estimated in the design stage. As such, when there are concerns that the
amount of drying shrinkage may become very large because of local aggregate
conditions or other factors, it is necessary to check in advance whether this clause
can be applied or not by testing and identifying the amount of drying shrinkage of
concrete.

However, as far as road bridges are concerned, the sizes of members of actual
structures are relatively large, so their insides are not usually prone to dryness, and
it is generally thought that the amount of drying shrinkage is rarely so large that the
estimated value needs to be revised so long as aggregates with proven material
characteristics and quality are used in accordance with the existing relevant
stipulation, since reinforcing bars are placed inside to control the shrinkage of
concrete. This is why it was decided that the existing stipulation regarding the rate
of drying shrinkage that is used in calculating prestress decreases and statically
indeterminate forces should remain in effect.

However, special attention should be paid to the fact that the strain of drying
shrinkage becomes large on the cross-sectional surface of concrete, and this often
results in surface cracks when combined with thermal stress associated with the
early heat of hydration, particularly in concrete with large amounts of drying
shrinkage.

- 48 -
(7) Statically indeterminate structures constrain deformation due to concrete creep and
drying shrinkage, and produce statically indeterminate forces. This clause gives basics
of these concepts.

1) If a continuous girder is erected at once, there is no change occurring in the

structural system between during and after erection. In this case, the creep
characteristics of concrete can be regarded to be equal throughout the entire
structure. Because the relationship of creep strain to stress can generally be
represented by Equation 2.2.1, the influence of creep can be considered as a
uniform decrease in Young's modulus of the concrete. Creep merely increases
deformation but causes no sectional force.
In a cable-stayed bridge of prestressed concrete, however, materials of different
creep properties are used for the cables, so that statically indeterminate forces will
occur due to creep even if the girder is erected at once.

In an arch bridge with a long span length, the deformation due to creep influences
sectional forces. It is necessary to calculate the sectional forces considering that
influence.

If there is no change occurring in the structural system, the statically indeterminate

force due to drying shrinkage is thought to occur at a young age of concrete, and
the actual amount of drying shrinkage is larger than the value stipulated in the
clause. However, the statically indeterminate force caused by drying shrinkage is
fairly small compared to the value calculated by the elastic theory for concrete
creep. Thus, it is stipulated to use a value of 15X10 5 for the amount of drying
'

shrinkage of concrete. Therefore, the influence of creep should not generally be

added to this.

2) The cases where there is a change occurring in the structural system are, for
example:
i) The case where precast simple girders are erected and connected afterwards on
the bearing supports to make a continuous girder (Figure C. 2.2.16)

ii) The case where two girders are erected from both sides by cantilever erection
method and connected at the tips to form a continuous girder.

iii) The case where a continuous girder is erected span by span while shifting the
same staging to the next span.

- 49 -
 In these cases, the structures transform from statically determinate to
indeterminate structures during erection or the degree of static indeterminacy
changes.

The change in the structural system restrains the creep deformation in the
previous structural system. Therefore, the creep advances and a new
statically indeterminate force occurs (Figure C. 2.2.16). The statically
indeterminate force due to this creep can be calculated, by taking the creep
coefficient of the various parts of the structural system from the age of concrete
when the structural system changes and considering the sectional forces due to
the sustained load.

However, this method becomes more complicated with the number of times the
structural system changes.

In an approximation method, the statically indeterminate force due to creep is

calculated by calculating the variation of reaction due to creep using Equation
C. 2.2.14.
Simple
girder

k 75 A

Connected to make a continuous girder

£ AA A A

(1 ) Bending moment diagram with spans each erected as

a simple girder

A A
(2) Bending moment diagram with spans erected on full
staging Bending moment diagram of (2)
Bending moment diagram of ( 1 )

(3 ) If the structure is changed during erection from state

( 1 ) to state (2), the bending moment diagram varies
in the hatched region.

Figure C. 2.2.16 Simple Girders Connected on Supports to Make a Continuous Girder

p
ARv = ( Ro - Rj ) (1 - e < )
~
(C. 2.2.14)

where

- 50 -
 Ai? p : Variation of reaction force due to creep (N)
(

Ro : Reaction force due to dead load and prestress in the case where the
complete structural system is erected at once (N)
R\ : Reaction force due to dead load and prestress of the structure before
the final structural system is formed (N)
cp : Mean of creep coefficient of all the members after completion of the
final structural system

For strict calculation of the statically indeterminate force due to drying

shrinkage in the case where the structural system changes, it is necessary to
calculate the statically indeterminate force in the structural system in each
erection period and totalize the forces. However, if the statically indeterminate
force due to drying shrinkage is not deemed to be very large, the statically
indeterminate force calculated in the final structural system may be used
approximately.

2.2.6 Earth Pressure

(1 ) The earth pressure shall be set appropriately considering the type of structure and soil
conditions.

(2) For the earth pressure during earthquake, the provisions in the Volume on Seismic
Design shall apply.

(3) When designing in accordance with the provision in (4), (1) is deemed to be satisfied.

(4) The earth pressure shall be a distributed load acting on the wall surface, and the load
intensity shall be as follows:

1) The wall allowed to move

i) Sandy soil

pA = KA ' y • X + KA ' q (2.2.2)

pp = Kp • y • x + Kp • q (2.2.3)

ii) Cohesive soil

pA = -
KA y x~2 • c • JKA + Ka - q (2.2.4)

- 51 -
 Where /? > 0
^
pp = Kp • y • x+2 • c • yjKp + Kp ' q (2.2.5)

where

cos 2 ((j) - 0)
(2.2.6)
sin ( <( + 8) sin ( ] - a)
) ()
cos 2 0 cos (0 + 8 K 1 +
cos (0 + 5) cos (0 - a )

cos 2 ((j) + Q )
KP = (2.2.7)
sin (|< ) - 8) sin ((() + a )
cos 2 Qcos (0 + 8 H 1 -
cos (0 + 8) cos (0 - a )

Take sin (<j) ± a) = 0 if <J> ± a < 0.

2) The wall not allowed to move

po = K0 • y • x + KQ • q (2.2.8)

where

Y: Unit weight of soil (kN/m3)

2
PA : Active earth pressure intensity at depth x (kN/m )
pP : Passive earth pressure intensity at depth x (kN/m 2)
po : Earth pressure intensity at rest at depth x (kN/m )

KA : Coefficient of active earth pressure according to Coulomb's earth

pressure theory
Kp : Coefficient of passive earth pressure according to Coulomb's earth
pressure theory
KQ : Coefficient of earth pressure at rest
x: Depth at which earth pressures PA , pp and po act on the wall surface (m)
c: Cohesion of soil (kN/m )
q: Load imposed on the ground surface (kN/m )

4> : Angle of shearing resistance of soil (degrees)

a: Angle formed between the ground surface and horizontal plane (degrees)
0: Angle formed between the wall's rear surface and vertical plane (degrees)

- 52 -
 8: Angle of wall friction between the wall's rear surface and soil (degrees)

The angles are positive in the counterclockwise direction.

N- N • Plane perpendicular to
the wall surface

N —
(a) In the case of active earth pressure
-
N
( b) In the case of passive earth pressure

Figure 2.2.4 Earth Pressure

(5) The plane of action of earth pressure on an abutment shall be as follows:

1) For a gravity-type abutment, it lies at the back surface of the main body of concrete.

2) For a reversed T-type abutment, it lies at the back surface of the main body of
concrete for sectional calculation of the wall and at the vertical imaginary back
surface at the rear footing end for stability calculation.

(4) For earth pressure calculation, Coulomb's, Rankin's, Terzaghi's and many other earth
pressure formulae have been proposed. If the structure itself is a rigid body whose
displacement is something like rotation or being pushed forward, Coulomb's earth
pressure formula is said to give a value that is relatively close to the measured value for
active and passive earth pressure.

Coulomb's earth pressure should not be applied for earth pressure acting on a steel sheet
pile or other flexible structure because it exhibits a complex curved distribution.

The angle of wall friction should take a positive sign for active earth pressure and a
negative sign for passive earth pressure, as shown in Figure 2.2.4 because the
foundation of a substructure is generally strong.

The following restrictions are established for applying the formula to earth pressure
calculation because Coulomb's passive earth pressure becomes excessive for large
values of (-0), a and (-8). That is, the value of (-8) is taken to be one third the angle of
shear resistance of backfill, and the values of a and (-0) are taken to be up to 20
degrees.

- 53 -
 n
The unit weight of soil, y (kN/m ) should be found using soil samples taken at the
construction site. In the case of preliminary design, however, the value in Table C.
2.2.4 may be used.

For cohesive soil, the influence of cohesion should be considered in calculation of

active and passive soil pressure, and these pressures should be represented using
Coulomb's coefficient of earth pressure for convenience. However, cohesive soil
remarkably changes its properties according to moisture content, so it is difficult to
exactly keep track of the properties of cohesive soil behind the structure over the service
life. In other words, the cohesion calculated from the results of in-situ tests or
laboratory tests with sampling is only a figure that indicates the cohesion at the timing
when the tests were executed. For such reasons, it may be impossible to estimate the
soil cohesion exactly. In such a case, it is desirable to ignore the influence of cohesion
and find the coefficient of earth pressure by taking the angle of shear friction to be
small.

The coefficient of earth pressure at rest is said to vary with soil quality and compaction
method from 0.4 to 0.7. For ordinary sandy soil or cohesive soil ( LL < 50), it should
be regarded as approximately 0.5. For soft ground, however, a further consideration is
necessary.

If a load acts on the ground surface behind the wall, the earth pressure is to be the
imposed load multiplied by the coefficient of earth pressure. For the imposed load on
an abutment at the ground surface, q = 10 kN/m may generally be taken. This holds
good for an abutment and other structures that have a large loaded area for the wall
surface dimensions. If the load-imposed area is actually small, the earth pressure
intensity decreases with depth. Thus, for a parapet and other structures that receive the
axle loads of vehicles, the earth pressure may generally be reduced according to the
depth. In this case, the details should be as stipulated in Section 8.4.3 of the Volume
on Substructures.

Table C. 2.2.4 Unit Weight of Soil (kN/m3)

Ground Soil quality Loose Dense

Sand and gravel 18 20
Natural
Sandy soil 17 19
ground
Clayey soil 14 18
Sand and gravel 20
Embank-
Sandy soil 19
ment
Clayey soil 18
Note (1) The unit weight of soil that is below the groundwater level may be
regarded as the value substructed 9 from the value concerned in the table.
(2) The unit weight of crushed stone shall be regarded as the same value of

- 54 -
 gravel. For muck, rock lumps and the like, it is necessary to determine
the value considering their sort, shape, size, and porosity.
(3) The unit weight of sandy soil containing gravel and cohesive soil
containing gravel should be determined according to their content
proportion and state.
(4) The groundwater level should be regarded as the mean value after
construction.

(5) In such case as a gravity-type abutment, in which the rear footing projection length is
short, the earth pressure should be considered to act directly on the back surface of the
main body concrete (see Figure C. 2.2.17)

In a reversed T-type abutment, the rear footing projection length is generally long.
The plane of action of earth pressure should be as follows. In stability calculation, the
overburden over the rear footing (earth enclosed by abed) should be regarded as a part
of the main body as shown in Figure C. 2.2.18 and the earth pressure should be
considered to act on the plane dc as an imaginary back surface. In the sectional
calculation of the wall, the plane ab in Figure C. 2.2.18 should be regarded as the plane
of action of earth pressure.

The earthquake situation should be considered in a similar manner. In stability

calculation, not only the dead weight, the overburden over the rear footing and their
inertia force but also the earth pressure during earthquake should be considered to act
on the imaginary back surface. In sectional calculation of the wall, the earth pressure
during earthquake should be considered to act directly on the back surface of the main
body concrete. The inertia force of the overburden over the rear footing should be
ignored.

In ordinary cases, the value in Table C. 2.2.5 may be taken for the angle of wall friction,
8, at the plane of action of earth pressure.

Plane fof action of

6 + <5
earth pressure

Figure C. 2.2.17 Plane of Action of Earth Pressure on Gravity-type Abutment

- 55 -
 a
In wall design, earth a i<» a d
"

pressure is to act on
this plane
§
i§ 1
IS-2o
173
y
.59
^K p
fI| <5
fi g. 1
^

Figure C. 2.2.18 Plane of Action of Earth Pressure on Reversed T-type Abutment

Table C. 2.2.5 Angle of Wall Friction at the Plane of Action of Earth Pressure

Angle of wall friction

Angle of friction
Abutment type Calculation type
type During
Others
earthquakes SE
Gravity-type Stability calculation
Soil, concrete 0
abutment Sectional calculation of wall 3

Stability calculation Soil, soil

Reversed T-type 2
abutment <t>
Sectional calculation of wall Soil, concrete 0
3

2.2.7 Water Pressure

( 1) The water pressure shall be set appropriately considering the water level variations,
flow velocity, influence of scouring, and the shape and dimensions of the piers.

(2) For the hydrodynamic pressure during earthquake, the provisions in the Volume on
Seismic Design shall apply.

(3) When designing in accordance with the provisions in (4) and (5), (1) is deemed to be
satisfied.

(4) The hydrostatic pressure shall be calculated by Equation 2.2.9. If it is obvious that the
water pressure acting on the underground part of a structure will not reach this
theoretical water pressure value, the water pressure may be reduced.

ph ~ w0 * h (2.2.9)

where
'y

Ph : Hydrostatic pressure at depth h from water surface (kN/m )

- 56 -
 h: Depth from water surface (m)

wo : Unit weight of water (kN/m3)

(5) The flowing water pressure shall be the horizontal load acting on the vertical projected
area of the pier in the flowing direction and shall be calculated by Equation 2.2.10.
The point of action shall be 0.6H from the riverbed.

P = K • v2 • A (2.2.10)

where

P: Flowing water pressure (kN)

K: Factor determined from the shape of piers shown in Table 2.2.9
v: Maximum flow velocity (m/s)
A: Vertical projected area of pier (m )
H: Water depth (m)

When there is the influence of scouring, the depth of scouring caused by the influence
of the substructure and the general riverbed sinkage expected during the service of the
bridge shall be added to the water depth (H). During a flood, the water depth shall be
the water depth obtained above to which the water level rise during a flood and the
scoured depth during a flood are added.

Table 2.2.9 Coefficient of Resistance of Pier

Shape of pier at upstream

Coefficient
and downstream ends
-»
0.7
->
—>
-»
o 0.4
< >
-» 0.2

(4) Water pressure distribution may not be triangular, but may take a different form at a
certain depth depending on the ground condition. If this is obvious from a survey of
pore water pressure or the like, the water pressure should be reduced to the surveyed
result.

- 57 -
 Where water level variations are remarkably large, a water level difference may occur
between at the front and in the back-filling of an abutment planned on the waterside.
In such a case, a residual water pressure occurred from this water level difference
should be considered.

(5) Flowing water pressure

1) Force acting on an object in the flowing water

The force acting on an object in the flowing water is caused by the pressure
difference at the surface of the object and it is generally represented by Equation C.
2.2.15.

v2
P - K' w0 A (C. 2.2.15)
2g

where

P: Flowing water pressure (kN)

K : Constant determined from the shape of the object. Strictly speaking, it
varies with Reynolds number, but it may be regarded as being almost
constant for an ordinary pier and ordinary flow velocity.
3
wo : Unit weight of water (kN/m )
v: Flow velocity (m/s)

g - Acceleration of gravity (9.8m/s )

A: Vertical projected area of the pier in the flowing direction (m )

In Equation 2.2.10, the value of 1C derived from small model experiments and wo =
9.8 (kN/m3) and g = 9.8 (m/s2) are used to find the pressure value.

As described above, because the value of K was derived from small model
experiments, it serves merely as a tentative guideline, Therefore, a further
investigation is desirable when the flowing water pressure is not simple.

2) Relation to stream width

Equation C. 2.2.15 may be regarded to give the value when the piers are placed in a
river in an arrangement allowed for flood control. Therefore, it is not necessary in
general to modify the value in relation to the stream width. However, in a special
case, where the pier width occupies nearly half of the stream width, the stipulated
flowing water pressure may be regarded to nearly double.

- 58 -
3) Point of action of flowing water pressure
If the flowing velocity is uniform from the water surface to the riverbed, the total
flowing water pressure acts at 0.5H. However, 0.6// was taken on the safe side for
convenience because the flowing velocity distribution is not uniform in general.

4) Influence of scouring
If scoured around the pier, the riverbed is generally assumed to show the form
shown in Figure C. 2.2.19. In such cases, the total flowing water pressure may be
calculated by Equation C. 2.2.16 or C. 2.2.17.

P= K - vn - A
2

(C. 2.2.16)
B +
= K - v”„ — 2 Bb
2
-
•
Hn (ordinary times)

or

= K - v/
2
- +2^ b
Hf (during a flood) (C. 2.2.17)

The point of action is at a height of 0 ,6 Hn from b in ordinary times and at 0.6Hf

from b' during a flood.

K: Coefficient of pier shape given in Table 2.2.9

Hn: Design water depth (m )

H: Depth of flowing water (m)

AHd : Expected amount of riverbed sinkage (m)

A/Tsw : Scour depth (m)
Hf : Design water depth during a flood (m)

AHf : Water depth increase with respect to H during a flood (m)

AHsf \ Scour depth during a flood from the scoured line at ordinary times
(this amount is assumed to be filled after the flood.) (m)

Ba, BJ : Width of main body at a or a' (m)

Bb, Bb : Width of main body at b or b' (m)
vn : Maximum flow velocity at ordinary times (m/s)

Vf : Maximum flow velocity during a flood (m/s)

- 59 -
 yH . W. L. a
xrM. W.L. a
< a
- vM W. r
^ < r~«pr - z Present riverbed
i a:
vr"
\
x\ — b
3? Y Future riverbed <o b
b Scoured line
Scoured line at
ordinary times "I during a flood

Figure C. 2.2.19 The Way to Take Water Depth Around a Pier

2.2.8 Buoyancy or Uplift

(1) The buoyancy or uplift shall be set appropriately considering the pore water and water
level variations.

(2) The buoyancy or uplift shall act in the vertical direction. The structure shall be loaded
with the buoyancy or uplift which will bring about the most adverse condition in the
design.

(1) The buoyancy refers to the force brought about by the static water pressure acting
upward on the bottom of the structure in which pore water exists in the ground or
between the ground and structure. The uplift refers to the upward force brought about
by the water level difference between front and rear of the structure or by a temporary
water level rise around the structure due to a surge.

(2) An example in which the action of buoyancy or uplift is obvious is shown in Figure C.
2.2.20, and an example in which it is not obvious is shown in Figure C. 2.2.21.

If the action of buoyancy or uplift is obvious, it should be considered , Even if their

action is not obvious, it is assumed that these forces may act due to water permeation
over many years or the ground contact conditions of the structure. Therefore, it is
desirable to design considering this action to be on the safe side. For example,
buoyancy or uplift should be considered in the stability calculation in the case of
toppling and slide, but it can be ignored in the case of supports.

g n
° ."o V '
o In a ground of sand or gravel layers, the water
.0 permeability is so high that the water pressure at the
®
.0
o structure bottom is about the same as the water head.
o
Vo
.o
o o 0

Figure C. 2.2.20 Case where the Action of Buoyancy or Uplift is Obvious

- 60 -
 „ A A

11
! Impermeable layer
of cohesive soil $
i Impermeable layer
of cohesive soil
Impermeable layer
of uncracked rock Compact gravel layer

(a ) ( b)

Figure C. 2.2.21 Case where the Action of Buoyancy or Uplift is not Obvious

2.2.9 Wind Load

(1 ) The wind load shall be set appropriately considering the location, topography, ground
surface conditions at the bridging site and the structural properties and section form of
the bridge.

(2) Suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges and other flexible bridges and especially
flexible structural members shall be designed considering the dynamic influence of
wind.

(3) When designing in accordance with the provision in (4) and (5), (1) is deemed to be
satisfied.

(4) The wind load acting on the superstructure shall be taken as a horizontal load acting
perpendicular to the bridge axis and shall be loaded to bring about the maximum stress
for the structural members to be designed. When noise barriers are installed, the wind
load may be reduced according to the wind characteristics and the structure of the noise
barriers.

1) Steel girder
The wind load shall be used given in Table 2.2.10, per unit length in the
longitudinal direction to the bridge axis.

Table 2.2.10 Wind Load on Steel Girder (kN/m)

Section form Wind load

1 < BID < 8 [4.0 - 0.2 ( B/ D ) ] D 6.0
8 < BID 2 AD > 6.0

Here
B: Total bridge width (m) (See Figure 2.2.5.)
D: Total bridge height (m) (See Table 2.2.11.)

- 61 -
 B

Figure 2.2.5 B: Total Bridge Width

Table 2.2.11 D: Total Bridge Height

Wall-type rigid guard

Guard fence Others
fence

ji
D: Total bridge height Cl

2) Truss
The wind load shall be used given in Table 2.2.12, per 1 m of effective vertical
projected area on the windward side. For a typical double main structure truss,
however, the wind load given in Table 2.2.13 may be used per unit length of the
chord member on the windward side, measured in the longitudinal direction to the
bridge axis.

Table 2.2.12 Wind Load Acting on Double Main Structure Truss (kN/m2)

When live load is applied 1.25

Truss
When no live load is applied 2.5 / -y/ j
()

When live load is applied 1.5

Bridge floor
When no live load is applied 3.0

where 0.1 < <J) < 0.6.

Here

<t> : Solidity factor of truss (ratio of projected truss area to the outer truss
frame area)

- 62 -
 Table 2.2.13 Wind Load on Typical Double Main Structure Truss (kN/m)

Chord member Wind load

Loaded When live load is applied 1.5 + 1.5D + 1.25 VM > 6.0
chord When no live load is applied 3.0£> + 2.5VA& > 6.0
Non-loaded When live load is applied 1.25VM? > 3.0
chord When no live load is applied
^
2.5^ U 3.0

where 7 < AJd < 40.

Here

D: Total height of bridge floor (m). This excludes the height of the portion
overlapping a chord member as seen from the perpendicular direction
(see Figure 2.2.6).

h: Height of chord member (m)

A: Main structure height from the center of bottom chord member to the
center of top chord member (m)

Wall-type rigid guard

fence \n Bridge guard fence
-
___J 5 other than the wall type
rigid guard fence
£

A
1
\ - <

i
2%
Stringer Chord member
Floor beam
Floor beam Stringer
Chord member
D~ D\ ~ h
(a) Deck truss ( b) Through truss

Figure 2.2.6 D: Total Height of the Bridge Floor

3) Bridges of other types

For the wind load acting on the girder provision, 1) or 2) shall be applied according
to the shape of the girder.

The wind load acting on a structural member not stipulated in 1) or 2) shall be used
given in Table 2.2.14 according to the section form. When a live load is applied, a
wind load for vehicles 1.5 kN/m shall be acted at the position of 1.5 m above the

- 63 -
 bridge surface.

Table 2.2.14
Wind Load Acting on a Structural Member of a Bridge Other Than the Steel Girder or
Double Main Structure Truss (kN/m2)

Wind load
Section form of member Member on Member on lee
windward side side
When live load is applied 0.75 0.75
Circular
When no live load is applied 1.5 1.5
When live load is applied 1.5 0.75
Rectangular
When no live load is applied 3.0 1.5

4) Parallel bridges
When steel girder bridges lie in parallel, the wind load in Table 2.2.10 shall be
appropriately corrected considering the influence of the bridges on each other.

(5) The wind load directly acting on the substructure shall be taken as a horizontal load
acting in the perpendicular and longitudinal direction to the bridge axis. This load
shall not be acted in both directions at the same time. The wind load shall be used
given in Table 2.2.15 per effective vertical projected area facing to the wind.
2
Table 2.2.15 Wind Load Acting on Substructure (kN/m )

Section form of main body Wind load

Circular When live load is imposed 0.75
Oval When no live load is imposed 1.5
When live load is imposed 1.5
Rectangular
When no live load is imposed 3.0

(1) Wind characteristics at the bridging point and the structural characteristics and
cross-sectional profile of the bridge shall be considered appropriately when setting the
wind load.

The influence of wind on the bridge includes static wind load, gust response, divergent
oscillation and vortex excitation. These factors may bring about stress. As a result,
the bridge might deform or sway. Therefore, the bridge should be designed so that
these factors will not damage the safety and serviceability of the bridge.

The speed of natural wind varies both in time and in space, Therefore, the wind force
acting on the bridge also varies, but it may be divided into a constant force and a

- 64 -
 varying force with respect to time. The former is called the static wind load. The
varying force due to the speed variations of natural wind causes the structure to sway
and this is called the gust response. The influence of the static wind load and gust
response, can be considered using the wind load, which is obtained by multiplying the
static wind load by the gust response factor.

Since the static wind load acts on, and the gust response occurs in, their influence
should be considered with every bridge.

For the steel girder or the two main trusses, it is desirable that the wind load per unit
length in the bridge axis direction is not lower than the minimum given in Table 2.2. 10
or 2.2.13 in order to keep the horizontal stiffness.

(2) A structure may sway due to the wind-induced vortices around it (vortex excitation), or
the sway of the structure itself may bring about an aerodynamic force that promotes the
sway, which therefore will suddenly become large (divergent oscillation), For a small
or medium bridge or a structural member that hardly deflects, the threshold of wind
speed above which these oscillations occur is high in ordinary cases, so problems
seldom occur. However, these oscillations may occur with a suspension bridge,
cable-stayed bridge, a bridge that easily deflects or a structural member that easily
deflects. Therefore, divergent oscillation and vortex excitation should also be
considered with a bridge and structural member that easily deflects.

For divergent oscillation and vortex excitation, the wind characteristics at the bridging
point and the structural characteristics of the bridge should be considered appropriately
so as to estimate the threshold wind speed and oscillation amplitude. If, as a result, it
can be judged that the threshold wind speed is high enough compared to the wind speed
that is likely to occur during the service life of that bridge or that the vibrations will
cause no hindrance to the safety or serviceability of the bride, it may be evaluated that
the required performance is secured.

The structural members with which vortex excitation is concerned include the hangers
of an arch bridge and the cables of a cable-stayed bridge. Of these, the design of the
hangers of an arch bridge is stipulated in the Volume on Steel Bridges, Sections 13.7
and 14.6.6.

For particular examinations, the “Wind Resistant Design Manual for Road Bridges”
(Japan Road Association, 2008.1) is informative.

(3) Wind load will be different from bridge to bridge, but it is not always thought advisable
to calculate wind load according to detailed provisions, because wind load has only a

- 65 -
 slight effect on the design of a small or medium bridge with short spans. Therefore, it
is stipulated that a standard wind load may be used. However, adequate investigations
are required if the wind load has a large influence and the design reference wind speed
is expected to exceed 40 m/s.

(4) The wind load acting on the superstructure is determined based on the drag force in the
perpendicular due to horizontally blowing winds and the influence of wind speed
variations is also considered to decide the wind load.
0
The wind load p acting per unit area (kN/m ) can be found by Equation C. 2.2.18 and
•

using the design reference wind speed Ud (m/s), air density p (= 1.23 kg/m ), drag force
coefficient Cd and gust response factor G.

1
p = - pU ]CdG (C. 2.2.18)

where the gust response factor G is a factor to correct for the influence of wind speed
variations. The wind load per unit length in the longitudinal direction to the bridge
axis, P (kN/m), can be found by multiplying this wind load p by the effective vertical
projected area of the superstructure per unit length in the bridge axis direction, An
(m2/m).

P = pAn (C. 2.2.19)

1) Design reference wind speed

The speed of wind varies both in time and in space, and it can be divided into a
mean wind speed and varying wind speed around the mean wind speed. The mean
wind speed considered in the design is called the design reference wind speed.
The influence of varying wind speeds is considered as the gust response factor
described later. Wind speed varies with the geographical location, topological and
ground surface conditions around, and the height of the bridging position. In other
words, the wind speed in midair is thought constant irrespective of ground surface
conditions, but the wind speed decreases with the altitude from the ground due to
the influence of the topography and ground surface roughness. Given the same
wind speed in midair, at the same altitude close to the ground surface, the mean
wind speed is higher above the sea surface or other smooth surface than above a
residential zone where high buildings are concentrated. The design reference
wind speed is generally set considering these influences, but in setting the standard
wind load, 40 m /s was taken as the design reference wind speed.

- 66 -
2) Drag force coefficient
a) Steel girder

For the wind load on a superstructure having girders with I-section, 7i-section
or box section in the main structure, the wind load on a steel girder shall be
applied.

For a steel girder, the drag force coefficient decreases with the ratio, B/D , of
the overall bridge width (B) to the overall bridge height ( D ). Therefore, the
drag force coefficient of a steel girder is stipulated as follows:

2 A - 0 A( B/ D ) 1 < B/ D < 8
Cd (C. 2.2.20)
1.3 8 B/ D

When the cross sectional profile varies along the axis direction, the values of B
and D for the average cross section of each span, should be used, For
example, for a bridge with 3 spans and continuously varying sections, the
values of B and D should be determined from the cross section at the span
center for the side spans and from the cross sections at the 1/4-points of the
span for the central span.

b) Truss

For a truss section, the drag force coefficient decreases with the solidity factor
</) (ratio of projected truss area to the outer truss frame area).

Therefore, the drag force coefficient of two main trusses is stipulated as

follows:

C, = 1.35/ V? (C. 2.2.21)

where 0.1 < ( j) < 0.6

As the dimensions of typical two main trusses, h (m) for the chord member
height, A (m) for the main truss height and panel length, 0.8/z (m) for the
diagonal member width, 1.4/1 (m) for the diagonal member length, and 0.5h
(m) for the vertical member width are taken. Then, the effective vertical
projected area per panel of the truss is:

2hxA+ 0.8/z x 1.4/1 + 0.5hxA = 3.62/z /L (m2)

- 67 -
 (See Figure C. 2.2.22.) 4hA (m ) is taken to give an allowance for gussets.
On the other hand, the outer frame area per panel of the truss is A x ( A + h )
(m ). Therefore, considering An h , the filling factor (f> is:

4h .h
t
<> =
A+ h
<4 —A
Substituting this into Equation C. 2.2.21 gives the drag force coefficient of
typical two main trusses as follows:

Cd = 0.68 JI/ h (C. 2.2.22)

where 7< A/ /z < 40

When the truss dimensions are quite different from the above, the filling factor
<j) should be found faithfully and the drag force coefficient is calculated by
Equation C. 2.2.21.

For the trussed bridge deck, the standard value of drag force coefficient is
taken to be 1.6.

I*
0.5 h

1A
T
A

Figure C. 2.2.22 Dimensions of Typical Double Main Structure Truss

c) Other types of bridges

For the arch members, stiffening girders, hangers and posts of an arch bridge,
1.6 and 0.8 of drag force coefficient values should be applied to the windward
and leeward members, respectively, in the case of a square cross section. For
circular cross sections, 0.8 of drag force coefficient value should be applied to
both windward and leeward members. A value of 1.6 for the drag force
coefficient of the deck of an arch bridge should be applied.

- 68 -
 For the bridge girder portion of a suspension or cable-stayed bridge, the drag
force coefficient of a steel girder or two main trusses should be applied
according to its shape. For a tower, 1.6 and 0.8 of drag force coefficient
values should be taken to the windward and leeward members, respectively.
For cables and hangers, 0.8 of drag force coefficient value should be applied to
both windward and leeward members. For a tower, it is desirable to correct
the value of drag coefficient appropriately according to the sectional profile.

d) Live load

The drag force coefficient for a live load should be 1.6.

3) Gust response factor

Natural wind is a turbulent flow whose speed varies both in time and in space.
Therefore, a varying drag caused by the varying wind speed acts on a bridge in
addition to the drag force caused by the mean wind speed. The deformation or
swing of a structure due to the varying drag force is called the gust response and its
effect is considered in terms of a gust response factor. The ratio of the standard
deviation of the varying wind speed to the mean wind speed is called the turbulence
intensity, and the gust response factor increases with this turbulence intensity.
The turbulence intensity of wind is larger at a lower altitude and for a greater
ground surface roughness. In setting the value of gust response factor, a wind
above the sea was assumed and 1.9 was taken as a standard value. Above a rural
zone, residential zone or large town, the wind turbulence intensity is high and the
gust response factor is large compared to above the sea. However, this is thought
to be compensated for in terms of wind load because the design reference wind
speed above these areas is lower than above the sea.

4) Wind load per unit area

From 1) through 3), the wind load acting on a steel girder per unit area is as
follows:

_ j4.0 - 0.20( BlDfjzNlm 2 ) \ < B/ D < %

P ~ (C. 2.2.23)
\ 2 A{kN / m 2 ) 8 B/ D

In a similar way, the wind load acting on two main trusses per unit area is as
follows:

P=
2.5/ yfij> (kN/ m } - -Truss, where 0.1 < <f> < 0.6
2
(C. 2.2.24)
3.0 (kN /w 2 } • Bridge deck
/ -

- 69 -
 For the standard truss described in 2) b), Equation C. 2.2.24 can be rewritten as:

1.25 TJA/ h [k N / m } -Truss, where 7 A,/ h

2
• 40
(C. 2.2.25)
^ W/ m ) -Bridge deck
3.0 ( 2
•

For other structural members with a square or circular cross section, the wind load
acting on them per unit area is 3.0 kN/m and 1.5 kN/m , respectively.

For a situation where a live load is imposed, it was thought unnecessary to think
about the maximum wind pressure and it was stipulated to impose half of the wind
pressure. Similarly, the wind load while a live load is imposed is taken to be 1.5
kN/m2.

5) Effective vertical projected area

The effective vertical projected area is the mean projected area of a structure per
longitudinal unit length of the structure, projected against a plane perpendicular to
the direction of action of a wind load. For a main girder, stringer, deck slab, curb,
bridge guard fence, and live load, the projected area of the windward side only
should be considered. However, when an arch bridge has arch members,
stiffening girders, hangers, posts and other members arranged in the leeward as
well and if a suspension or cable-stayed bridge has towers, cables and other
members arranged in the leeward, the projected area of the windward side of the
leeward members should also be considered.

a) Steel girders

For a steel girder, the effective vertical projected area of the bridge guard
fences should be added to the height from the bottom of the steel girder to the
top of the curb. For a wall-type rigid guard fence, its effective vertical
projected area is its height. For bridge guard fences other than the wall-type
rigid guard fence, their effective vertical projected area is taken to be 0.4 m,
considering their standard profile.

b) Double main structure truss

The effective vertical projected areas should be determined for the trusses and
bridge deck, respectively.

In the standard truss described in 2), it may be assumed that the area of the
diagonal members and vertical members is equally divided between the
loading chord (chord members to which deck slabs are attached) and the

- 70 -
 unloading chord (chord members to which no deck slabs are attached). In that
case, the effective vertical projected area per panel of the truss is mutually
equal between on the loading and unloading chord sides and it is 2h (m /m).'

For the bridge deck, the effective vertical projected area of the bridge guard
fences or noise barriers should be added to the height from the bottom of the
stringer to the top of the curb. However, the portion overlapping with the
chord members shall not be included.

c) Live load

It is taken as standard that the live load would be distributed with an effective
vertical projected area of 1 m /m from 0.6 to 2.4 m above the bridge surface.

6) Wind load per unit length

The wind load per unit length as a horizontal load acting perpendicular to the
bridge axis should be calculated by multiplying the wind load per unit length by the
effective vertical projected area. For the steel girder and two main trusses, the
respective lower limits given in Tables 2.2.10 and 2.2.13 are set for the wind load
per unit length in the bridge axis direction for keeping the horizontal stiffness.

For the steel girder, the wind load acting while a live load is imposed may not be
considered because it is small compared to the wind load acting while no live load
is imposed.

7) Loading pattern
The wind load per unit length should be imposed at the centroid of the windward
effective vertical projected area of the structure in such a manner as to cause the
maximum stress in the structural member under consideration. For the towers and
cables of a suspension or cable-stayed bridge, however, the wind load per unit
length of each member may be imposed on the windward and leeward members
respectively. How to distribute the wind load per unit length along the
longitudinal direction is yet to be discussed. However, considering that the wind
load is used also for keeping the horizontal stiffness of the bridge, it is stipulated in
the same manner as before that the load distribution should take the form as to
cause the maximum stress in the member under consideration.

8) Wind load acting on a bridge having noise barriers

It is conceivable that residential and other kinds of buildings are concentrated

around a bridge on which noise barriers are to be installed. In this case, it is

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 thought that the mean wind speed is low and the turbulence intensity is large
compared with above the sea because of the influence of the buildings. As
indicated by Equation C. 2.2.18, the design reference wind speed, which is related
to the mean wind speed, has a larger influence on the wind load than the gust
response factor, which is related to the turbulence intensity. For the reason above,
the wind load per unit area given in 4) may be reduced to 0.8 times for a bridge on
which noise barriers are to be installed because buildings are concentrated around.
In other words, D in Table 2.2.10 or 2.2.13 should include the noise barrier height
and the wind load should be reduced that value to 0.8 times. However, the wind
load per unit length should be equal to or larger than the lower limit given in the
respective tables. When the noise barriers have a structure that will not transfer
wind loads larger than a certain value to the bridge body, the wind load may be
determined appropriately considering that structure.

With a noise barrier, it has been ascertained by experiments that the leeward wind
load value is very small, so the wind load has to be imposed only on the windward
side. For a live load overlapping the noise barriers, no wind loads need be
imposed. Table 2.2.13 gives the wind load acting on a loaded chord while a live
load is imposed. Since this wind load includes 1.5 kN/m as the wind load acting
on the live load, this may be excluded if noise barriers are installed.

9) Wind load on juxtaposed bridges

For juxtaposed steel girder bridges, the wind load acting on the girders of the
upstream and downstream bridges will be different from the case where they are
erected individually. For the correction for juxtaposed bridges, Figure C. 2.2.23
shows the horizontal center-to-center distance Sh and vertical center-to-center
distance Sv of bridges. This correction should be considered when Sh l .5 Bi and
Sv 2.5 D\. The juxtaposition effect varies according to their positional relation.
In general, the wind load calculated using Table 2.2.10 should be multiplied by the
correction factor for the juxtaposition effect obtained from Table C. 2.2.6. Here,
when the positional relation between bridge girders varies along the bridge axis, the
correction factor for juxtaposition should be determined using the values of Sh , Sv,
overall width B , and overall height D at the position of half span length of the
bridge. For the design of the superstructure, the same correction should be made
for the two juxtaposed bridges irrespective of wind directions. However, when
the correction to the wind load acting on the superstructure that is used for
substructure design should be taken the two opposite wind directions perpendicular
to the bridge axis and made a correction separately for the wind ward bridge on one
side and the leeward bridge on the other side, for each wind direction.

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 The juxtaposition effect is somewhat different according to the cross-sectional
profile and the type of the bridge. Therefore, when a correction factor has been
found separately from wind tunnel experiments or the like, this may be used.

For truss bridges, winds get through them well, so the juxtaposition effect need not
be considered. For other types of bridges, the juxtaposition effect should be
considered similarly to the steel girder bridge or truss bridge according to the girder
profile in the same manner as when finding the wind load on an individual bridge.

Sh

B, Si
Di
2 — 2 2

B2 Bi The subscript 1 to the overall width

S\r ’’ 2
Dt -
2 2 B and overall height D means the
2
l larger value of the two bridges, and
- D2*
• I the subscript 2 means the smaller
value.
t

Figure C. 2.2.23 Positional Relation of Juxtaposed Bridges

Table C. 2.2.6 Correction Factor of Wind Load Acting on a Superstructure due to

Juxtaposition Effect
Correction factor of wind load due to juxtaposition effect
Superstructure design 1.3
Sh Windward Leeward
S/, < 0.55[
> 1.3 1.3
Sv < 0.5D2 0.3
Substructure design
0.55! < ,SA < 1.5.B2 1.3 0.5£>2 < Sv < 1.5D2 1.0
1.5D2 < SV < 2.SD\ 1.2
1.552 < Sh < 1.52?! 1.3 1.0

where Sh is the horizontal center-to-center distance and Sv is the vertical

center-to-center distance of juxtaposed bridges, Their correction shall be
considered when Sh < l .5 B\ and Sv 2.5 D\ .

(5) For the wind load directly acting on the substructure as well, only the drag force is taken
up and the wind directions are restricted to the horizontal two directions, namely, the
perpendicular direction and the longitudinal direction. For the design reference wind
speed and gust response factor, the same value as of the superstructure is thought. The
value of drag coefficient depends on the profile of the member. Here, it was classified
into profile groups between which a fair difference is conceivable and was set to 0.8 for

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 circular and oval profiles and 1.6 for square profiles. For other profiles, it may be
determined appropriately according to the judgment of the engineer.

When two columns are arranged along the wind direction, they should be dealt as
follows. When the columns are distant by more than twice the column diameter, they
should be considered as two single structural members existing and impose the wind
load given in Table 2.2.15 should be also imposed on the leeward member. In other
cases, the wind load imposed on the leeward member should be half the value given in
Table 2.2.15.

2.2.10 Effect of Temperature Change

(1) The reference temperature and temperature range used for design shall be set with
appropriate consideration of the type of the structure, environmental conditions at the
bridging point, materials and dimensions of structural members.

(2) When designing in accordance with the provision in (3) through (5), (1) is deemed to
be satisfied.

(3) The reference temperature used for design shall generally be +20°C. In cold regions,
it shall generally be +10°C.

(4 ) The temperature range used for design shall be as follows, and the temperature
difference in a structure shall be considered as the difference from the reference
temperature.

1) Steel structures
The temperature range of a whole steel structure, shall be from -10°C to +50°C.
In cold regions, it shall be from -30°C to +50°C.

The relative temperature difference between members or different portions of a

member shall be 15 degrees.

2) Steel girder bridges with concrete deck slabs

If it is necessary to consider the effect of temperature difference between the
concrete deck slabs and steel girder, that temperature difference shall be 10
degrees and the temperature distribution shall be uniform in the steel girder and in
the concrete slabs.

3) Concrete structures
The temperature difference of a whole concrete structure shall be generally

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 determined from the reference temperature considering the mean air temperature
by the regions. In general cases, the temperature difference shall be 15 degrees.
If the minimum dimension of the cross section is 700 mm or more, the above
standard may be 10 degrees.

The relative temperature difference between the deck slabs and other members
shall be 5 degrees and the temperature distribution shall be uniform in the deck
slabs and in the other members, respectively.

4) Bearing and expansion joint

Table 2.2.16 shall be used notwithstanding the provisions in 1) through 3) for the
temperature range used for calculating the displacement of a bearing and the
amount of expansion or contraction of the expansion joint,

Table 2.2.16
Temperature Range Used for Calculating the Amount of Displacement of a Bearing
and the Amount of Expansion or Contraction of an Expansion Joint

Temperature range
Bridge type
Mild region Cold region
Reinforced concrete bridge
Prestressed concrete bridge -5°C ~ +35°C -15°C ~ +35°C
Steel bridge (deck bridge) -10°C ~ +40°C -20°C ~ +40°C
Steel bridge (through bridge and bridge
with steel plate floor) -10°C ~ +50°C -20°C ~ +40°C
5) For the structure in the water or soil, temperature variations need not be
considered.
(5) The coefficient of linear expansion used for design shall be as follows:

1) The coefficient of linear expansion of steel in a steel structure shall be 12 x 10 6.

'

2) The coefficient of linear expansion of steel and concrete in a concrete structure

shall be 10 x 10 6.
'

3) When considering the composite action of a steel girder and concrete slab, the
coefficient of linear expansion of steel and concrete shall be 12 x 10 6.
'

(1) Expansion, contraction, warping and other kinds of deformation occur in the bridge due
to temperature variations. The amount of deformation depends upon the temperature
change. Therefore, the reference temperature and temperature range shall be set with
appropriate consideration of the type of structure, environmental conditions at the
bridging point, and materials and dimensions of the structural members. The

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 temperature range used for design need not always be determined indiscriminately
according to the above conditions and the type and intensity of other loads in
combination with them. Therefore, when an investigation is done especially on these
conditions, the temperature variation range may be determined according to the actual
situation.

(3) The reference temperature is the temperature at which the shape and dimensions of the
structure shown in design drawings accord with the actual shape, as well as the
temperature used as the reference when considering the effect of temperature in design.
Considering that the air temperature characteristics differ by district, the value of
reference temperature should be taken to be +20°C and +10°C, respectively for the mild
districts and the cold districts (Hokkaido, Tohoku and other districts).

(4) A standard for temperature difference necessary for calculation is given.

1) The temperature range of a steel structure differs by district. Therefore, the land
should be divided into mild districts and cold districts (Hokkaido, Tohoku and other
districts), and -10°C to +50°C (60 degrees of temperature difference between the
highest and lowest) should be taken as standard for the former and -30°C to +50°C
(80 degrees of temperature difference between the highest and lowest) should be
taken for the latter.
If a steel structure is fabricated in such a manner that no stresses will be present at
the reference temperature, the difference between the reference temperature and the
temperature during erection need not be considered in design , However, if an
erection method that develops no stresses during erection is used, the difference
between the erection temperature and reference temperature should be considered
in the design if necessary

For a tied arch, arch with a stiffening girder, rigid frame, bridge with steel plate
floor, the arch portion, hangers and other portions are exposed to direct sunlight
while the ties, stiffening girder and other portions are shaded from the sun. In
such a bridge, the temperature difference between the different portions becomes
large in the summer, and it may be necessary to consider the stresses caused by this.
For such a case, 15 degrees should generally be taken although the relative
temperature difference between members or across a member is indeterminate
depending on the environmental conditions at the bridging point and the painted
color.

2) Because of the composite action in a steel girder bridge with concrete slabs, there
may be cases where the effect of the relative temperature difference between the

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 slab concrete and steel girders cannot be neglected. In this case, that temperature
difference should be taken to be 10 degrees and it should be stipulated to make a
check when the slab concrete is hotter and when the steel girders are hotter,
respectively. For the temperature distribution, the patterns shown in Figure C.
2.2.24 are conceivable. In pattern (a), the temperature difference takes the form of
a step at the boundary between the two, and this situation should be considered .

AT = 10 degrees

i
r
(a) ( b) ( c)

Figure C. 2.2.24 Temperature Difference Distribution

3) In a concrete structure, a temperature stress which is larger than assumed in the
design can develop if the reference temperature is different from the temperature
when the structure is constructed, but this temperature stress will be alleviated by
concrete creep and drying shrinkage. Therefore, when considering the
temperature variations of a whole structure, the temperature difference should be
taken to be ±15 degrees, respectively, irrespective of the structure temperature
under construction.
A temperature difference may develop across a member depending on the structure
type, topological and meteorological conditions.

According to an actual measurement, a temperature difference of 5 to 15 degrees

developed between the top and bottom faces of a slab under the effect of direct
sunlight as shown in Figure C. 2.2.25 (a) while the temperature distribution in the
web is almost constant. Therefore, the temperature distribution should be taken as
shown in Figure C. 2.2.25 (b) and the temperature difference should be taken to be
5 degrees.
5 to 15 degrees AT=5 degrees

c- w
(a ) Temperature (b ) assumed
distribution temperature
in girder distribution for
cross-section calculation

Figure C. 2.2.25 Temperature Difference Between Slab and Girder

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 The unit stress developing in the girder is calculated from the measured
temperature distribution, and this value of 5 degrees is calculated to develop a unit
stress that is not much different from the calculated unit stress.

4) The temperature range used to calculate the amount of bearing displacement and
the amount of expansion or contraction of the expansion joint is different in
numerical value from that of (4). This range was determined based on measured
results of the amount of expansion or contraction on actual bridges.
(5) The coefficient of linear expansion is given for various materials and these values are
necessary to calculate the stress caused by temperature variations.

2.2.11 Effect of Earthquakes

For the effect of earthquakes, the Volume on Seismic Design shall be applied.

The effect of earthquakes shall always be considered as a load in the bridge design. The
Volume on Seismic Design shall be applied for particular matters.

2.2.12 Snow Load

In a snowy region, the snow load shall be set appropriately considering the snow conditions
and actual management situation at the bridging point.

Snow on the bridge shall generally be removed. When the snow cannot be removed
completely, an appropriate snow load due to the actual management situation should be taken
at the bridging point.

The cases where the snow load is required to consider in Japan are usually the following two.
The first is the case where vehicles move freely on sufficiently compressed snow, and the
second is the case where especially heavy snow coverage makes motor vehicle traffic
impossible and the snow alone imposes a load. In an intermediate situation, for example, in
the case where motor vehicle movement is somewhat restricted due to snow coverage, design
is safely executed according to either of the two above.

In the first case, the chance of the prescribed live load to move will become very small when
the snow coverage reaches to a certain level. Therefore, as the snow load to take in addition
to the prescribed live load, it is thought to be sufficient in ordinary cases to take 1 kN/ trf
(about 150-mm thickness of compressed snow). This snow load is a special load that is
qualified as a primary load and should be imposed over the entire bridge surface.

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In the second case, the snow load is obtained by the following equation:

SW = P Zs- ( C . 2.2.26 )

where SW : Snow load (kN/m2)

P: Mean unit weight of snow (kN/m3)
Zs: Design snow coverage depth (m)

The mean unit weight of snow is different in various regions, seasons. However, in the
snowy regions, 3.5 kN/m may generally be used. For the design snow coverage depth, an
appropriate value should be set taking into account the historical snow coverage records and
snow coverage conditions at the bridging point. In ordinary cases, it is adequate to consider
the annual maximum snow coverage depth at a recurrence interval of 10 years.

With a through truss, through arch with relatively long spans, there have been cases where the
snow layers accumulated on the bridge surface and upper lateral bracings are saturated with
moisture due to warm air and rainfall in early spring, resulting in stresses larger than the
yield point in parts of the lateral bracings or chord members. Therefore, special
consideration is needed in deciding the snow load and selecting a sectional profile for these
structure types.

2.2.13 Effect of Ground Displacement and Support Movement

(1) Effect of ground displacement on the substructure

Where ground displacement is expected after completion of the substructure due to

consolidation settlement of the ground or for other reasons, its effect shall be
appropriately considered.

(2) Effect of support movement on the superstructure

With a statically indeterminate structure, the supports may displace or rotate over a long
period due to consolidation settlement of the ground or for other reasons. If such
support movements are expected, their effect shall be appropriately considered.

(3) When designing in accordance with the provisions in (4), (2) is deemed to be satisfied.

(4) When considering the effect of support movement, the maximum amount of movement
shall be estimated and the sectional forces shall be calculated. Elasticity calculation may
be used for calculating the sectional forces.

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 In this case, for concrete bridges, 50% of the sectional forces obtained by elasticity
calculation shall be used in the design calculation. For steel bridges, the sectional
forces obtained by elasticity calculation shall be used in the design calculation without
modifications.

(1) Examples of ground displacement include:

1) Consolidation settlement of the ground around the foundation

2) Lateral movement of soft ground due to back fill
3) Scouring and settlement of stream bed due to river flow and waves
Where these are expected after completion of the structure, they shall be appropriately
considered in the design.

(2) For a continuous girder, a pier of rigid frame construction or other statically
indeterminate structure, the foundation structure may settle, move horizontally, rotate or
otherwise displace due to land subsidence or other causes. This may bring about support
movements and the unit member stress increases in parts. Therefore this effect shall be
appropriately considered.

(4) For a concrete bridge, its unit stress decreases fairly by the effect of concrete creep.
With the creep coefficient taken to be 2.0, the stress becomes about 50% of the value
obtained by elasticity calculation. In this context, 50% of the calculated value may be
taken as the design sectional force if the calculation is to be carried out without
considering the effect of creep. However, this does not apply if exact calculation is to
be carried out considering the effect of creep from the beginning.

For a steel bridge, there is no creep or other phenomena as encountered with the
concrete bridge. So, the sectional force obtained by elasticity calculation is taken as
the design sectional force without modifications.

With a rigid frame structure with a leg length that is very short compared to the beam
length, special attention should be paid to the fact that large stresses can occur in parts
due to support movement or rotation.

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2.2.14 Wave Pressure

(1) The wave pressure shall be set appropriately considering the water depth and wave
properties where the structure is to be installed.

(2) When designing in accordance with the provision in (3) and (4), (1) is deemed to be
satisfied.

(3) The wave pressure of breaking waves against a vertical wall is calculated by Equation
2.2. 11. The wave pressure shall be calculated to be distributed uniformly from the
height of 1.25/Jo above the water level to the seabed.

-
p - 1.5 - w H 0 (2.2.11)

where p\ Wave force of breaking waves (kN/m )

w: Unit weight of seawater (kN/m )
HQ . Wave height of offshore waves (m )

(4) The wave pressure acting on a bridge pier in the stream may be generally neglected.

(1) The equation in this clause is Hiroi's formula. This wave force does not indicate a
local wave force but is thought to represent the mean wave force to which in principle a
breakwater is subjected as a whole. On this point, the bridge pier is out of the
applicable scope. However, this formula was employed because it was thought to
make no practical difference.

Because this formula represents the wave force of breaking waves, it can be applied
only when the water depth is less than twice the wave height. The waves acting above
this limit act as a clapotis. In recent years, new methods have been proposed to
calculate wave pressure continuously, from clapotis to breaking waves, with high
precision, irrespective of the applicable scope. In fact, different methods should be used
as appropriate to calculate wave pressure depending on the conditions. For particular
examinations, the “Technical Standards for Port Facilities with Commentaries”
(published by the Ports & Harbours Association of Japan in September 2007) is
informative.

(4) For the bridge piers installed in the stream, lake, the water depth is generally shallow.
Therefore, the effect of wave pressure is very small and negligible.

This is similar to the wave pressure from the waves caused by a vessel passing near.

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2.2.15 Centrifugal Load and Braking Load

(1) The centrifugal load and braking load shall be set appropriately considering the traffic
of mortor vehicles and track vehicles and the structural type of the bridge.

(2) When Designing in accordance with the provisions in (3) and (4), (1) is deemed to be
satisfied.

(3) As a centrifugal load, 8% of the vehicle load on the track shall act laterally at a height of
1.8 m above the rails only where there is a curved track. For a very light bridge or
other special cases, the centrifugal load of mortor vehicle shall also be considered.

(4) The braking load of mortor vehicles shall be considered for a very light bridge, the
presence of a track or other special cases. The braking load of mortor vehcles be shall
be 25 kN and shall act at a height of 1.8 m above the bridge surface in the forward
direction of automobiles. The braking load of the vehicles on the track shall be 10% of
the total of wheel loads and shall act at a height of 1.8 m above the rail level in the
forward direction of vehicles.

(3) Centrifugal load

The centrifugal load should be considered where there is a curved track. A centrifugal
load occurs on a bridge in a curved portion or when mortor vehicles turn. However,
the load value is very small and usually does not need to be considered. When there is
a curved track, 8% of the vehicle load is sopposed to act as the centrifugal load. The
Design Standard for Railway Bridges stipulates 12% for a radius of curvature of 1,000
m or less and 8% for 1,000 to 2,000 m. Therefore, 8% should be considered to be an
appropriate value.

In deciding the height of action of the centrifugal load, 1.8 m should be taken
considering the vehicle height and allowing for some safety.

(4) Braking load

The braking load is hardly needed to be considered on an ordinary road bridge.

However, in the design of a superstructure of very light dead weight or a trestle bent or
in other special cases, it is expected that this load needs consideration. A fairly large
load may be attained when there is a track. Therefore, the braking load should be
considered in such cases.

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 The braking load should be taken to be 10% of the design motor vehicle load or the total
of wheel loads of the vehicles on the track. The height of action should be taken at 1.8
m above the road surface.

2.2.16 Construction Load

To secure the safety of the bridge during its construction, the construction load shall be set
appropriately considering the construction method and the structure during construction and
appropriately investigating the effect of the dead weight, construction equipment, wind,
earthquakes.

The construction load is the load acting on the bridge during its construction. Depending on
the construction method, the stress due to this load may be quite different from the state after
construction or represent a larger value than the stress after construction. For the
superstructure, for example, buckling of the girder, a fall of the bridge, or other similar
situation can occur. For the substructure, the caisson foundation itself as well as the bridge
piers supporting the superstructure during cantilever erection and the flexible piers fixed by
hinges at the top, the dimensions of the main body and foundation are often determined by
considering the stability and the stress during construction and a section check. Therefore,
in designing a bridge, it is stipulated to determine the dead weight, construction equipment,
wind, earthquakes, temperature changes considering the construction method and the structure
during construction.

2.2.17 Collision Load

( 1) The collision load due to motor vehicles, driftwood, vessels shall be appropriately set.

(2) When designing in accordance with the provisions in (3) through (5), (1) is deemed to
be satisfied.

(3) Collision of motor vehicles

On the structural body with which motor vehicles may collide, a concrete wall or other
sufficient protective facility shall be provided. The design shall be executed assuming
that one of the following collision loads acts horizontally at a height of 1.8 m above the
road surface when such a protective facility cannot be provided,.

1,000 kN in the roadway direction, 500 kN in the roadway's transverse direction.

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(4) Collision of driftwood or the like

When driftwood or rafted goods may collide, the collision force calculated by Equation
2.2.12 shall be made to act at the level of the water surface.

- -
p - Q .l W v (2.2 . 12)

where P: Collision force (kN)

W\ Weight of rafted goods (kN)
v: Surface flow velocity (m/s)

(5) Collision of vessels

The collision load shall be set appropriately considering the size of plying vessels and
the vessel velocity at the collision.

(3) Like a elevated structure, when a structural body present on a road, there may be motor
vehicle collision and its damage causes a collapse of the bridge on some occasions.
Therefore, on a structural body with which motor vehicles may possibly collide, a
strong protective facility that is independent of the structural body itself should be
provided.

The strong protective facility shall have no effect on the structural body itself even
when an motor vehicle collides with it. The load-carrying capacity of the protective
facility may be 1,000 kN in the roadway direction and 500 kN in the road's transverse
direction when there is no sufficient clearance between the structural body and
protective facility. When enough space to absorb the motor vehicle collision energy is
secured between the structural body and protective facility, that value may be
appropriately reduced according to the size of the space.

When there can be no room for a strong protective facility since an existing road is
crossed over, the structural body itself shall have a sufficient load-carrying capacity
against the collision load. According to experiments, the collision load is fairly large
when the design load collides at the design speed. However, such a situation rarely
occurs, therefore the collision load in the absence of a strong protective facility is
decided referring to examples in foreign countries.

The height of action of the collision load is taken at 1.8 m for the same reason as 2.2.15.

(4) During a flood, driftwood as well as upstream wooden bridges and timber groins may
be carried away and do damage to downstream bridges.

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 The weight of drifted goods should be appropriately decided on investigation of
experiences of inhabitants near the bridging point, upstream bridges, structures in the
river, the situation of the mountain .

(5) Even when ship service takes place in the lower reaches of the river, a collision of a
small river vessel hardly influences the stability conditions of an ordinary substructure.
With a bridge pier erected in a part of the port area near the river mouth or in the sea, a
collision of a large steel vessel is expected. In this case, the influence of vessels must
be considered in the design.

In general, however, a vessel collision occurs when the vessel takes a wrong course due
to bad weather conditions or drifts because of engine troubles, so a collision at cruising
velocity hardly occurs. Therefore, the collision load should be decided on sufficient
investigation of these factors.

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 CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS

3.1 Steel Materials

(1) The steel materials shall have certain mechanical properties such as strength, elongation
and toughness, chemical composition, limitations on harmful ingredients, geometrical
dimensions such as thickness and warping, and quality.

(2) The steel materials given in Tables 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 are deemed to satisfy (1).

Table 3.1.1 Steel Materials (JIS)

Steel type Standard Steel material symbol
1) Steels JIS G 3101 Rolled steels for general SS400
structure
JIS G 3106 Rolled steels for welded SM400, SM490, SM490Y
structure SM520, SM570
JIS G 3114 Hot-rolled atmospheric SMA400 W, SMA490W
corrosion resisting steels for SMA570 W
welded structure
2) Steel JIS G 3444 Carbon steel tubes for general STK400, STK490
pipes structural purposes
JIS A 5525 Steel pipe piles SKK400, SKK490
JIS A 5530 Steel pipe sheet piles SKY400, SKY490
3) Steel JIS B 1186 Sets of a high strength F8T, F10T
fasteners hexagon bolt, hexagon nut and
plain washers for friction grip
joints
JIS B 1180 Hexagon head bolts and Strength divisions 4.6,
hexagon head screws 8.8, 10.9
JIS B 1181 Hexagon nuts and hexagon Strength divisions 4, 8, 10
thin nuts
4) Welding JIS Z 3211 Covered electrodes for mild
materials steel, high strength steel and
low temperature service steel
JIS Z 3214 Covered electrodes for
atmospheric corrosion resisting
steel
JIS Z 3312 MAG or MIG welding solid
wires for mild steel, high
strength steel, and low
temperature service steel
JIS Z 3315 Solid wires for C02 gas
shielded arc welding for
atmospheric corrosion resisting
steel

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 JIS Z 3320 Flux cored wires for CO2 gas
shielded arc welding of
atmospheric corrosion resisting
steel
JIS Z 3351 Submerged arc welding solid
wires for carbon steel and low
alloy steel
JIS Z 3352 Submerged Arc Welding
Fluxes
5) Castings JIS G 3201 Carbon steel forgings for SF490A, SF540A
General Use
JIS G 5101 Carbon steel castings SC450
JIS G 5102 Steel castings for welded SCW410, SCW480
structure
JIS G 5111 High tensile strength carbon SCMnlA, SCMn2A
steel castings and low alloy
steel castings for structural
purposes
JIS G 4051 Carbon Steels for Machine S35CN, S45CN
Structural Use
JIS G 5501 Gray iron castings FC250
JIS G 5502 Spheroidal graphite iron FCD400, FCD450
castings
6) Wire rods JIS G 3502 Piano wire rods SWRS
and JIS G 3506 High carbon steel wire rods SWRH
secondary JIS G 3536 Prestressing wires and strands SWPR1, SWPD1,
wire SWPR2
products SWPR7, SWPR 19
JIS G 3549 Wire ropes for structure
7) Steel bars JIS G 3112 Steel bars for Concrete SR235, SD295A,
Reinforcement SD295B
SD345
JIS G 3109 Prestressing steel bars SBPR785/1030
SBPR930/1080
SBPR930/1180
8) Others JIS B 1198 Headed studs Stud names 19 and 22

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 Table 3.1.2 Steel Materials (Other than JIS)
Steel type Standard Steel material symbol
Sets of a torshear type high strength bolt, S10T
hexagon nut and plain washers for friction
grip joints (Japan Road Association)
Steel
High strength draft bolts, hexagon nuts and BIOT, B8T
fasteners
plain washers for bearing connection,
conforming to the provisional standard
(Japan Road Association)
Secondary Parallel wire strands (Standard of Japanese
wire products Society of Steel Construction)
Covered parallel wire strands (Standard of
Japanese Society of Steel Construction)

(1 ) This clause stipulates the fundamental requirements for the steel material used for
bridges. The steel material should have certain safety of the entire structure and the
structural members of a bridge, durability, or certain properties and quality required for
the intended use of material such as weldability.

Bridges are designed based on the assumption of the properties and quality of the
materials used. Therefore, the steel materials shall have stable quality as well as the
required properties.

(2) The properties and quality of steel material are determined during their production. In
order to ensure such properties and quality, JIS and other standardized products are
generally used. As for the steel materials that conform to JIS or Japan Road
Association's standards, or that have been sufficiently proven through actual previous
use, their properties are clearly defined and their quality is normally higher than a
certain level. Thus, the material conforming to these standards are deemed to satisfy
(1). That is, the materials given in Tables 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 can be regarded as having the
required properties and quality by ascertaining their mill sheets.

New steels have been proposed for rationalizing manufacturing and erection processes,
or for improving the economic efficiency or durability. In applying these new steel
materials to a bridge, their properties having effects on the performance of the structure
should be qualified by experiments. Also, their quality should be ascertained to be equal
to JIS or other standards.

1) Steels for general structure

The conventionally used “rolled steels for general structure” and “rolled steels for
welded structure” are chosen. As for the “hot-rolled atmospheric corrosion resisting

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 steels for general structural purposes,” only the type W is chosen, which is usually
used in bare state.

2) Steel pipes

The “carbon steel tubes for general structural purposes,” “steel pipe piles” and
“steel pile sheet piles” are chosen, since they are now much used for steel pipe
construction.

Table C. 3.1.1 Mechanical Properties of Steel Pipes

Mechanical Tensile test Bending test Flattening test
\ property Type Yield point Tensile
Elongation (%)
Inner diameter Distance between
symbol or proof strength Test piece No.11 Test piece Bending (Z) denotes parallel plates
stress Test piece No.12 No.5
angle outer pipe ( D denotes outer
2
(N/mm2) (N/mm ) Longitudinal Lateral diameter.) pipe diameter.)
Material direction direction
Carbon steel 235 400 23 18 2
tubes for STK400 90° 6D D
or over or over or over or over 3
general
315 490 23 18 7
structural
purposes
STK490
or over or over or over or over 90° 6D —8
D

235 or 400 18 2
Steel pipe
SKK400
over or over or over —3
D
pile 315 490 7
SKK490 18
or over or over or over 8
2
°
235 or 400 18
SKY400 D
Steel pipe over or over or over 3
sheet pile 315 490 18 7
SKY490
or over or over or over 8°
3) Steel fasteners

As for the high strength bolts for friction grip joints, Classes 1 and 2 of JIS B 1186
shall generally be chosen.

Besides the ordinary high strength bolts stipulated in JIS, the “set of a high strength
hexagon bolt, hexagon nut and plain washers for friction grip joints” conforming to
the Japan Road Association Standard may be used in the same manner as the
ordinary bolts.

High strength draft bolts, hexagon nuts and plain washers for bearing connection
are stipulated to conform the Japan Road Association Standard “Provisional
Standard for Bearing Connection High Strength Drive Bolts, Hexagonal Nuts and
Plain Washers.”

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 The hexagonal bolts other than the high strength bolts used as finished bolts in a
bridge bearing support are stipulated to conform the annex to JIS B 1180, and the
three types of steel bolts in the strength divisions 4.6, 8.8 and 10.9 are chosen
considering past records. Also, hexagonal bolts for combination use are chosen.

4) Welding materials

The welding materials are desirable to have sufficient mechanical strength, to be

free from blowholes, cracks or other defects, to have deep penetration, and to offer
good workability.

The covered electrodes for mild steels and for high tensile strength steels are
stipulated in JIS Z 3211. The welding electrode of tensile strength of 420 N/mm
and 570 N/mm2 for hand welding is chosen here.

Even the same kind of standardized welding electrodes has various workability and
mechanical properties. Therefore, workability inspections, cracking tests, and
sampling tests concerning mechanical properties may be executed before use.

The moisture (including the crystal water) should be completely removed from the
coating material of the low hydrogen welding electrodes before use.

Welding materials for mild steel, high strength steel and low temperature service
steel are stipulated in JIS Z 3312. And also JIS Z 3313 is applicable.

The submerged arc welding solid wires and fluxes for carbon steel are stipulated in
JIS Z 3351 and JIS Z 3352, respectively. The quality divisions and testing methods
are stipulated in JIS Z 3183 for deposited metals obtained by the combination of a
wire and a flux.

The flux types are broadly classified into fused flux and bonded flux. For their
proper application, 18.4.2 of the Volume on Steel Bridges shall be referred.

The welding methods except for hand welding, gas shielded arc welding and
submerged arc welding are seldom stipulated in the JIS standards. Their actual uses
are also relatively few. Therefore, safety is desirable to be sufficiently investigated
before employing them.

The welding materials for weather resistant steels are stipulated in JIS Z 3214, JIS
Z 3315 and JIS Z 3320.

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5) Castings

Castings are used for bearing supports, drainage apparatus, guard fences, steel
connection keys, special expansion joints, and pins. The materials used for these
accessories have been diversified as the trend of structures is recently enlarging and
specializing. Castings with stable quality and large quantity are chosen.

The mechanical properties of castings are summarized in Table C. 3.1.2.

As for carbon steel forgings, SF490A and SF540A are chosen. As for carbon steel
castings and steel castings for welded structure, SC450, and both SCW410 and
SCW480 are chosen, respectively.

Low manganese steel castings contain Si and Mn and have higher toughness
compared to SC450. Class 1 SCMnlA, equivalent to SS490 in mechanical
properties, and Class 2 SCMn2A, equivalent to SM490, are chosen for these
castings. When required strength is superior to SC450, low manganese steel
castings shall generally be used.

For carbon steels for machine structural use, normalized S35CN and S45CN with a
heat treatment are chosen. They have been conventionally used for machine parts,
and have been produced and used largely in quantity and stable in quality. They
have been used for the anchor bolts of a steel pier and pins of a bearing support.
The mechanical properties of these materials for the case with heat treatment are
not stipulated in the JIS but are given for information only in a commentary
appendix table in the JIS. When they are used as a strength member in an
important part, their strength should be ascertained by experiments.

As for the gray cast iron castings and spheroidal graphite iron castings, FC250, and
FCD400 or FCD450 are chosen.

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 Table C. 3.1.2 Mechanical Properties of Castings
Mechanical Tensile test Impact test
\ property (Test piece No. 14A or test piece No. 4) (Test piece No. 4)
Carbon
Type Yield point Elongation (%) Charpy Hardness equivalent
Tensile Temperature
symbol or proof
strength Elongation Reduction test
absorbed HBi )
(%)
stress of area energy
2 (N /mm 2) (%) (°C)
Material (N/mm ) (%) (J)
245 22 40 134
SF490A 490 - 590 or over
Carbon steel or over or over or over
forgings 275 20 35 152
SF540A
or over
540 640 - or over or over or over
Carbon steel 225 19 30
SC450 450
castings or over or over or over
235 21 27 0.40
Castings for SCW410 410 0
or over or over or over or less
welded
275 20 27 0.45
structure SCW480 480 0
or over or over or over or less
High-tensile
275 17 35 143
carbon steel SCMnlA 540
or over or over or over or over
and low alloy
steel castings
(low 345 16 35 163
manganese SCMn2 A 590 or over or over or over
or over
steel castings)
Carbon steels 305 23 149 - 207
S35CN 510
for machine or over or over
structure 345 20
S45CN 570 167 - 229
or over or over
Gray iron 241
FC250 250
castings 2) or over
Spheroidal 250 15
FCD400 400 130 - 1805)
graphite iron or over or over4)
castings 280 10
FCD450
or over
450
or over
140 - 2105)

Note : 1) Values are quoted from “JIS handbook-Steel,I” appendix 6..

2) Values are for separately cast specimens.
3) HB denotes the Brinell hardness stipulated in JIS Z 2243.
4) Values are the standard values of FCD400 15. -
5) Values are for information only.

Conventionally, gray iron castings have been used widely, and their mechanical
properties are stipulated by a tensile test, a transverse test and a hardness test.
Steel castings shall be used both for the structural members requiring high strength
and for important structural members. This is because the transverse test has a large
difference in test piece accuracy and test method, and because the standard values
of these castings are relatively low.

The spheroidal graphite iron castings have good machinability and relatively high
toughness, since graphite takes the form of a sphere. In bridges, they are used for
guard fences, finger type expansion joints with a relatively large amount of
expansion, and components requiring machinability (for example, steel connection
keys used in a precast segmented bridge).

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6) Wire rods and secondary wire products

The mechanical properties, the nominal cross-sectional area, and the unit mass of
steel wires and steel strands for prestressed concrete generally used in bridges, are
given in Table C. 3.1.3. The surface form of deformed steel wires for prestressed
concrete is not stipulated in JIS G 3536. However, the fatigue strength of the steel
wire itself may decrease depending on the surface form. Also, a large splitting
stress may occur in the anchor portion at the member comer when the pretensioning
method is used. Therefore, steel wires should be carefully used.

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 Table C. 3.1.3
Mechanical Properties, Nominal Cross-sectional Area and Unit Mass of
Prestressing Wires and Strands
Load at 0.2% Relaxation value Nominal
Nominal permanent Tensile load Elongation (%) cross-sectional Unit mass
Symbol
diameter elongation
(kN)
m (%)
N L
area
(mm2)
(kg/m)

27.9 or over 31.9 or over 19.64 0.154

5mm 4.0 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less
(1.40 or over) (1.60 or over)
SWPR1AN 51.0 or over 58.3 or over
7mm 4.5 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less 38.48 0.302
SWPR1AL (1.30 or over) (1.50 or over)
SWPD1N 64.2 or over 74.0 or over
8mm 4.5 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less 50.27 0.395
SWPD1L (1.25 or over) (1.45 or over)
78.0 or over 90.2 or over 0.499
9mm 4.5 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less 63.62
(1.20 or over) (1.40 or over)
29.9 or over 33.8 or over 19.64 0.154
5mm 4.0 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less
(1.50 or over) (1.70 or over)
SWPR1BN 54.9 or over 62.3 or over
2.5 or less 38.48 0.302
7mm 4.5 or over 8.0 or less
SWPR1BL (1.40 or over) (1.60 or over)
69.1 or over 78.9 or over 50.27 0.395
8mm 4.5 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less
(1.35 or over) (1.55 or over)
SWPR2N 2.9mm 22.6 or over 25.5 or over 0.104
3.5 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less 13.21
SWPR2L 2 strands (1.70 or over) (1.95 or over)
9.3mm 75.5 or over 88.8 or over 0.405
3.5 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less 51.61
7 strands (1.45 or over) (1.70 or over)
10.8mm 102 or over 120 or over
3.5 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less 69.68 0.546
SWPR7AN 7 strands (1.45 or over) (1.70 or over)
SWPR7AL 12.4mm 136 or over 160 or over
3.5 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less 92.90 0.729
7 strands (1.45 or over) (1.70 or over)
15.2 mm 204 or over 240 or over
3.5 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less 138.7 1.101
7 strands (1.45 or over) (1.70 or over)
9.5 mm 86.8 or over 102 or over 0.432
3.5 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less 54.84
7 strands (1.60 or over) (1.85 or over)
11.1 mm 118 or over 138 or over
3.5 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less 74.19 0.580
SWPR7BN 7 strands (1.60 or over) (1.85 or over)
SWPR7BL 12.7mm 156 or over 183 or over
3.5 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less 98.71 0.774
7 strands (1.60 or over) (1.85 or over)
15.2mm 222 or over 261 or over 1.101
3.5 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less 138.7
7 strands (1.60 or over) (1.85 or over)
17.8mm 330 or over 387 or over 208.4 1.652
3.5 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less
19 strands (1.60 or over) (1.85 or over)
19.3mm 387 or over 451 or over 1.931
3.5 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less 243.7
19 strands (1.60 or over) (1.85 or over)
SWPR19N 20.3mm 422 or over 495 or over 2.149
3.5 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less 270.9
SWPR19L 19 strands (1.60 or over) (1.80 or over)
21.8mm 495 or over 573 or over 312.9 2.482
3.5 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less
19 strands (1.60 or over) (1.80 or over)
28.6mm 807 or over 949 or over 4.229
3.5 or over 8.0 or less 2.5 or less 532.4
19 strands (1.50 or over) (1.80 or over)
Note 1: "N" in the "Symbol" and "Relaxation value" columns denotes ordinary articles and "L" denotes low
relaxation articles.
2: Values in the parentheses in the "Load at 0.2% permanent elongation" and "Tensile load" columns are
the standard values divided by the nominal cross sectional area (Unit: kN/mm ).

V ) Steel bars

Steel bars commonly used for bridges are chosen from the types of reinforced
concrete steel bars stipulated in JIS G 3112.

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 Table C. 3.1.4 Mechanical Properties of Reinforced Concrete Steel Bars
Tensile test Bendability
Symbol Yield point or 0.2%
Tensile strength Elongation Bending
proof stress Tensile test piece Inner diameter
2 (N/mm2) (%) angle
(N/mm )
No. 2 20 or over 1.5 times the nominal
SR235 235 or over 380 - 520 180°
No. l 4A 22 or over diameter
Those substantially equal D16 or less: 1.5 times
16 or over
to No. 2 the nominal diameter
SD295A 295 or over 440 - 600 180°
Those substantially equal More than D16: Twice
17 or over
to No. l 4A the nominal diameter
Those substantially equal D16 or less: 1.5 times
16 or over
to No. 2 the nominal diameter
SD295B 295 - 390 440 or over 180°
Those substantially equal More than D16: Twice
17 or over
to No. l 4A the nominal diameter
Those substantially equal D16 or less: 1.5 times
18 or over
to No. 2 the nominal diameter
More than D16 but D41
SD345 345 - 440 490 or over 180° or less: Twice the
Those substantially equal 19 or over nominal diameter
to No. l 4A
D51: 2.5 times the
nominal diameter
Those substantially equal
16 or over
to No. 2 2.5 times the nominal
SD390 390-510 560 or over 180°
Those substantially equal diameter
17 or over
to No. 14 A
Those substantially equal D 25 or less: 2.5 times
12 or over
to No. 2 the nominal diameter
SD490 490-625 620 or over 90°
Those substantially equal D 25 or over: Thrice the
13 or over
to No. 14 A nominal diameter
Note: For the deformed steel bars exceeding the designation D32 in dimensions, the elongation should be
reduced 2% for each increment of 3 in designation. However, the reduction limit is 4%.

In this revision, two new types, SD390 and SD490, have been added, reflecting the
recent increase in their use and the consequent accumulation of technical
knowledge and experience. For their mechanical properties, refer to Table C.3.1.4.
However, when using these steel bars (which have higher yield points than
previously stipulated) in concrete members, remember that the use of these new
types of steel bars has not necessarily been considered with respect to all structural
details and stipulations provided in these Specifications with regard to the
prevention of harmful cracks or verification of seismic performance. As such, when
adopting these bars, it is necessary to take due care to appropriately use them by
checking the relevant stipulations.

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 Table C. 3.1.5 Unit Mass and Standard Dimensions of Deformed Steel Bars

Designation
Unit mass Nominal diameter (d) Nominal cross-sectional Peripheral length (/)
(kg/m) (mm) area (S ) (mm 2) (mm)
D6 0.249 6.35 31.67 20
D 10 0.560 9.53 71.33 30
D 13 0.995 12.7 126.7 40
D 16 1.56 15.9 198.6 50
D 19 2.25 19.1 286.5 60
D 22 3.04 22.2 387.1 70
D 25 3.98 25.4 506.7 80
D 29 5.04 28.6 642.4 90
D 32 6.23 31.8 794.2 100
D 35 7.51 34.9 956.6 110
D 38 8.95 38.1 1140 120
D 41 10.5 41.3 1340 130
D 51 15.9 50.8 2027 160

Table C. 3.1.6 Mechanical Properties of Prestressing Steel Bars

Tensile test
Type Symbol Yield point or Relaxation value
Tensile strength Elongation
(%)
proof stress
(N/mm2) (%)
(N /mm 2)
Round bar Type A No. 2 SBPR785/1030 785 or over 1030 or over 5 or over 4.0 or less
No. 1 SBPR930/1080 930 or over 1080 or over 5 or over 4.0 or less
Round bar Type B
No. 2 SBPR930/1180 930 or over 1180 or over 5 or over 4.0 or less

- 96 -
 Table C. 3.1.7 Types of Prestressing Steel Bars

Basic diameter Nominal designation Pitch

Nominal
Unit mass
Designation
(mm )
cross-sectional area
of thread (mm) (kg/m)
( S ) (mm2)
9.2mm 9.2 M10 1.25 66.48 0.52
11mm 11.0 M12 1.5 95.03 0.75
13mm 13.0 M14 1.5 132.7 1.04
17mm 17.0 M18 1.5 227.0 1.78
23mm 23.0 M24 2 415.5 3.26
26mm 26.0 M27 2 530.9 4.17
32mm 32.0 M33 2 804.2 6.31

The mechanical properties of reinforced concrete steel bars, and the unit mass or
standard dimensions of deformed steel bars stipulated in JIS G 3112, are given in
Tables C. 3.1.4 and 3.1.5, respectively

Also, the mechanical properties and the threading types of prestressing steel bars
are given in Table C. 3.1.6 and Table C. 3.1.7, respectively.

prestressing steel bars are usually used in the threaded state, but JIS only stipulates
material properties. Therefore, the strength of the threaded portion should be
sufficiently ascertained. A rolled threaded screw given in Table C. 3.1.7 which
conforms to JIS B 0205 (metric screws for general purposes) are normally used to
work a threaded screw bar.

When a thick prestressing steel bar is threaded by rolling, the tensile strength of the
threaded portion with a basic diameter of 26 mm or over is scarcely reduced by
plastic working. On the contrary, the tensile strength of the threaded portion is
reduced when thin bars with a basic diameter of 23 mm or less are threaded, and
may fall below the standard value for the prestressing steel bar blank. Therefore,
the tensile strength for the blank should be verified by testing. When a strength
reduction is noticed in the threaded portion, a standard value should be established
anew before use.

The values in Table C. 3.1.7 are the same as those given in JIS G 3109.

For multilayer prestressing strands other than that is given in Table C. 3.1.3, it is
stipulated to do a test substantially equal to the quality test stipulated in JIS G 3536,
JIS G 3109 or other JIS standards applicable to similar types of steels. Thus, their
quality shall be checked and verified, and their tensile strength or yield point should
be determined. When a quality material with a higher strength than the prestressing
steels stipulated in Table C. 3.1.3 is used, it is necessary to investigate the delayed
fracture and construction precautions.

- 97 -
 8) Others

Headed studs stipulated in JIS B 1198 and with a shaft diameter of 19 or 22 mm

shall generally be used for the composite structures of a steel girder and concrete
deck slab.

3.2 Concrete

3.2.1 General

Concrete shall have certain strength, deformability, durability, workability for construction
and other properties and quality. Therefore, appropriate consideration shall be given in each
stage of material selection, mixing and construction.

Concrete needs to have the necessary properties and quality as fresh and hardened concrete.

The properties required for fresh concrete are workability, pumpability, setting property and
strength during construction, which allow to construct uniformly and densely under the
structural and work conditions of the structure. The properties required for hardened
concrete are necessary strength, deformability and durability. To ensure the adequate
properties of concrete if necessary, consideration must be given to the coefficient of
neutralization rate, the coefficient of diffusion of chloride ions, relative dynamic elastic
modulus, resistance to chemical corrosion, resistance to alkali-aggregate reaction, coefficient
of water permeability, refractoriness, drying shrinkage property. For the concrete to fulfill
the required function, these propertiesshould be within sufficiently small dispersion.

These properties and qualities are influenced not only by the properties and qualities of the
materials incorporated in the concrete, but also by mixture design and construction work
significantly. Therefore, in all these processes, appropriate consideration is necessary for
satisfying the properties required for the concrete.

For detailed provision for constructing work associate with concrete, refer to the Volume on
Concrete Bridges.

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3.2.2 Materials for Concrete Mixture

(1) The materials used in concrete mixture shall be as follows:

1) The cement shall have appropriate properties and quality, such as specific surface
area, set time, compressive strength, limitations on harmful ingredients and so on.

2) The water shall not contain oil, acids, salts, organic matter or other harmful
substances.

3) The fine aggregate shall be clean, hard and strong and have durability and an
appropriate grading and shall not contain a harmful amount of dust, mud, organic
impurities, chlorides.

4) The coarse aggregate shall be clean, hard and strong and have durability and an
appropriate grading and shall not contain a harmful amount of thin or elongate
fraction, organic impurities, chlorides.

5) The admixtures and additives used in the concrete shall have a certain effect on
improving the concrete properties and quality and shall have reliable properties and
quality in themselves.

(2) The materials conforming to the standards or provisions given in Table 3.2.1 are
deemed to satisfy the quality mentioned above.

Table 3.2.1 Standards or Stipulations of Materials for Concrete

Material type Standard or stipulation Remarks

JISR 5210 Portland cement Normal,
High-early-streng
1) Cement
th
JISR 5211 Portland blast-furnace slag cement
2) Water JIS A 5308 Water used for kneading ready mixed
Appendix C concrete
3) Aggregate JIS A 5308
Aggregate for ready mixed concrete
Appendix A
JIS A 6204 Chemical admixtures for concrete
4) Additive
JIS A 6201 Fly ash for use in concrete
5) Admixture Ground granulated blast-furnace slag for
JIS A 6206
concrete

(3) The total amount of chloride ions contained in the fresh concrete shall be 0.3 kg/m3 or
less.

The above stipulates the concrete materials used for steel bridges, reinforced concrete bridges,
prestressed concrete bridges and substructures designed according to this specification.

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(1) The properties and quality of the materials that form the concrete have large effects on
the concrete performance. Therefore, it is stipulated that each of properties of the
concrete materials to be used shall have been ascertained and their quality shall be
assured.

(2) Regarding JIS and other standards, concrete materials that have been proven through
actual use are shown.

1) Cement

For the cement, JIS R 5210 Portland cement and JIS R 5211 Blast furnace slag
cement should be used. In ordinary cases, Portland cement is used for the
superstructure and blast furnace cement is used for the substructure. Concrete
incorporating blast furnace cement is generally inferior in initial strength to plain
Portland cement, but the amount of heat of hydration generated during setting is
smaller and it has good resistance against seawater and other good properties.
However, the strength and durability would be impaired if a wet condition is not
kept in the early stage of hardening. In addition, the long-term strength is affected
by the concrete temperature in the early stage of hardening. Therefore, the initial
wet curing of the concrete incorporating blast furnace slag cement should be carried
out carefully.

Since the concrete incorporating fly ash cement generates a smaller amount of heat
of hydration, so it is used for mass concrete and is sometimes used as an
alkali-aggregate reaction inhibiting measure. When using fly ash cement, fly ash
cement needs to conform to JIS R 5213.

3) Aggregate

For fine and coarse aggregates, it is desirable to use those which conform to the
provisions in JIS A 5308 Appendix A "Aggregate for ready mixed concrete."

Some aggregates contain physically or chemically unstable minerals. Adequate

care is needed for such aggregates. For the alkali-aggregate reaction, refer to the
instructions (Alkali-aggregate reaction inhibiting measures (Jul,31,2002))) from the
Ministry of Land , Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism or JIS A 5308 AppendixB.
Taking these measures can inhibit the alkali-aggregate reaction. Specifically, one
may take one of the following measures: Transmittal of Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism gives priority for following advice a), and b).

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 a) Restraint of total alkali content in concrete

Portland cement that bears an indication of alkali content shall be used and
make the total alkali content contained in 1 m3 of concrete to be 3.0 kg or less
in terms of Na20 equivalent

b) Use of a mixed cement that has inhibiting effects

Cement conforming to JIS R 5211 blast furnace slag cement (Type B or C) or

JIS R 5213 fly ash cement (Type B or C) or cement in which additives are
mixed and which has been confirmed to have alkali-aggregate reaction
inhibiting effects shall be used .

c) Use of an aggregate that can be regarded as safe

Aggregate having been confirmed to be safe as a result of the alkali-silica

reactivity test (chemical or mortar bar method*) shall be used.

*) JIS A 1145 or JIS A 1146 shall be applied.

On the shore or in other places remarkably affected by seawater or sea breeze,

some of the measures in a), and b) will have to be taken. If the damage due to
the alkali-aggregate reaction is thought to have great effects on the safety of the
structure, it is desirable to take measures such as painting for preventing salt
intrusion.

4) Admixtures

For the admixture, an air entraining agent, water reducing agent, air entraining and
water reducing agent and high-performance air entraining and water reducing agent
conforming to JIS A 6204 should be used. When the type of admixture being not
stipulated in JIS A 6204 is to be used, its applicability should be verified by a mix
design test or the like before use.

Some admixtures contain a large amount of chlorides and may be required care in
using them. Of the accelerating type, in particular, many of them contain calcium
chloride or the like as one of the principal ingredients, so special care is needed.

When a superplasticizer is to be used, one that conforms to the JIS A 6204 should
be used. Some superplasticizers mutually react with the air entraining agent,
water reducing agent, air entraining and water reducing agent or high-performance
air entraining agent used in the base concrete and adversely affect the respective

- 101 -
 effects. Such superplasticizers should not be used. Before and during use, it is
necessary to do previous investigation on how to use them and do sufficient quality
control.

5) Additives

Additives include fly ash, blast furnace slag, silica fume and others. Fly ash that
conforms to JIS A 6201, blast furnace slag that conforms to JIS A 6206, and Silica
Fume that conforms to JIS A 6207 shall be used. When other additives are to be
used, it is necessary to make an investigation about their past record and do tests to
clarify their properties. Whatever additives are used, special consideration is
frequently required not only for the material properties, but also for work execution.
If so, an additional previous investigation is necessary.

(3) To secure the long-term durability of a concrete structure, it is desirable that the
•2 .
chloride content in fresh concrete is 0.3 kg/m or less in terms of chlorine ion mass.

For plain concrete and reinforced concrete members used under ordinary conditions,
however, the chlorine ion mass may be 0.6 kg/m or less if it is very difficult to procure
materials of little chloride content. In this case, it is essential to have water-cement
ratio or unit moisture content as small as possible, do meticulous concrete placement,
and otherwise give consideration when executing the work.

3.2.3 Concrete Strength

As a general rule, concrete of which strength is equal to or higher than the minimum specified
compressive strength given in Table 3.2.2 shall be used.

Table 3.2.2 Minimum Specified Compressive Strength of Concrete (N/mm2)

Member type Minimum specified compressive strength
Plain concrete member 18
Reinforced concrete member 21
Prestressed Pretensionning method 36
concrete member Post-tensionning method 30

The durability of concrete is typically related to the water-cement ratio, W/C because of
depending on the density of the concrete. With the objective of excluding low quality
concrete, it was decided to stipulate a minimum value for the design standard concrete
strength, which was directly related to the water-cement ratio, W/C. Therefore, when
designing concrete mixture, it is desirable to have an unit water content as small as possible
within the limits where the workability is suitable for the work. On the other hand, when the

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unit cement content is increased recklessly, cracking becomes apt to occur due to increment
of hydration heat and drying shrinkage during setting. Note that some cases may result
contrary to the objective of improving the concrete durability.

The specified compressive strength of plain concrete used for a gravity abutment, the bottom
slab of a caisson should be 18 N/mm or over as a general rule. For the leveling concrete
placed beneath a footing, the concrete of which strength is lower than the minimum design
strength for plain concrete members may be used.

The specified compressive strength of a reinforced concrete member used for a concrete
bridge or the major structures of a substructure shall be 21 N/mm^ or over as a general rule.
#

This clause is stipulated because prestressed concrete members require the use of a concrete
of high compressive strength in design and work execution. However, for cast-in-place
concrete subjected to a relatively small prestress and having no anchor attaching portions, the
specified compressive strength may be about 24 N/mm with consideration for the durability.

3.3 Physical Constants Used in Design Calculation

(1) The physical constants used in design calculation shall be appropriately set with
consideration for the properties and quality of the materials used.
(2) When designing in accordance with (3) through (6) can be deemed to satisfy ( 1).
(3) The physical constants of the steels given in Table 3.1.1 shall be the values given in
Table 3.3.1.

Table 3.3.1 Physical Constants of Steels

Steel type Value of physical constant
Young's modulus of steel and cast steel 2.0 x 105 N/mm2
Young's modulus of prestressing wire, prestressing
strands, and prestressing steel bars 2.0 x 105 N/mm2
Young's modulus of cast iron 1.0 x 10s N/mm2
Shear modulus of elasticity of steel 7.7 x 104 N/mm2
Poisson's ratio of steel and cast steel 0.30
Poisson's ratio of cast iron 0.25
The apparent relaxation rate of prestressing steels used in calculating the amount of
prestress reduction shall take the values given in Table 3.3.2 as standard. Here, the
case where steel is affected by high temperature means the case where steam curing
takes place or the case where the net concrete cover over the prestressing steel placed on
the top edge of the member is less than 50 mm and hot mix asphalt pavement is laid.

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03
Table 3.3.2 Apparent Relaxation Rate (%) of Prestressing Steels
Relaxation rate
Prestressing steel type Standard Case where affected Remarks
value by high temperature
Prestressing wire 5 7 Ordinary product
Prestressing strands 1.5 2.5 Low relaxation product
Prestressing steel bars 3 5 Ordinary product

When it is difficult to comply with the above, the apparent relaxation rate of
prestressing steel shall be separately determined from the relaxation rate measured
according to the tensile stress of the prestressing steel with consideration for the
influence of concrete creep, drying shrinkage and the like.

(4) Young's modulus of concrete shall be as follows:

1) Young's modulus used in calculating the statically indeterminate forces or elastic

deformation of a reinforced concrete structure and in the design calculation of
prestressed concrete members shall take the values given in Table 3.3.3.

2) Young's modulus ratio, n , used in calculating the stresses in reinforced concrete

members shall take a value of 15.

Table 3.3.3 Young’s Modulus of Concrete (N/mm2)

Specified
compressive 21 24 27 30 40 50 60
strength
Young's
2.35 xl 4
2.5 xl 04 2.65 xl 04 2.8 xl 04 3.1 xl 04 3.3 xl 04 3.5 xl 04
modulus

(5) The shear modulus of elasticity of concrete shall be calculated by Equation 3.3.1.

Ec (3.3.1)
2.3
where Gc : Shear modulus of elasticity of concrete (N/mm )
•j

Ec : Young's modulus of concrete (N/mm )

(6) The creep coefficient and rate of drying shrinkage of concrete shall conform to the
stipulations in 2.2.5.

(3) There is a relation among Young's modulus E , shearing modulus of elasticity G and
Poisson's ratio // as follows:

- 104 -
 E
G= (C. 3.3.1)
2(l + ju )

Taking E = 2.0 x 105 (N/mm2) and ju = 0.3, then G = 7.692 x 104 (N/mm2). However,
this value was rounded to G = 7.7 x 104 (N/mm2) because the values of E and ju had
some degree of dispersion depending on the type of the steel.
c *y
For cast steel, Young's modulus may be taken to be 2.0 x 10 N/mm and Poisson's ratio
0.30.

Cables made of many prestressing wires bundled or stranded are used in some cases.
Young's modulus of such a cable is not stipulated in JIS and may take a value less than
c 'y
2.0 x 10 N/mm , so it should be separately determined by tests.

If the elongation of a prestressing steel is to be calculated for controlling prestressing,

the apparent Young's modulus should be determined by field tests according to the
stipulations in Section 20.8 of the Volume on Concrete Bridges.

The net relaxation rate of a prestressing steel is the amount of stress reduction occurring
under the conditions of constant tensile strain, expressed as a proportion (percentage) to
the initial tensile stress in the prestressing steel. On the other hand, if a prestressing
steel is used for prestressed concrete, the tensile strain initially given to the prestressing
steel decreases with time due to drying shrinkage, creep and the like of the concrete.
Therefore, the amount of tensile stress reduction in this case is smaller than the value
measured by a relaxation test conducted on the prestressing steel under constant strain,
and a smaller relaxation rate results. This is called apparent relaxation.

The apparent relaxation rate affects the effective prestress in the prestressed concrete
member. Therefore, in selecting prestressing steel materials, steel that has the apparent
relaxation rate taken up in the design stage should be used as a general rule.

The apparent relaxation rate depends on the magnitude of the axial compressive unit
stress acting on the concrete and at the position of the prestressing steel when the dead
load is acting. Therefore, the values in Table 3.3.2 may not be used if the compressive
unit stress acting on the concrete and at the position of the prestressing steel when the
dead load is acting is less than 5 N/mm . If the tensile unit stress acting on the
prestressing steel immediately after prestressing is 65% of the steel's tensile strength
(standard value) or less, the values in Table 3.3.2 may be used even if the compressive
unit stress of the above concrete is about 3 N/ mm2.

- 105 -
 Most of the prestressing steel marketed now are low-relaxation products, However,
note that some of the steels with epoxy resin coating are ordinary products.

In a special case where a low tensile force is given to the prestressing steel, the
relaxation rate must be determined separately. In such a case, the net relaxation rate
should be determined according to the magnitude of the tensile unit stress. In this case,
the net relaxation rate should be three times the value obtained by a 1000-hour test at
ordinary temperature (see JIS G 3536 : 2008 ).

(4) Between the case where a tensile stress acts and the case where a compressive stress
acts on a concrete, the stress-strain curve of the concrete is somewhat different, so
Young's modulus is not always equal, but it was assumed to be equal because this
generally brought about no problem in design calculation.

The values in Table 3.3.3 are the mean of the results of a nationwide investigation. If
the design standard strength is an intermediate value in Table 3.3.3, the value of
Young's modulus may be taken by linear interpolation.

For a precast member, Young's modulus of the concrete should be as given in Table C.
3.3.1 if a high-strength concrete with the design standard strength of 60 N/mm to
80 N/mm2 is used.

Table C. 3.3.1 Young’s Modulus of High-strength Concrete (N/mm2)

Specified Compressive Strength 70 80
Young's modulus 3.7 x 104 3.8 x 104

The values in Table 3.3.3 are for use in the design of a member when the design load is
imposed and when the ultimate load is imposed. If a check is done about the unit
stress in a member or the degree of safety against fracture when the concrete is at an
early age, Young's modulus of the concrete should be separately determined by a test or
the like.

For Young's modulus of PHC pile concrete, 4.0 x 104 N/mm2 may be used. For
Young's modulus of SC pile concrete, 3.5 x 104 N/mm2 may be used.

(5) Equation 3.3.1 was obtained with Poisson's ratio of concrete taken to be 1/6.

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 CHAPTER 4 BEARING AND EXPANSION JOINT

4.1 Bearing

4.1.1 General

(1) For bearings, appropriate type, structure and materials shall be selected to satisfy the
following performance requirements:

1) Bearings shall securely transmit the load from the superstructure to the
substructure.

2) Bearings shall absorb the relative displacement between the superstructure and
substructure. They shall follow the expansion, contraction and rotation of the
superstructure due to live loads and temperature variations.

(2) In designing a bearing assembly, the durability against deteriorating factors i .e. dust,
water, etc., the ease of construction, maintenance and repair shall be considered.

(3) The seismic design of a bearing assembly shall follow the stipulations in Part Y,
Seismic Design.

(1 ) A bearing assembly consists of a bearing itself, anchor bolts, set bolts, other members
attached to the superstructure and substructure, shoe seat mortar, anchor bars, etc. which
secure the performance of the bearing.

The bearing assembly needs to be sound as a structural member of a bridge against the
action of loads, environmental variations, etc., and must securely support the loads
acting on the superstructure and transmit them to the substructure. To protect the road
surface continuity, it must properly work against horizontal deformation due to live
loads imposed on the superstructure, temperature variations, etc., and against angular
deformation due to deflection. In addition, lateral loads caused by earthquakes, winds,
etc. also act on the superstructure and they are all transmitted to the substructure
through the bearing assembly. Therefore, the bearing assembly must be safe against
these lateral loads, and it is also necessary to adequately consider the unexpected uplift
during earthquakes.

For particular design consideration, refer to the Road Bridge Bearing Manual (Japan
Road Association, April 2004).

- 107 -
 In addition to the load transmission and displacement absorbing functions described
above, a bearing assembly is sometimes expected to have a damping function against
the oscillation during earthquakes and other necessary functions. If these functions are
secured by a single device, a loss of function resulting from a local damage or durability
deterioration may affect other functions. Therefore, it is recommended to adopt a
combination of bearings each having a single function or to adopt bearings with
distinctly separate functions.

(2) Although bearing assemblies are susceptible to water seepage and dust accumulation,
they are often installed in places where maintenance work is difficult. Therefore, it is
generally difficult to secure the same level of durability as the main structure of the
bridge, and they are even at high risk of being damaged by large-scale earthquakes.
Thus, it is reasonable to consider what repair work, replacement of members, etc. will
need to be carried out during the in-service period of the bridge in advance. Another
important item is to ensure that bearings are easy to approach and that adequate space is
available for checking conditions and implementing emergency measures for the
purpose of checking their soundness in inspections as well as judging the serviceability
of the bridge when damage due to a large-scale earthquake or other disaster is suspected.
In selecting a bearing assembly structure or bearing itself, it is necessary to consider the
ease and rapidity of carrying out inspections, repair work, replacements, etc. in addition
to the initial cost. Moreover, it is often the case that main girders require reinforcement
for temporary support when replacing the bearings of existing bridges or taking
emergency measures in the event of a disaster. As such, while still in the design stage, it
is desirable to give due consideration to these repair and reinforcement operations,
which may need to be implemented in the maintenance stage, because doing so can be
rational from the perspectives of reparability and life cycle cost reduction.

4.1.2 Forces Acting on a Bearing Assembly

(1) The forces acting on a bearing assembly shall be decided in consideration of the acting
loads, structural type of bridge and bearing type.

(2) The design in accordance with provisions in (3) and (4) is deemed to satisfy (1).

(3) The vertical force acting on the bearing assembly shall be calculated considering the
most adverse conditions of the combinations of loads stipulated in Section 2.2 of Part II,
Steel Bridges. If there is a fear that a negative force (uplift) may occur, the negative
force value shall be calculated using Equation 4.1.1 and 4.1.2 and the more adverse

- 108 -
 value shall be used in the design.

R-U - 2 R- L+I + R- D (4.1.1)

Rv — 2 RD + Rw (4.1.2)

where Rrj: Negative force at a support (kN)

RL+I - ' Maximum negative force due to live loads including impacts (kN)
RD -
' Force due to dead load (kN)
Rw - Maximum negative force due to wind load (kN)

(4 ) The horizontal forces acting on the bearing assembly shall be calculated as follows:

1) When designing a movable bearing assembly, the frictional forces shall be

considered and they shall be calculated using the coefficient of friction. The
variation of coefficient of friction due to age deterioration which may differ
depending on the bearing type and used materials, shall be considered.

2) When designing a fixed bearing assembly, a horizontal force due to the dynamic
friction in the movable bearing assemblies of the same superstructure shall not be
neglected.

(3) In the design of a bearing assembly, it is necessary to consider the special loads such as
the effect of support displacement and the construction load which may vary according
to the various conditions at the bridging point and the bridge structure. The
combinations of loads are stipulated in Section 2.2 of the Volume on Steel Bridges or
Section 2.2 (2) of the Volume on Concrete Bridges. Because the two are the same, this
provision follows Section 2.2 of the Volume on Steel Bridge.

Out of the various forces if a negative force that uplifts bearings is occurred, unexpected
stresses may occur in various parts of the bridge. Therefore, in selecting the structural
type of bridges, it is recommended to choose a structural system that will cause as little
negative force as possible. If there is a fear that a negative force may occur, bearings
should be designed in accordance with this clause to ensure sufficient safety.

Basically, Equation 4.1.1 assumes unbalanced loading in the bridge axis direction while
Equation 4.1.2 assumes loading in the direction perpendicular to the bridge axis. For
Equation 4.1.1, a negative force is apt to occur due to unbalanced loading in the bridge
axis direction if the overhang out of bearings becomes large. In such a case,
unbalanced loading in the direction perpendicular to the bridge axis should also be
investigated .

- 109 -
 For the allowable stress against the combinations of loads given in this clause, the
overdesign factor for allowable stress given in Section 3.1 of Part II, Steel Bridges can
be applied. If it is obvious that no negative force will occur because of the structural
type, or even if bridging error are taken into account, then the stipulations of the clause
should not necessary be followed. Even in this case, it is recommended to allow a
sufficient redundancy in the design of the bearing assembly.

( 4) For the calculation of the horizontal force of a movable bearing, it is stipulated from the
past experience that the effect of friction should be considered using the coefficient of
friction. Because the coefficient of friction depends on the type and materials of the
bearing, the coefficient must be determined experimentally according to these factors.
In addition, the increase of the coefficient of friction due to age deterioration must be
considered. If a movable bearing shown in Table C. 4.1.1 is employed, the value in
this table can be used for the coefficient of friction.

Table C. 4.1.1 Coefficient of Friction of Movable Bearings

Friction Mechanism of horizontal movement Coefficient of

mechanism (bearing type) friction

Rolling friction Steel roller bearing 0.05

Sliding friction Fluorocarbon resin and stainless steel 0.10

The coefficient of friction for rolling friction is as small as about 10 in the elastic
'

contact region. However, a larger value is adopted for the coefficient of friction
because the contacting portion may corrode or deform due to abrasion and there are
places where sliding friction may occur.

For the coefficient of friction of the sliding friction between fluorocarbon resin and
stainless steel, a somewhat larger value is adopted than the value obtained
experimentally. This is because the increase of the coefficient of friction due to age
deterioration is taken into account.

The coefficient of kinetic friction may become larger than the coefficient of static
friction during movement or before stopping, so it is problematic to use the theoretical
static and kinetic friction in the engineering sense without modification. In the design,
therefore, it is not permitted to let the movable bearings share the horizontal force due
to kinetic friction and reduce the horizontal force acting on the fixed bearings.

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4.1.3 Amount of Bearing Movement

(1) The amount of design bearing movement shall be decided considering the bridge deck
temperature variations, concrete creep and shrinkage, elastic deformation due to
prestress, the amount of superstructure movement due to the deflection caused by live
loads, and the allowance for construction error.

(2) The design in accordance with provisions (3) through (6) is deemed to satisfy (1).

(3) The amount of movement due to temperature variations shall be decided according to
Equation 4.1.3.

A1 =AT a l (4.1.3)

where A4 Amount of movement due to temperature variations (mm)

AT. Range of temperature variations given in Table 2.2.16
a: Coefficient of linear expansion stipulated in 2.2.10 (5)
/: Girder expansion length (mm)
(4) The amount of movement due to drying shrinkage and creep of concrete shall be
decided according to Equation 4.1.4 and 4.1.5 as a standard value.

A ls = scs • / (4.1.4)

P
Alc — E - Ac p •/
( (4.1.5)

where Als: Amount of movement due to drying shrinkage of concrete (mm)

Alc Amount of movement due to creep of concrete (mm)
£cS‘ Drying shrinkage rate given in Table 2.2.8

Pt: Tensile force acting on PC strand immediately after prestressing (N)

Ac : Cross-sectional area of concrete (mm )

Ec: Young's modulus of concrete given in Table 3.3.3 (N/mm )
( p: Creep coefficient of concrete given in Table 2.2.7
/: Girder expansion length (mm)

- Ill -
(5) The amount of movement due to elastic deformation caused by concrete prestress shall
be decided according to Equation 4.1.6

P /
• (4.1.6)
Ec - Ac
where A lp : Amount of movement due to elastic deformation caused by concrete
prestress (mm)

Pt : Tensile force acting on PC strand immediately after prestressing (N)

Ac: Cross-sectional area of concrete (mm )

Ec: Young's modulus of concrete given in Table 3.3.3 (N/mm )

/: Girder expansion length (mm)
(6) For the amount of movement of the superstructure due to the deflection caused by live
loads on the girder, the value calculated by structural analysis shall be used .

(1) This provision describes how to calculate the amount of movement of the bearing
assembly.

In calculating the amount of movement, redundancy should be taken into account to

allow installation error and the construction error of the substructure in addition to the
calculated amount of movement.

This redundancy depends on the bridge size, however, the redundancy in structural
calculation can be treated according to the bearing type as follows:

The design amount of movement of a steel bearing is calculated based on the maximum
amount of movement by assuming installation temperature. It is general practice to
adjust and install bearings so as not to lose its function of following the superstructure
displacement during construction.

For such adjustment, as a general rule, the redundancy can be taken to be the amount of
movement equivalent to a temperature change of 5°C. For a rubber bearing,
adjustment during construction is often complicated. Therefore, it should be installed
assuming the highest temperature and calculating the amount of movement due to
temperature variations irrespective of the actual installation temperature. This amount
of movement can be assumed to include the redundancy, which need not be considered
separately. However, for a long bridge with a very large amount of movement, design
assumption of installation at a highest temperature may result in an irrational design of
rubber bearings. In such a case, bearings should be designed with an appropriate

- 112 -
 amount of movement, by assuming an appropriate installation temperature and by
giving a shear deformation to the rubber bearing beforehand by horizontal movement of
the superstructure with horizontal jacks at the time of installation or by liberating the
shear deformation by jacking up. In this case, the amount of redundancy can be taken
to be the amount of movement equivalent to a temperature change of 5°C considering
the installation accuracy during construction. The movable rubber bearing should be
treated in the same manner as a steel bearing.

(4) For the creep coefficient and drying shrinkage rate of concrete, the stipulations in 2.2.5
shall be applied respectively. The environmental conditions, concrete age, etc. must
be appropriately considered for this calculation.

(6) For girder bridges, only the amount of movement due to rotation at the girder ends
should be considered as the effect of girder deflection. In a continuous girder, a
similar effect is also observed at intermediate supports, but this value is generally small
and negligible. For the amount of movement due to the deflection caused by live loads,
the value calculated by structural analysis of the superstructure should be used, but the
value can also be calculated using Equation C. 4.1.1.

A, = 5>< x 0, ) (C. 4.1.1)

where Alr : Amount of movement due to deflection caused by live loads (mm)
6 i : Rotational angle of girder at bearing (radians)
hi : Distance from neutral axis of girder to pivot point of bearing (mm)

The amount of movement of a girder bridge due to deflection can be calculated from the
rotational angle at the girder ends as shown in Figure C. 4.1.1. For a simple girder,
however, it is necessary to be noted that the amount is doubled because the effect of
rotation at the fixed end is added to the movable bearing.

In general cases, h shall be 2/3 of the girder height, and 6 shall be 1/150 for steel
bridges and 1/300 for concrete bridges. For an arch or a rigid frame bridge, the
deflection due to live loads directly shows up as the amount of movement at the girder
ends, therefore sufficient investigation is needed. In addition, it is necessary to be
noted that the effect of rotation at the girder ends may be added.

- 113 -
 \
Neutral axis

A
¥
-c 0*
4
l Alr

Alr ' Amount of movement due to girder

8 deflection caused by live loads

6 i : Rotational angle of girder at bearing

hi : Distance from neutral axis of girder to
\ pivot point of bearing

Figure C. 4.1.1 The Amount of Movement due to Girder Deflection

4.1.4 Connection Between Bearing and Superstructure or Substructure

(1) The connection between the bearing and the superstructure or substructure shall have a
structure that can firmly transmit the force acting on the bearing assembly.

(2) The design in accordance with the provisions in (3) through (5) is deemed to satisfy (1).

(3) The steel plate used to connect the bearing to the superstructure or substructure (i.e.,
sole plate or base plate) shall have a thickness of 22 mm or over.

(4) Anchor bolts used to fix a bearing to the substructure shall have a minimum diameter of
25 mm, and a fixing length of 10 times or more of their diameter which shall be secured
in the substructure to obtain a sufficient bond that can resist uplift forces.

(5 ) For fixing a bearing assembly to the substructure and embedding anchor bolts,
non-shrink mortar shall be used .

(3) A sole plate and base plate are used to connect the girder and bearing. If they are too
thin, no uniform reaction can be expected. Hence thickness of 22 mm or over is
stipulated. If a bridge is inclined, particular, sole plate thickness should be adjusted so
that the bearings are installed horizontally and the reaction works vertically. Even in
such a case, 22 mm must be secured in the thinnest portion.

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 For steel bridges, fatigue damage may occur at the connection between bearings and
superstructure because of the insufficient function of the connection structure or bearing
assembly structure. Therefore, the fatigue strength must be taken into account for the
design of the connection structure.

The reaction force from the superstructure is transmitted to the substructure by the
flexural rigidity of the upper and lower bearings. Therefore, a fair thickness is
required to obtain a uniform bearing pressure distribution in the contact portion of the
bearing with the superstructure and substructure. It is desirable that the member
thickness, t , of the upper and lower bearings satisfies Equation C. 4.1.2 with b being the
effective bearing width.

b
t - (C. 4.1.2)
5

(4) Anchor bolts should be basically used to secure the bearing to the substructure. The
anchor bolts should have a cross-sectional area (generally determined by the shear
force) that can resist the bridge's longitudinal and transverse total loads acting on the
bearing.

Except for the case where there is a necessity to take an especially large tensile force, it
is not desirable to reduce the anchor bolt diameter unnecessarily by using a higher
strength material. Thus, in general a diameter of 25 mm or more is used.

For anchor bolt-nut type lower bearings, the horizontal force may not be evenly
transmitted to the anchor bolts because of a large diameter difference between the
anchor bolt holes and anchor bolts. Therefore, if many anchor bolts are used in one
bearing, the anchor bolts do not act as one unit against the horizontal force during
earthquakes, and are subject to being "destroyed one by one" or may damage main
girders or substructures. Thus, it is recommended to consider a structure that can
transmit the horizontal force evenly to multiple anchor bolts or not to arrange many
anchor bolts even in bearings used for bridges of relatively longer spans.

For the embedded length in the substructure, it is stipulated to secure a length that can
ensure a bond against the uplift force and secure 10 times the anchor bolt diameter or
more.

The allowable stress of cast iron, forged iron and steel for Grip Joints used in bearings,
including the anchor bolts embedded in concrete, shall follow Section 3.2 of Part II,
Steel Bridges. In the old Specifications, about 70% of the allowable shear stress
stipulated in 3.2.1 and 3.2.2 of the Volume on Steel Bridges was specified as the

- 115 -
 allowable stress for anchor bolts, which are generally difficult to construct with
precision and are quite vulnerable to uncalculated forces. In this revision, however, the
allowable stress for anchor bolts has been revised in 3.2.3 of the Volume on Steel
Bridges, as it was decided that external forces and unreliability of construction, which
were seen as the cause of decreasing allowable stress, should be given appropriate
consideration in the verification stage. As for the anchor bolts of bearings, it is generally
considered that their functions can be realized without considering reduction of the
allowable stress, given that use of shrinkage-compensating mortar has increased the
ease of construction and a new verification method has been introduced to examine
tensile forces and the concurrent effects of tensile forces and shear forces. However, in
cases where a margin of safety is deemed necessary, such as when the construction of
anchor bolts is unreliable or they are very likely to be exposed to uncalculated forces,
due consideration needs to be given to these uncertainty factors.

In addition to the anchor bolts, there is a projection on the bottom of the bearings to
resist the horizontal force acting on the bearing. With steel bearings of cast iron, the
diameter difference between the anchor bolt holes and anchor bolts is large, therefore
the ordinarily acting horizontal force is resisted by the bearing pressure at the front
surface of the projection. However, if the horizontal force is increased in such a case
as a fixed bearing of a continuous girder, the projection height becomes fairly large and
mortar filling can become uncertain. This may also interfere the placement of
reinforcements in the substructure or reinforcing bars under the lower bearing, resulting
in inadequate construction of the substructure. Considering this, the maximum
projection height should be below 80 mm. In design, it is recommended to ensure that
the anchor bolts alone can resist the horizontal force.

If a negative reaction occurs in the bearing, the anchor bolts must resist this reaction, by
transfering the reaction through the bonding of the anchor bolts and concrete. However,
when the upward force is too strong for bonding or bonding is structurally difficult, an
anchor plate or anchor frame is needed. In this case, the bonding stress of anchor bolts
should not be counted when checking the stress on the bearing surface of the anchor
plate or anchor frame and the shear stress in the concrete.

This provision assumes a concrete substructure, and a separate investigation is required

for a steel substructure.

(5) For the fixing of lower bearings and anchor bolts, it is stipulated to use non-shrink
mortar because there are cases where adequate execution of work is difficult.

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 If non-shrink mortar is adopted to fix bearings to substructures or to embed anchor bolts,
the mortar should have an allowable bearing stress equal to or higher than the value
required in the design of the lower face of the bearing. The allowable bearing stress of
the concrete should be calculated according to Section 3.2 (6) of the Volume on
Concrete Bridges. If anchor bolts are fixed with other material than non-shrink mortar,
it is necessary to ensure that the anchor bolts are securely fixed.

4.1.5 Consideration of Durability

(1) Consideration shall be given to the bearing assembly to prevent functional deterioration
due to steel corrosion or rubber deterioration.

(2) The design in accordance with provisions (3) through (6) is deemed to satisfy (1).

(3) For the rubber bearing proper, the surface exposed to the atmosphere shall be covered
with rubber sheet of 5 mm or more in thickness having durability equal or superior to
the inner rubber. Appropriate rust and corrosion prevention shall be provided on the
steel bearing proper and other steel members.

(4) Appropriate rust and corrosion prevention shall be provided near the connection
surfaces between the rubber bearing proper and the upper and lower steel plates, and
there shall be no relative displacement between them.

(5) The bearing seat surface on which a bearing is installed shall have a structure of good
drainage to prevent rust and corrosion of the bearing.

(6) The main members of steel bearing shall have a thickness of 25 mm or more.

(3) According to the results of experiments and the record of the use of rubber bearings, no
large alterations in the physical properties of the inner rubber bearing material are
observed and the bearing function seems to be kept fine if a covering rubber about 5
mm thick is installed on the surface exposed to outer air. Thus, if the surface of a
rubber bearing is provided with a covering rubber of 5 mm thick or more having a
durability equal or superior to the bearing proper, this structure can be regarded to
sufficiently prevent inner steel corrosion and rubber deterioration. However, because
there are cases where the weather resistance of rubber is remarkably deteriorated on the
sea or in other places of severely corrosive environments or under cold environments,
the selection of the covering rubber thickness and material should be carried out
carefully and the consideration of a replaceable structure is recommended. With steel
bearings, the horizontal movement function or rotation function may be damaged due to
the bearing surface abrasion or corrosion. Hence, the superstructure or substructure

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 may be damaged. Thus, it is also stipulated to apply painting, galvanizing or other
appropriate rust prevention measures to the steel bearing proper and other steel
members according to the bearing type and environmental conditions.

(4) Because the bearing assembly is susceptible to the effect of rainwater or leakage from
the girder, adequate consideration is stipulated for the rust prevention of the connection
surface between the rubber bearing proper and the upper steel plate or the lower steel
plate. It is an effective measure to provide a covering rubber of 2 or 3 mm thick on the
top and the bottom faces of the rubber bearing proper to prevent rust and the sliding of
the steel plates. However, for a structure to fasten the rubber bearing proper and the
upper and lower steel plates with bolts, a relative displacement may occur due to the
effect of the covering rubber, which may cause bolt fatigue or bold loosening. Special
care is needed to install a covering rubber on the upper and lower faces.

(5) Because bearings are installed in particularly corrosion prone places on the bridge,
adequate consideration should be given to rust prevention. For the bearing seat in
particular, good drainage shall be ensured. For a low profile bearing, pedestal concrete
shall be provided or other consideration shall be given in the design. However, even
when pedestal concrete is provided, the durability of the bearing may be impaired if the
drainage slope on the substructure is not steep enough, a damp environment frequently
results due to rainwater from above, and drainage or dust accumulates. Therefore, it is
important to provide a favorable environment for the bearing as a whole.

Pedestal concrete is thin and prone to cracking, making it difficult to ensure the quality
of construction. When a pedestal concrete has broken or cracked, the result may be that
reactions of the bearing will not be appropriately transferred to the bridge seat or that
anchor bolts become corrosive or loose, leading to serious negative impacts on bearing
performance. As such, if pedestal concrete is provided, the pedestal height should be
restricted to the bearing edge distance of the pedestal or less, as shown in Figure C.
4.1.2, to ensure that the bearing pressure is adequately transmitted to the bridge seat.

h r
A
&JL
h : Pedestal concrete height

r : Bearing edge distance of

45' pedestal

Figure C. 4.1.2 Pedestal Concrete Height

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(6) For cast iron that forms the main members of a steel bearing, the minimum thickness of
major members shall be 25 mm because too thin members are prone to have defects
during casting.

4.1.6 Installation of Bearings

(1) A bearing assembly shall be accurately installed in the prescribed place.

(2) A special care shall be taken to embed anchor bolts and to fix bearing assembly to the
substructure.

(1) When installing a bearing, confirm the error based on the results of substructure survey
and the tentative superstructure shop assembly measurement. Rubber bearings should
be exactly installed at the prescribed position taking into account the vertical stiffness
obtained by product inspection.

Bearing assemblies should be installed taking into account the following points:

1) Error between the steel tape measure or geodimeter at site and those used for
tentative shop assembly

2) Span change due to the temperature difference between tentative shop assembly
and the actual erection

3) Span change due to the deflection caused by dead loads

4) Method to absorb the girder expansion or contraction due to camber or temperature

variation of the superstructure

As to when fixing the bearing, there are roughly two methods to fix bearings
regarding timing. Bearings are fixed before the erection of the superstructure by
one method and after completion of erection by another method. For steel
bearings, the general method is to fix the lower bearings to the substructure first
and then to adjust the girder expansion or contraction due to temperature variations,
drying shrinkage or camber by moving the upper bearing to an appropriate biased
position. On the other hand, for rubber bearings which consist of an upper and
lower bearing as one unit, biased installation used for steel bearings will incur
complicated work. Therefore, rubber bearings are allowed to be installed with the
designed amount of movement assumed at the design stage. However, for an
especially large designed amount of movement, the design of the rubber bearing
may become irrational. In this case, it is recommended to assume the temperature

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 of installation and to secure an appropriate amount of movement by adjusting the
displacement and installing the bearing at the prescribed position. For concrete
creep and expansion or contraction due to drying shrinkage, it is necessary to
appropriately consider the concrete age and its effect.

(2) Because there are cases where adequate work execution becomes difficult for the lower
face of bearings and for the fixing of anchor bolts, non-shrink mortar should be used as
a general rule. Even if non-shrink mortar is used, unexpected damage may occur if the
work is inappropriate. Careful control of works is indispensable for filling mortar.

4.2 Expansion Joint

4.2.1 General

(1) For expansion joints, an appropriate type, structure and materials shall be selected to
satisfy the following performance:

1) Road surface flatness shall be ensured to allow smooth vehicular traffic even if the
bridge is deformed by girder temperature variations, concrete creep, concrete
drying shrinkage and live loads.

2) Durability shall be ensured against vehicular traffic.

3) Water-tightness shall be ensured against intrusion of rainwater or the like.

4) Structure shall be considered for reduction of noise and vibration by vehicular

traffic.

5) Structure shall be considered to ensure the ease of construction, maintenance and

repair.

(2) For the seismic design of an expansion joint, the stipulations in the Part V, Seismic
Design shall apply.

(1 ) The expansion joint types include general joints consisting of a rubber material, steel,
finger joints that can deal with a relatively large amount of expansion or contraction,
large-displacement compliant joints, and buried joints. They are broadly divided into
the load bearing type, which supports T-loads at the slab gap, and the butt type, which
does not. For a relatively small amount of expansion or contraction, the butt type or
the buried joint is used. For a large amount of expansion or contraction, expansion
joints of the load bearing type are generally used. The type of the expansion joint

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should be selected by the amount of expansion or contraction first and then decided on
by comprehensive judgment on the performance required at the installed place.

1) The gap of an expansion joint generally varies according to the expansion or

contraction of the bridge. Expansion joints should expand or contract according to
such bridge deformation and allow safe vehicular traffic.

The construction accuracy of the pavement surface should be generally within ±3

mm of unevenness of the road surface, including the expansion joint, per a length
of 3 m in the vehicular running direction and including the expansion joint.
Therefore, the add-on method is desirable which finishes the pavement first and
then installs an expansion joint by cutting the necessary portion. Anchoring
should be done sufficiently during construction to prevent the occurrence of such a
step that running vehicles give an impact to the expansion joint. The expansion
joint should be installed with the necessary initial amount of compression
considering effect of secular change of bridge deformation. When deciding the
initial amount of compression, 15°C is used for the standard expansion joint
temperature.

2) The expansion shall be designed to ensure adequate fatigue endurance, because the
expansion joint is directly loaded with a wheel load that is accompanied by an
impact. It is generally difficult to exactly keep the effect of fatigue on the
expansion joint by stress checking or other methods. In order to ensure fatigue
endurance, it is necessary to ensure sufficient thickness for the component members
or otherwise give adequate consideration to the detail structure or the structure type
itself.

3) If rainwater or dust intrudes through the expansion joint, this may incur corrosion at
the girder end and damage of a bearing assembly. Therefore, adequate
consideration should be given to the expansion joint to make it watertight.
Consideration should also be given in the drainage plan of the bridge surface to
prevent water stagnation on the expansion joint. It is desirable to employ a joint
of high durability, also considering the fatigue described in 2), because repair or
renewal work of an expansion joint involves traffic control and causes congestion
or otherwise affects smooth traffic. About drainage and waterproofing layer on slab,
the "Design and Construction Data of Reinforced Concrete Slab Waterproofing
Layer of Road Bridges" (Japan Road Association, March 2007) shall be referred.

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 4) It is desirable that the expansion joint be flush with the road surface or form a small
step and hardly causes noise and vibration when a vehicle passes on it, because the
expansion joint is one of the sources of noise and vibration.

5) Expansion joints are relatively prone to water stagnation and dust accumulation as
with the bearing. Nevertheless, it often forms a place where maintenance is
difficult to do. In addition, the wheel load is directly imposed on it, so unexpected
damage is conceivable. Moreover, if hit by a large-scale earthquake, expansion
joints can suffer from abnormal joint gaps or may be unable to avoid severe
structural damage. Therefore, it is generally difficult to ensure the same durability
as the main structure of the bridge, and repair or member replacement often
becomes necessary during in-service period. Still, expansion joints have decisive
effects on serviceability. Thus, in choosing the structure of a connecting portion or
an expansion joint, it is necessary to consider the maintenance costs related to the
reliability and ease of cleaning, inspection, repair and replacement in addition to the
initial cost.

4.2.2 Design Amount of Expansion or Contraction

(1) The design amount of expansion or contraction of an expansion joint shall be set
considering girder temperature variations, concrete creep and drying shrinkage, amount
of movement of the superstructure due to the deflection caused by live loads, and the
amount of allowance for construction error.

(2) The calculation of design amount of expansion or contraction in accordance with the
stipulations in 4.1.3 is deemed to satisfy (1).

(1) The design amount of expansion or contraction of an expansion joint should be set
based on girder temperature variations, concrete creep and drying shrinkage, the amount
of superstructure movement due to the rotation caused by live loads, and the
construction error during installation and other amounts of margin. There are cases
where the design amount of expansion or contraction during an earthquake stipulated in
Clause 14.4.2 of the Volume on Seismic Design exceeds the design amount of
expansion or contraction stipulated in this clause. Thus, the effect of an earthquake
should be appropriately considered when setting the amount of expansion or
contraction.

(2) The design amount of expansion or contraction should be based on the same calculation
technique as for calculating the amount of movement of a bearing. The amount of
expansion or contraction due to the deflection caused by live loads should be

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 appropriately investigated considering the bridge behavior at the girder ends. For the
amount of margin, 10 mm should be taken as standard, but it can be separately
determined according to the bridge size, construction error and other actual conditions.

The calculation of the amount of girder rotation due to deflection may become
complicated. For such a case, the simplified calculation method shown in Table C.
4.2.1 should be referred. Because this basic amount of expansion or contraction
according to the simplified calculation method does not contain the effect of
longitudinal slope, girder rotation, and deflection caused by live loads, the error due to
the actual girder temperature and difference in coefficient of linear expansion, drying
shrinkage, creep displacement difference and the construction error should be taken to
be 20% of the basic amount of expansion or contraction as the error for calculation.
This amount of margin can be separately determined according to the bridge size or
construction error.

For a skew or curved bridge, the expansion joint is acted on by expansion or contraction
in both transverse and tangential directions at the girder ends, Therefore, an
appropriate amount of margin should be assumed in the tangential direction as well.

Table C. 4.2.1 Simplified Calculation Formula for Amount of Expansion or Contraction

Unit: mm
Reinforced Prestressed
Bridge type Steel bridge
concrete bridge concrete bridge
(1) Temperature variation 0.6 7 (0.72 /) 0.4 7 (0.5 7) 0.4 7 (0.5 7)
5
o
c
o
—
i

(2) Drying shrinkage 0.2 10 0.2 I p

CO
c £
c3 o
OH TJ
-
H
(3) Creep 0.4 7 p
x 2
0)ctf Basic amount of expansion or contraction 0.6 7 0.41 + 0.21 /3 0.4 7 + 0.6 7 /5
B ((1) + (2) + (3)) (0.72 7)
o g
—°
H
§
O
* P
(0.5 / + 0.2 / /?) (0.5 1 + 0.61 /3)
Basic amount of expansion or contraction x 20%,
a however, the minimum is 10 mm
< Allowance for construction error
(when the construction or other error is large,
a separate consideration shall be needed.)

/ = Expansion girder length (m) P = Factor of reduction (Table C. 4.2.2)

Values in parentheses in the table apply to cold regions.

Table C. 4.2.2 Simplified Factor of Reduction of Drying Shrinkage and Creep Used for
Expansion Joint

Concrete age (months) 1 3 6 12 24

Factor of reduction (/? ) 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1

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4.2.3 Forces Acting on Expansion Joint

The forces acting on an expansion joint shall be set appropriately considering the working
load and expansion joint type.

The expansion joint is directly loaded with a vertical load equivalent to the wheel load of a
vehicle passing on the slab gap. In the design, therefore, the acting forces should be
appropriately set to ensure a load carrying capacity against this load and fatigue durability
against repeated loading by this load.

The current T-load does not represent the axle load of an actual vehicle, but represents the
effect of adjacent axles replaced with a combination of concentrated loads. The vertical load
used in the design shall be taken for a T-load as the basis considering 100 kN from one wheel.
In this occasion, the impact shall be considered. For an expansion joint made of rubber or
steel material, the stress due to impact is 40% of the live load-induced stress generally. For
a finger joint that has a steel member having projections at the surface, the stress due to
impact is 100% generally. For an expansion joint in the sidewalk, a load according to the
service conditions can be used.

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 CHAPTER 5 ACCESSORIES AND OTHERS

5.1 Bridge Guard Fence

5.1.1 General

For installation of a bridge guard fence, the "Standard for Guard Fences" (Official Notice of
Director-General of the Road Bureau) shall apply.

The bridge guard fences include the "vehicle guard fence" for preventing a vehicle from
falling off of the bridge, the "pedestrian and bicycle fence" for preventing a pedestrian or the
like from falling off of the bridge, and the "vehicle guard fence also serving as a pedestrian
and bicycle fence" that is a vehicle guard fence to which the function of preventing a
pedestrian or the like from falling is added.

For the installation standard, performance, installation method and the like of bridge guard
fences, "Installation Standard for Guard Fences with Commentaries" (Japan Road Association,
January 2008) should be referred. For the standard specification of vehicle guard fence,
“Standard Specification for Vehicle Guard Fences with Commentaries” (Japan Road
Association, March 2004) should be referred.

5.1.2 Effect of Bridge Guard Fence on Deck Slab

(1 ) A pedestrian and bicycle guard fence shall be designed not to damage the bridge deck
slabs when subjected to the combination of thrust acting on the fence top and uniformly
distributed load on sidewalk. In this case, the allowable unit stress shall not be
overdesigned.

(2) A vehicle guard fence shall be designed not to damage the bridge deck slabs when
subjected to the external force caused by a collision of a vehicle against the vehicle
guard fence.

(3) When designed in accordance with provision (4), provision (2) is deemed to be
satisfied.

(4) For installation of a guardrail or other posted vehicle guard fence on the curb, slab deck
shall be designed as the moment of resistance of a post at the cross section at the
lower-most end of the post divided by the post spacing should act on the deck slab
uniformly as an end moment. For installation of a vehicle guard fence of a reinforced
concrete wall, the working moment used for the design of the wall bottom end shall be

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 imposed on the deck slab as an end moment without modification in the design. In
either case, the allowable unit stress may be overdesigned by applying the stipulations
in Section 3.1 of Part II: Steel Bridges.

If the post is directly anchored in the deck slab, employ a structure in which the working
moment due to a collision is dispersed in, and acts on, the deck slab. In this case, the
working moment on the deck slab may be taken to be equal to the case where installed
in the curb.

(1) For the pedestrian and bicycle fence, the safety of the deck slab shall be checked
assuming that the horizontal thrust due to leaning of pedestrians acts outward. In this
occasion, the horizontal thrust acting on the fence top and the fence height should be 2.5
kN/m and 1.10 m above the road surface as standard, as described in the "Installation
Standard for Guard Fences with Commentaries" (Japan Road Association).

(2) The vehicle guard fence includes a vehicle guard fence that also serves as a pedestrian
and bicycle fence.

(4) A posted guard fence resists to a vehicle collision by the cooperation of the reaction and
deformation. Therefore, the moment occurring at the lowermost end of the post is not
determined uniquely, but is influenced by the cross section dimension of the guard
fence itself. For the posted guard fence, calculation may be done assuming that the
moment of resistance of the post at the lowermost cross section of the post acts on the
deck slab, considering the ease of calculation.

For a guard fence of a reinforced concrete wall, it hardly deforms when subjected to an
automobile collision. In ordinary cases, the design is executed by replacing the
automobile collision load by a simple static load. Therefore, for the moment to act on
the deck slab, the working moment used for the design of the wall lower end may be
used without modifications.

When the post is anchored directly in the deck slab, it cannot be expected that the
moment due to a collision is dispersed in, and acts on, the deck slab unlike the case
where installed on a curb. This results in a very large moment acting on the deck slab.
Therefore, it is stipulated that the anchoring portion of the post should employ a
structure that disperses the collision-induced moment in the deck slab. For design of
the anchoring portion of a post, "Installation Standard for Guard Fences with
Commentaries" (Japan Road Association, January 2008) or the "Standard Specifications
for Vehicle Guard Fences with Commentaries" (Japan Road Association, March 2004)
should be referred.

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5.2 Drainage

(1) Quick drainage on the bridge surface shall be considered for vehicle traffic safety.

(2) Each structural part shall be designed to drain water surely considering the bridge
durability. Quick drainage on the top surface of the deck slab shall be considered.

(3) Drainage facilities shall be designed as matching with the planned maintenance method
or the like and having durability, to maintain its function during the service period of
the bridge.

(1 ) Water on the bridge surface must be drained quickly in view of vehicular traffic safety.
Therefore, the road surface should be given a necessary cross slope and catch basins of
adequate size should be installed in the shoulder portion at appropriate intervals.

The transverse slope on the bridge surface should be 1.5 to 2.0% as standard. If the
bridge surface is concave because of the longitudinal slope before and beyond the
bridge, a catch basin shall be installed certainly at the lowest point of the concave
portion. Near that, catch basins should be installed at intervals of 3 to 10 m. On the
other parts of the bridge surface, batch basins shall be installed considering the
longitudinal and transverse slopes. In this case, it is generally recommended that they
are placed at intervals of 20m or less. A catch basin should be installed near the
expansion joint to minimize the inflow to the expansion joint. "Guideline for Road
Earth Work and Drainage Work" (Japan Road Association, June 2009) should be
referred.

(2) For maintenance of a bridge, consideration of measures against corrosion is one of the
most important matters. Structural consideration is the first step in preventing
rainwater stagnation and permeation. However, it is difficult to completely exclude
these. To avoid water stagnation in a structural member even if these should occur,
each portion of a structure should have a construction capable of sure drainage.

In a closed cross-section of a box girder, rigid frame pier or truss of steel construction, it
may happen that rainwater intrudes from the splice there and stagnates inside and this
may cause corrosion , Therefore, drainage holes should be provided to make the
structure capable of complete drainage.

If rainwater intrudes and stagnates on the top surface of a deck slab, this may cause
separation of the waterproofing layer and the asphalt pavement bottom layer. There is
concern that this may have an adverse effect on the durability of the pavement or deck

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 slab. Therefore, if the pavement has a drainage function added to the pavement
surface course, or at a place prone to water stagnation on the deck slab surface because
of the longitudinal and transverse slopes in particular, such as providing weep holes at
appropriate positions besides installing catch basins, structural consideration is needed
to be able to quickly drain permeated water. When weep holes are needed, they should
be installed at positions where the effect of wheel load is small . The treatment of
drainage should be cared.

Drainpipes are particularly apt to be clogged with dust, so their cross sections should be
circular as a general rule, and the inner diameter should be 150 mm at minimum. It is
good to avoid sharp bends. Drained water should be conveyed to above-ground
facilities for drainage in such a way that it is not dispersed over the bridge body, etc.
However, when water is directly drained from under girders, slabs, etc., drainage should
not be splashed against the bridge by wind. Moreover, wind, etc. may cause vibrations
in drainpipes. Therefore, it is necessary to make special consideration to durability with
respect to the structure and installation of drainpipes.

To make the drainage facilities sufficiently fulfill their function and not damage the
scenery, it is desirable to consider the drainage plan from the early stage of the bridge
design.

(3) In recent years, there have been cases in which deterioration and damage to drainpipes
installed within girders caused water to stagnate inside, resulting in severe corrosion of
steel members, deterioration of concrete members, etc. Generally speaking, drainpipes
are less durable than the main bodies of bridges, both in terms of materials and structure.
This means that it is essential to regularly check their conditions. In particular, when
water leakage or stagnation is left unattended inside a girder or water that is leaking due
to some abnormality in a drainpipe continues to splash onto the same area of a bridge,
serious adverse effects may result on the main body of the bridge. In order to avoid the
foregoing, drainage facilities are required to have an easy-to-maintain structure and
adequate durability to meet requirements as follows. One is that make possible to
monitor their conditions by planned maintenance that includes inspection. Another is
that makes possible to ensure that appropriate measures can be taken before the main
body of the bridge is severely affected.

5.3 Bridge Pavement

(1 ) For the bridge pavement structure, the "Technical Standard for Pavement Structure"

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 (Official Notice of Director-General of the Road Bureau and Director-General of the
City and Regional Development Bureau) shall apply.

(2) A cement concrete pavement shall be constructed to form an integral structure with the
deck slab concrete.

(3) For an asphalt pavement, a waterproofing layer shall be provided to prevent rainwater
from permeating the deck slab.

(1) The bridge pavement is provided to protect the slab decks from the impact due to traffic
loads and rainwater and other meteorological conditions as well as to secure safe and
comfortable traffic of vehicles. The bridge pavement quality has a large effect on the
durability and compatibility with the intended use of the bridge. Therefore, adequate
consideration should be given to the structure of the bridge pavement when designing
the bridge.

The effect of deck slab deflection, construction error of deck slab thickness, welding
deformation of the steel slab deck plates, flatness of the projections of the connecting
portions and other bridge structures and bridge surface conditions have a large effect on
ensuring bridge pavement quality. Therefore, for the design of bridge pavement the
"Technical Standard for Pavement Structure with Commentaries" (Japan Road
Association, September 2001) should apply. And adequate consideration should be
given to the relevance to the deck slabs, floor systems, expansion joints, catch basins.

(2) For concrete cement pavement, avoid placing the pavement concrete and slab concrete
separately. Otherwise, they become apt to crack due to drying shrinkage because their
respective thicknesses are thin, and there is concern of stripping due to bridge body
vibrations, impact from the wheels, rainwater permeation. Therefore, to obtain an
integral structure of pavement concrete and slab concrete, consideration should be
necessary in construction for placing both at the same time.

(3) If rainwater permeates the reinforced concrete slab, it not only corrodes the
reinforcements and steels in the slab but also accelerates concrete deterioration,
particularly the deterioration of slab concrete under the action of a repeated load.
These have remarkably adverse effects on the load carrying capacity and durability of
the slab. Therefore, necessary measures should be taken to prevent the rainwater
having reached the top surface of the slab from permeating the slab by providing a
waterproofing layer. At the same time, adequate sealing measures are necessary at the
boundary potion to prevent rainwater from permeating the slab from the place adjacent
to a curb, catch basin, expansion joint and manhole.

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 The space between the sidewalk slab and pavement is often filled with crushed stone or
sand. If rainwater permeates this portion from the pavement surface and stagnates
there, it may affect the slab. In the cold regions, in particular, there is concern that
repeated freezing and melting cycles will accelerate slab concrete deterioration.
Therefore, structural considerations are necessary for ensuring rainwater drainage in the
sidewalk portion also.

For design and construction of a waterproofing layer, the " Handbook for Waterproof of
Deck Slab of Road Bridges" (Japan Road Association, March 2007) should be referred.

5.4 Inspection Facilities

It is desirable to install inspection facilities if necessary for future maintenance of the bridge.
For installation of an inspection facility, the effect on the bridge proper shall be minimized.

Considering the importance of future bridge maintenance, it is desirable to install inspection

facilities if necessary for maintenance or inspection. When installing an inspection facility
needed for bridge maintenance or inspection, this clause stipulates that the attaching structure
will have the minimum adverse effect on the bridge proper.

Even with a hung piece or other small member, it is conceivable that such a member may
cause fatigue strength deterioration of the bridge proper. Therefore, care must be taken in
choosing an attaching structure and its position.

For installation of an inspection facility, bridging position, crossing conditions, structural type
and other various conditions should be considered synthetically. The inspection facility
should include an inspection passage, ladder and other fixed facilities. In addition, it is also
good to consider other inspection techniques that use a camera, bridge inspection vehicle, or
the like, and install an appropriate facility for that.

5.5 Accessory Facilities

For installation of lighting, traffic signs, noise barriers or other accessory facilities, their effect
shall be considered and necessary measures shall be taken. For selection of the installation
position of an accessory facility, the effect on the bridge proper shall be minimized.

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When an accessory facility is to be installed or future installation is planned, bridge design
calculation must be done considering the dead load of the accessory facility and the effect of
wind.

The accessory facility installed on the bridge may vibrate by running vehicles or wind. The
vibration brings about fatigue and causes the attaching bolts to become loose, the former
doing damage to the accessory facility proper and its attaching portion. Care must be taken
in the design against these.

In addition, there have also been cases where marked corrosion took place locally due to
environmental conditions after installation. Accessory facilities may be at risk of collapsing or
damaging third parties via falling objects depending on where they are installed and what
structure they have. Therefore, while still in the design stage, it is important to take great care
to ensure that future maintenance operations can be carried out properly by giving careful
consideration to regular inspections, how to inspect the accessory facilities in order to prevent
damaging third parties, and the ease of detecting abnormalities and taking measures to deal
with such abnormalities, etc.

For the accessory facility proper, it shall be designed according to its relevant technical
standards in addition to this Specification. For installation of lighting and traffic signs,
"Standard for Road Lighting Facility Installation" (Official notice of Director-General of the
City and Regional Development Bureau and Director-General of the Road Bureau) and the
"Standard for Road Sign Installation" (Official notice of Director-General of the City Bureau
and Director-General of the Road Bureau) should be referred respectively.

5.6 Affixed Articles

When affixing a water pipe, its effect on the bridge shall be considered and necessary
measures shall be taken. For installation of the affixing position or for design of the affixing
structure, the effect on the bridge proper shall be considered.

When a water pipe or gas pipe is to be affixed or their affixing is planned for the future, the
design calculation must be done considering their effect on the bridge. In choosing an
affixing structure for an affixed article, an appropriate structure should be designed
considering fatigue strength deterioration.

Considering the amount of bridge movement during an earthquake, the affixing structure
should be considered as by installing an expansion-absorbing portion to prevent adverse
effects on the bridge.

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5.7 Others

For security of the bridge facilities if necessary measures shall be considered to ensure that no
third party can enter the bridge facilities.

By admission of third parties to the bridge facilities, there is concern of corrosion acceleration
due to the earth or garbage brought in, damage by fire. Thus, it is desirable to install a
barrier fence and lock the administrator entrance passage if necessary in view of both bridge
security and bridge maintenance.

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 CHAPTER 6 RECORDS

6.1 Bridge Ledger

The bridge ledger shall have an entry of bridge length, width, design load (specification
applied), design seismic coefficient, foundation type and embedded length, ground conditions,
structural drawings of major portions, year and month completed, and other matters necessary
for future maintenance, and shall be kept in custody.

Because the bridge ledger is necessary for maintenance, future planning, and various
investigations, special care should be taken of its maintenance and safekeeping.

It is also desirable to separately record and keep the repair history of the members and other
important matters about inspection and maintenance.

6.2 Bridge Nameplate

The bridge shall be provided with a bridge nameplate as a general rule, which shall have an
entry of the bridge name, year and month completed, specification document applied, live
load, steel materials used, primary contractor, name of the company that designed, fabricated
or constructed it, and other minimum necessary matters for future maintenance.

The bridge nameplate is installed for reference for future problems about the bridge such as
repair, reinforcing, maintenance and others. For the dimensions of the bridge nameplate,
Figure C. 6.2.1 may be used as a reference.

300 mm 13mm* 300 mm

Bridge name Bridge name

Year and month Year and month
Regional Improvement Bureau Regional Improvement Bureau
Road Specification (2001 ) Road Specification (2001)
8
CM
B-live load
Steel materials used: xxxx
8
CM
B-live load
Anchoring methods: xxxx
Designed: company name Designed: company name
Fabricated: company name Constructed: company name

—— II
8mm
T
* Plate thickness 8 mm, character relief 5 mm,
total 13 mm

Figure C. 6.2.1 Example of Bridge Nameplate

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Future maintenance may require a broad range of information. It is often helpful to keep all
varieties of records and literature related directly or indirectly to the bridge, as well as
relevant materials concerning the planning, investigation, design, construction, etc. of the
bridge, to appropriately and efficiently implement diagnoses, repair and reinforcement work,
functional improvements, other operations in the event of a disaster, and to deal with
deterioration or damage, etc. due to other causes. Conversely, lack of the above information in
the maintenance stage often results in an inability to conduct investigation to obtain the
necessary information and thus irrational responses, or results in unnecessarily
time-consuming and expensive investigation, bound by the on-site restraints.

Therefore, besides what is described on the bridge nameplate, which is the minimum
information required at the site to check the matters specified in this clause, other information
related to the bridge that may be necessary for future maintenance should be stored in a form
that allows for efficient use in the future in accordance with Section 6.3.

6.3 Matters Concerning Design and Construction

Records of the following matters concerning design and construction shall be created after
completion of the bridge and stored appropriately so that they may be used for maintenance
purposes during the in-service period of the bridge.

(1) Records concerning investigation stipulated in Section 1.4

(2) Records concerning planning stipulated in Section 1.5

(3) Records concerning design methods stipulated in Section 1.6.1

(4) Records concerning structural design-related considerations stipulated in Section 1.6.2

(5) Design drawings, etc. stipulated in Section 1.7

(6) Records concerning construction

(1) When constructing a bridge, a wide variety of investigations need to be carried out,
throughout all stages from planning to completion, to ascertain the topographical,
geological and meteorological conditions of the construction site and surrounding areas;
the conditions related to adjacent structures and buried objects; and conditions
concerning the region and environment. The results of these investigations often closely
relate to the performance of the bridge, providing design preconditions, and include
much information that is essential for dealing with problems (e.g., deterioration and

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 damage) in the future and for rationally evaluating the conditions of the bridge and
examining restoration work in the event of a disaster. In addition, some of this
information is difficult to obtain once the bridge has been put into service (e.g.,
information on the local ground conditions).

(2) In selecting a bridging location and bridge type, in order to ensure that the bridge will
achieve the performance required of it without fail, it is important to pay attention not
only to the design of the bridge but also to what in-service maintenance work should be
carried out. This is why information concerning studies in the planning stage, as noted
in 1.5, is often closely related to the performance of the bridge. In particular, when
abnonnalities that are suspected to have been caused by an earthquake or landslide are
present, information such as how external conditions (e.g., topographical, geological
and meteorological conditions of the bridging site and surrounding areas as well as
crossing objects) have been reflected in the design of the bridge is very helpful in
examining measures to deal with such abnormalities. It should also be added that it is
difficult to develop accurate understanding of the studies that have been carried out in
the planning stage or specifications and other grounds for decision-making once such
records have been lost.

(3) A wide variety of analytical techniques and design theories are used in the design of
bridges. In addition, the specifications, etc. of individual bridges are sometimes decided
upon separately through experiments or other verification processes. When it becomes
necessary to carry out repair or reinforcement work on a bridge during its service, it is
important to accurately understand what method was used to design the bridge
originally and to take appropriate measures accordingly. Further, there are some cases
often which makes impossible to reproduce structural models or take rational measures.
The case is that the examination area is narrow enough to make it impossible the direct
visual inspection. As similar areas, the members with closed cross-sections insides and
underground or underwater foundation structures can be enumerated. And another case
is that prestress or other initial forces of the members are unknown. Therefore, it is
necessary to store as much design-related information as possible throughout the
in-service period of the bridge.

(4) As regards the structural design-related considerations specified in Section 1.6.2, to

what degree they should be reflected in actual bridges and what specifically should be
considered depend on the conditions of each bridge. Because of this, without records it
will be difficult to identify what approaches have been adopted and what considerations
have been given in the future. Moreover, these matters for consideration also need to be
reflected in studies on taking emergency response measures in the event of a disaster or

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 carrying out repair or reinforcement work to deal with deterioration or damage.
Otherwise, it will be impossible to take rational measures.

(5) The matters that shall be described in design drawings or the like stipulated in Section
1.7 have been organized as items that need to be considered in order to appropriately
conduct repair, reinforcement, and other necessary maintenance work on a bridge
during its service. In the descriptions, information from the investigation and planning
stages related to design and the performance of the completed bridge (e.g., construction
quality) as well as changes related to design and other aspects that have been made in
the construction stage is included. Information on these matters needs to be stored as
records, together with the information mentioned in provisions (1) to (4), without
exaggeration or omission.

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