Cement and Concrete Composites 104 (2019) 103418

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Cement and Concrete Composites

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Effects of prestressing and saw-cutting on the freeze-thaw durability T

a,∗ b c d
Mohammed T. Albahttiti , Ahmad A. Ghadban , Kyle A. Riding , David A. Lange
a
Concrete Industry Management, California State University, Chico, CA, 95929, USA
b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
c
Department of Civil and Coastal Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
d
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: There are many factors that affect the freeze-thaw durability of concrete elements, including proper air en-
Prestressed concrete trainment system, freeze-thaw durable aggregates, low permeability, and proper curing. While ASTM C666
Concrete saw-cutting allows the excising of small freeze-thaw samples from larger sections it doesn't address the issues that can arise
Freeze-thaw durability when excising samples from prestressed concrete and subsequent testing in freezing and thawing. In order to
investigate the effects of saw-cutting, the existence of reinforcement, and use of prestressing, concrete samples of
different sizes, with and without saw-cutting, with and without reinforcement, and with and without prestres-
sing were tested in freeze-thaw. The freeze-thaw mechanism was adjusted, from that of ASTM C666, for the
larger sample in terms of freezing and thawing rates and the testing method. The results indicate that saw-
cutting through plain concrete had minimal effect on the freeze-thaw durability, whereas sawcuts through re-
inforcement were shown to be very detrimental to the measured durability in the tests.

1. Introduction freeze-thaw durability. He attempted to compare the performance of

Repeated cycles of freezing and thawing may lead to damage varying
from cracking to complete degradation of concrete. Observations and
testing of construction material durability in freezing conditions have
been conducted since the 1800s [1]. Freeze-thaw deterioration is typi-
cally manifested in one of two ways: surface scaling or internal damage
[2]. Surface scaling occurs as a result of exposure to salts such as de-icing
salt or sea water during freeze-thaw cycles. Concrete surface scaling is
defined as the progressive loss of cement or mortar particles only a few
millimeters in thickness [3]. Concrete mixtures susceptible to surface
scaling are not necessarily susceptible to bulk freeze-thaw damage [4].
During the last fifty years, many theories have attempted to explain in-
ternal or bulk damage due to the freeze-thaw effect on concrete elements.
Several mechanisms have been proposed to cause internal freeze-thaw
damage: critical saturation, hydraulic pressure, and ice accretion and
osmotic pressure [5]. Three main concrete properties control freeze-thaw
deterioration in concrete: aggregate characteristics, concrete perme-
ability, and the air void system [14].
This paper examines freeze-thaw testing issues arising from excising
samples from plain, reinforced and prestressed concrete. The research
done by Fouad E. Musleh in 1959 looked at the effect of post-tensioning
on freeze-thaw durability of concrete [15], and is considered one of
very few studies performed to address the effects of reinforcement on
ordinary concrete and post-tensioned concrete under repeated cycles of
freezing and thawing. Ordinary concrete had an ultimate strength of
3000 psi (20.7 MPa), while the post-tensioned concrete had an ultimate
strength of 5000 psi (34.5 MPa) [15]. Musleh concluded that post-
tensioning concrete improves durability against freeze-thaw conditions.
In addition, continuously post-tensioned concrete specimens were more
durable than intermittently-stressed concrete specimens. Regardless of
the type of stressing, stressed samples are more resilient against freeze-
thaw than unstressed concrete samples. However, because the tests
were conducted with concrete made with different strength, the better
performance could be attributed to the lower concrete permeability in
the post-tensioned samples [15]. The effects of saw-cutting and pre-
stressing were assessed by the Canadian Rail Research Center in 1979.
They performed freeze-thaw testing on large samples saw-cut from
eight prestressed concrete railroad ties [16]. Three samples were col-
lected from each two-tie set. The first two samples (A and B) were cut
from a tie that cracked under static loading; the third sample (C) was
cut from a tie that failed in fatigue under dynamic loading. It was found
that air entrained concrete samples performed well in that study.
Although saw-cutting of concrete for freeze-thaw testing remains an
acceptable method according to ASTM C666, its effects are unknown on
prestressed concrete samples. Limited research has been conducted on the
effects of saw-cutting and stress release caused by saw-cutting in

∗
Corresponding author. 400 W 1st Street, Concrete Industry Management, California State University, Chico, CA, 95929, USA.
E-mail address: malbahttiti@csuchico.edu (M.T. Albahttiti).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2019.103418
Received 1 September 2018; Received in revised form 21 August 2019; Accepted 10 September 2019
Available online 13 September 2019
0958-9465/ © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
M.T. Albahttiti, et al. Cement and Concrete Composites 104 (2019) 103418

prestressed concrete members. This research aims to address the effects of Table 2
saw-cutting and the existence of reinforcement, prestressed or not, in saw- Fresh and hardened air content of all tested samples.
cut samples on freeze-thaw durability of concrete samples during testing. Sample Fresh Air Hardened Air Spacing
Content, % Content, % Factor, in
(mm)
2. Materials
Tie 1 Half Tie 1 (HT1) – 3.6 0.0117
For this study, concrete railroad ties were used as the structural Saw-cut Set 1-M1 (0.2972)
member to be tested, although the results can be generalized to concrete 1 (SHT1) 1-M2
1-B
excised from other structural member types. A total of 10 railroad ties
were examined in this study. Ties 1 through 4 were taken from railroad Tie 2 Half Tie 2 (HT2) – 2.5 0.0131
track during construction, but before being put into service. The pro- Saw-cut Set F-M1 (0.3327)
portions of the mix designs for Ties 1 through 10 were not available to 2 (SHT2) F-M2
F–B
the researchers due to the proprietary nature of these mixes for the ties.
The concrete used to make ties 5 through 10 used granite aggregate Tie 3 Half Tie 3 (HT3) 8.5 4 0.0098
with a nominal maximum size of 0.75 in (19 mm). Type III cement was Saw-cut Set 09-M1 (0.2489)
used in all concrete used in this project. Two different concrete mixtures 3 (SHT3) 09-M2
09-B
where used to make ties 5 through 10: one with air entraining agent and
one without an air entraining agent. Properties of these two types of Tie 4 Half Tie 4 (HT4) – 4 0.0133
concrete are presented in Table 1. The initial fresh air content when Saw-cut Set 06-M1 (0.3378)
available and hardened air void analysis conducted according to ASTM 4 (SHT4) 06-M2
C457 are shown in Table 2. Samples labeled as Cast Prisms and Cast 06-B

Prisms/No Air refer to samples made from the same two mix designs/
Tie 5 Half Tie 5 (HT5) 7 6.1 0.0049
batch used to make ties 5 through 10. These two set of samples, Cast Saw-cut Set PA-1 (0.1245)
Prisms and Cast Prisms/No Air will be the non-half tie samples (non-HT) 5 (SHT5) PA-2
and will act as our benchmarking samples. The half ties were given the PA-W
designation HT#, followed by the tie number. The saw-cut set of samples
Tie 6 Half Tie 6 (HT6) 0.9 2.3 0.0083
were given the designation SHT#, where HT# corresponds to the other Saw-cut Set PNA-1 (0.2108)
half of the same tie used in the half tie testing. Excised samples were also 6 (SHT6) PNA-2
assigned an individual ID in addition to the set ID. The individual ID was
used to help identify the material properties and sample reinforcement. PNA-W

The letter W instead of a number represents samples with embedded Tie 7 Saw-cut Set NPA-1 7 4.9 0.0030
vibrating wire gauge sensors. As for samples that didn't have large scale 7 (NPA) NPA-2 (0.0762)
half ties testing (Ties 7 through 10), they were given IDs that represented
the material and structural properties of the tie. The letter N in these NPA-W
samples refers to No/Non, the letter P refers to prestressed, the letter A
Tie 8 Saw-cut Set NPNA-1 0.9 3.5 0.0090
refers to Air and the letter W refer to Wire/reinforcement. 8 (NPNA) NPNA-2 (0.2286)
NPNA-W

3. Methodology Tie 9 Saw-cut Set NWA-1 7 3.5 0.0088

9 (NWA) NWA-2 (0.2235)
In order to investigate the effects of saw-cutting and reinforcement NWA-W
on the freeze-thaw durability, three sets of samples were tested. In this
Tie 10 Saw-cut Set NWNA-1 0.9 3.2 0.0033
testing, six prestressed concrete railroad ties were sawcut in the middle 10 (NWNA) NWNA-2 (0.0838)
to create to symmetric half-tie samples. The first set of samples were NWNA-W
large scale samples which consisted of six half ties (HT1 through HT6).
The second set of samples were smaller samples saw-cut from the re- Cast Prisms C1-A 7 6.1 0.0049
C4-A (0.1245)
maining halves of the ties. Additional small specimens were saw-cut
from ties 7 through tie 10. Ties 7 and 9 were made from the same Cast Prisms/No Air C1-NA 0.9 2.3 0.0083
concrete batch as ties 5. Tie 7 was made with reinforcement, but not C4-NA (0.2108)
prestressed. Tie 9 was unreinforced. Ties 8 and 10 were made from the
same concrete batch as tie 6. Tie 8 was made with reinforcement, but
not prestressed. Tie 10 was unreinforced. Excising the samples from the
same ties used in the first set allowed for a more direct comparison between freeze-thaw sample types. The last set of samples consisted of
prisms made without any reinforcement. The concrete for those samples
Table 1 were placed in 3 × 4 × 16 in. (76.2 × 101.6 × 406.4 mm) molds
Properties of concrete used for the fabricated tie. during fabrication in order to avoid sawcutting. Two cast prisms were
Non-Air Entrained Air Entrained made from the same concrete used to make Tie 5 (C1-A and C4-A) and
two prisms were made from the same concrete used to make Tie 6 (C1-
Temperature, °F (°C) 82.2 (27.9) 83.6 (28.7)
NA and C4-NA). Finally, an additional verification and validation study
Unit Weight, lb/ft3 (kg/m3) 148.4 (2377.1) 138 (2210.6)
Fresh Air Content (%) 0.9 7 was performed to validate the outcomes of the field collected samples.
Compressive Strength at Release, psi (MPa) 6850 (47.2) 6630 (45.7)
Splitting Tensile Strength at Release, psi 410 (2.8) 560 (3.9) 3.1. Sample preparation and testing
(MPa)
Compressive Strength at 28 days, psi (MPa) 13570 (93.6) 12380 (85.4)
3.1.1. Large scale samples
Splitting Tensile Strength at 28 days, psi 740 (5.1) 760 (5.2)
(MPa) Half Ties 1 through 6 (HT1 – HT6) were soaked in a lime water bath
at 73.4 ± 3 °F (23 ± 1.7 °C) for 7 days, as shown in Fig. 1. The saw-

2
M.T. Albahttiti, et al.
Fig. 1. Soaked half ties covered with burlap.
cut ends of the ties were epoxied in order to eliminate absorption from
that end and simulate the presence of a full tie. The half ties were tested
at various stages of initial preparation. The tested half ties were 4.25 ft
(1.3 m) long with a trapezoidal cross section (10 in. (254 mm) top, 11
in. (280 mm) bottom, and 10.5 in. (267 mm) height). Fig. 2 shows il-
lustrations of the shapes of the two types of half ties tested. Half Ties 1
through 4 have shapes similar to Shape I, while Half Ties 5 and 6 have
shapes similar to Shape II as shown in Fig. 2. Ties 7 through 10 also
share the same shape with Half Ties 5 and 6.
Initial testing was performed after the samples were soaked in lime
water. The small sawcut prisms were soaked for 2 days, whereas the
larger half ties were soaked for 7 days. After the samples were cooled to
40 °F (4 °C) following the 7-day soaking period. After the soaking
period, the half ties were removed from the lime water bath and
wrapped with wet burlap. The wet burlap was placed around the ties to
ensure that free water was present all around the half ties for the
duration of the test. In addition, the samples were wrapped with plastic
wrap to avoid evaporation during the freezing stage. During the testing
of the samples excess free water was added to the plastic to ensure
similar conditions to the boxes of small samples.
After completing initial testing, the sample was subjected to 300
freeze-thaw cycles using a large freeze-thaw chamber. The chamber was
designed to hold three whole ties, or six half ties, and cycle the concrete
ties between 0 ± 3 °F (−18 ± 1.7 °C) to 40 ± 3 °F (4 ± 1.7 °C). The
temperatures were maintained at a distance of 4.5 in. (114.3 mm) from
the top surface of the ties (Center of the samples). The chamber was
able to cycle the concrete ties through 3.13 freeze-thaw cycles every
day with cycle lengths of 460 min. Fig. 3 shows typical temperatures
measured by thermocouples from the center of the half tie during
freeze-thaw cycles. Half ties were tested every 36 cycles or less.
3.1.2. Saw-cut samples
In order to understand the effects of saw-cutting, reinforcement
inclusion, and prestressing on freeze-thaw tests, concrete ties were
fabricated with prestressing wires (SHT5 and SHT6) and un-prestressed
wires (SHT7 and SHT8) and without steel reinforcement (SHT9 and
SHT10). All reinforced ties were made with 0.209 in (5.32 mm) dia-
meter steel wires. The prestressed ties were prestressed to 7000 lbs
(31138 N) per wire. In addition to these ties, four additional air-en-
trained prestressed concrete ties were obtained from railroad track
before being placed into service. Three samples were excised from each
tie and tested in freeze-thaw conditions. The other halves of the pre-
stressed ties were used in the freeze-thaw testing described in the
Fig. 2. Sizes and shapes of the half ties tested.
3
Cement and Concrete Composites 104 (2019) 103418
previous section. Three samples were exerted from the end of each tie,
as shown in Fig. 4. The samples had dimensions of 3 × 4 × 11 in.
(76.2 × 101.6 × 279.4 mm), as shown in Fig. 5. End pins were then
installed on the saw-cut samples in order to measure length change
resulting from freeze-thaw testing. Finally, the samples were soaked in
lime water for 2 days at 40 ± 3 °F (4 ± 1.7 °C) according to ASTM
C666.
Initial sample measurements were taken on the samples after they
reached 40 ± 3 °F (4 ± 1.7 °C). Initial measurements included change
in weight, change in length, and transverse resonant frequency. In order
to satisfy requirements of ASTM C666 Method A, the samples were
tested at least every 36 freeze-thaw cycles [8]. The samples were tested
according to ASTM C666 with at least 5 cycles per day. A typical saw-
cut sample is presented in Fig. 6.
3.1.3. Cast samples
In addition to the half ties and saw-cut samples, four cast samples
were made from the same concrete used to make half ties 5 and 6. Two
of the samples were made with air-entrained concrete and two without
air entrainment. The samples had embedded pins in order to measure
change in length. The cast samples were larger than the saw-cut sam-
ples, with dimensions of 3 × 4 × 16 in. (76.2 × 101.6 × 406.4 mm) in
order to satisfy ASTM C666 requirements. Cast prism freeze-thaw
testing was conducted in accordance with ASTM C666. Initial pre-
paration and testing of these samples was done after the samples were
moist cured for 14 days. Table 3 summarizes samples used in this part
of the study and testing done on each sample.
3.2. Verification and validation
In order to verify field samples results, an additional set of samples
were made in the laboratory. All the additional samples were made
from a single mixture. This mixture was made with an air content of
5.1% in order to ensure that if failure occurred, it wouldn't be due to the
poor air system. Also, the mixture was chosen to be very fluid with a
yield stress of 86.2 Pa (0.0125 psi) and a plastic viscosity of 57.1 Pa s
(38.4 lb/(ft·s)) in order to ensure proper consolidation since it was not
subjected to vibration. These parameters correspond to an SCC mix with
a slump greater than 10 in (250 mm). The mixture utilized ASTM C150
Type III cement, a natural siliceous sand, a limestone coarse aggregate,
a polycarboxylate high range water reducer (HRWR), and a vinsol resin
air entraining agent (AEA). The coarse aggregate had a specific gravity
of 2.69 and absorption of 0.39% while the fine aggregate had a specific
gravity of 2.66, absorption of 0.74% and fineness modulus of 3.02. The
water-cement ratio (w/c) used was 0.33. The percentage by volume of
paste, rock and sand were 30.5%, 31.6% and 31.9%, respectively. The
HRWR and AEA dosages were 7.67 oz/cwt (4.46 ml/kg) and 0.48 oz/
cwt (0.28 ml/kg), respectively. Three set of samples were made for this
verification; plain, reinforced and saw-cut with reinforcement. Both the
reinforced and the saw-cut reinforced samples had 0.209 in (5.32 mm)
diameter steel wires. The plain and reinforced prisms were prepared
using 3 × 4 × 16 in. (76.2 × 101.6 × 406.4 mm) molds while re-
inforced saw-cut prisms were saw-cut from a 3 × 4 × 85 in.
(76.2 × 101.6 × 2159 mm)-long beam. The saw-cut samples presented
here were only saw-cut from the ends. Fig. 7 shows the saw-cutting
process of the 3 × 4 in. (76.2 × 101.6 mm) beam.
3.3. Deterioration measurements
Measurement of freeze-thaw durability of large-scale prestressed
concrete ties was done using multiple non-destructive testing (NDT)
methods to determine the ability of each method to measure dete-
rioration of prestressed concrete railroad ties undergoing freeze-thaw
testing. These methods included Resonant Frequency (RF), Ultrasonic
Pulse Velocity (UPV), Impact Echo (IE), and mass change measure-
ments.
M.T. Albahttiti, et al.
Fig. 3. Typical freeze-thaw cycle temperatures measured 4.5 in. (114 mm) from the concrete tie surface.
Fig. 4. Saw-cutting samples from the tie end.
Fig. 5. Three saw-cut samples from the tie end to be 3 × 4 × 11 in.
(76.2 × 101.6 × 279.4 mm) in size.
RF was performed on both types of half ties with an accelerometer
that measured the impact wave 38 in. (965 mm) away. The recorded
acceleration was analyzed and a Fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm
4
Cement and Concrete Composites 104 (2019) 103418
Fig. 6. Typical 3 × 4 × 11 in. (76.2 × 101.6 × 279.4 mm) saw-cut freeze-thaw
sample.
was applied to the acceleration in order to obtain the frequency re-
sponse. The relative dynamic modulus of elasticity (RDME) was cal-
culated using Equation (1):
nc2
Pc = x100
n2 (1)
where Pc is the RDME after c cycles of freezing and thawing (%), n is the
RF at 0 cycles of freezing and thawing, and nc is the RF after c cycles of
freezing and thawing.
In addition to RF, the UPV and IE were performed on half ties 1
through 6. UPV and IE readings were performed using an Olson
Instruments NDE 360. UPV sensors were placed 38 in. (965 mm) apart
on the top surface, and the IE sensor was placed on the rail seat, as
shown in Fig. 8. From the UPV measurement, the RDME was calculated
by dividing the square of each cycle reading over the square of the
initial reading, and change in thickness was obtained from the IE
method. In addition, all samples were weighed regularly during testing
with a 1,000-lb (454 kg) crane scale with a resolution of 0.1 lb
(0.05 kg).
The resonant frequency, change in length and change in mass were
measured on the small saw-cut and cast prisms according to ASTM
C666. Similar to ASTM C666, samples were considered to be non-dur-
able once the RDME dropped to 60% or less or the sample length in-
creased more than 0.1%.
4. Results and discussion
Out of the six excised sample sets, three sets failed after 70 cycles or
less, one set failed after 121 cycles, and two sets did not fail according
to RDME measurements, as shown in Fig. 9. Failure in the excised
samples began as cracking between the prestressing wires parallel to
wires on the surfaces of the samples, as shown in Fig. 10. This cracking
could have developed as a result of three main parameters: thermal
diffusivity differences between the concrete and steel, prestress release
M.T. Albahttiti, et al. Cement and Concrete Composites 104 (2019) 103418

Table 3
Summary of all the samples types and the testing performed on each sample.
Set Sample Air Entrained Type Tests Performed

Half Tie Saw-cut Cast Weight Length Change RF UPV

Prestressed Not Prestressed No Wire

HT1 ● ● ● ●

HT2 ● ● ● ●

HT3 ● ● ● ●

HT4 ● ● ● ●

HT5 ● ● ● ●

HT6 ● ● ●

SHT1 06-M1 ● ● ● ● ●
06-M2 ● ● ● ● ●
06-B ● ● ● ● ●

SHT2 F-M1 ● ● ● ● ●
F-M2 ● ● ● ● ●
F–B ● ● ● ● ●

SHT3 1-M1 ● ● ● ● ●
1-M2 ● ● ● ● ●
1-B ● ● ● ● ●

SHT4 09-M1 ● ● ● ● ●
09-M2 ● ● ● ● ●
09-B ● ● ● ● ●

SHT5 PA-1 ● ● ● ● ●
PA-2 ● ● ● ● ●
PA-W ● ● ● ● ●

SHT6 PNA-1 ● ● ● ●
PNA-2 ● ● ● ●
PNA-W ● ● ● ●

NPA NPA-1 ● ● ● ● ●
NPA-2 ● ● ● ● ●
NPA-W ● ● ● ● ●

NPNA NPNA-1 ● ● ● ●
NPNA-2 ● ● ● ●
NPNA-W ● ● ● ●

NW A NWA-1 ● ● ● ● ●
NWA-2 ● ● ● ● ●
NWA-W ● ● ● ● ●

NWNA NWNA-1 ● ● ● ●
NWNA-2 ● ● ● ●
NWNA-W ● ● ● ●

Cast Prism C1-A ● ● ● ● ●

C4-A ● ● ● ● ●

Cast Prism/No Air C1-NA ● ● ● ●

C4-NA ● ● ● ●

due to saw-cutting, and higher absorption rates caused by damage from
saw-cutting near the reinforcement. Because thermal diffusivity is the
rate at which a material conducts thermal energy relative to storing that
energy, the difference between concrete and steel thermal diffusivity
rates can lead to deterioration. The difference in thermal diffusivity
between the steel (11.72 mm2/s [0.0182 in2/s]) and concrete
(0.76–1.97 mm2/s [0.0012 to 0.0031 in2/s]) typically causes the steel
to drop in temperature at much faster rates than the concrete [17],
causing the concrete surrounding the steel to be subjected to more se-
vere freeze-thaw cycles, thereby cooling at faster rates and resulting in
cracking and deterioration. As a result of deterioration and cracking,
some samples lost mass surrounding the prestressing wires, as indicated
in Fig. 11 and Fig. 12. This mass loss was accompanied by concrete
expansion as result of cracking and water freezing in the cracks. Fig. 13
shows the sample expansion in the excised samples from the six ties. For
samples SHT2 and SHT3, visual inspection revealed cracking in the
samples, as shown in Fig. 10, that was not detected by the non-de-
structive test methods.
In order to verify the effects of thermal diffusivity and saw-cutting
through the wire, the set of samples excised from ties with non-

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M.T. Albahttiti, et al.
Fig. 7. Saw-cutting of the 3 × 4 in. beam.
Fig. 8. Measurement locations on half ties (R represents the receiver and T
represents the transmitter).
Fig. 9. Average RDME results of the six sets of excised samples.
prestressed wires and without wires were compared. Fig. 13 shows the
average change in mass for the various sets of samples excised from the
cast-reinforced ties and unreinforced ties, as compared to the
6
Cement and Concrete Composites 104 (2019) 103418
Fig. 10. Cracking pattern in saw-cut samples in freeze-thaw testing (SHT3).
Fig. 11. Change in mass for the six sets of excised samples.
Fig. 12. Sample condition after freeze-thaw cycles for saw-cut samples in
freeze-thaw testing (SHT4).
Fig. 13. Change in length for the six sets of excised samples.
companion cast prisms. The cast prisms and the unreinforced samples
made by saw-cutting had a negligible effect compared to the presence
of steel in the samples. This is significant when comparing air-entrained
plain samples (NWA) to air-entrained non-prestressed samples (NPA) in
terms of length change and RDME, as shown in Fig. 14 and Fig. 15,
respectively.
Saw-cut, unreinforced, air-entrained concrete samples (NWA) did not
show deterioration over the 300 cycles of the freeze-thaw testing, ver-
ifying that saw-cutting of plain, unreinforced concrete does not make
concrete more vulnerable to freeze-thaw damage (see Fig. 16). The non-
air-entrained samples acted as a control group for the air-entrained
M.T. Albahttiti, et al.
Fig. 14. Change in mass for the saw-cut non-prestressed, saw-cut plain, and cast
prisms samples with and without air entrainment.
Fig. 15. Change in length for the saw-cut non-prestressed, saw-cut plain, and
cast prisms samples with and without air entrainment.
Fig. 16. Average RDME results for the saw-cut non-prestressed, saw-cut plain,
and cast prisms samples with and without air entrainment.
samples and as expected showed deterioration during testing.
Only one-half tie (HT5) passed the freeze-thaw testing without
significant deterioration. In addition, deterioration for half ties HT2,
HT3, and HT4 was determined to be caused by cracking resulting from
the saw-cutting process since propagation of the crack started from the
saw-cut (epoxied) end. This deterioration due to saw-cutting is shown
in Fig. 17. Fig. 18 shows that excised samples for freeze-thaw testing
failed at a much faster rate compared to the ties from which they were
excised. Meanwhile, two half ties showed excessive deterioration: the
tie without air entrainment (HT6), which failed at 215 cycles, and HT1,
which failed at 143 cycles. The excessive deterioration of HT6 is shown
in Fig. 19. Deterioration for sample HT1 began at the tie end, not the
middle of the tie where saw-cutting took place. Deterioration of this tie
was the result of a poor air void system (3.6% air and 0.0117 in
(0.2972 mm) spacing factor), high degree of saturation (samples were
7
Cement and Concrete Composites 104 (2019) 103418
Fig. 17. Half ties that developed cracking from the saw-cut (epoxied) end, a.
represents Half Tie 4 (HT4), b. represents Half Tie 3 (HT3) and c. represents
Half Tie 2 (HT2).
Fig. 18. Average RDME results for half ties as compared to excised samples
from the same ties.
Fig. 19. Half tie 6 with excessive deterioration.
soaked in water until weight stabilized for 7 days), damage from saw-
cutting wires during manufacturing, and faster freezing rates. The
summary of all initial and final freeze-thaw results is presented in
Table 4.
5. Verification and validation
Fig. 20 shows the relative dynamic modulus of elasticity versus the
number of cycles of freezing and thawing for all the samples. It can be
observed that all of the samples showed little decrease in RDME with no
issues except for one sample. This sample lost a large piece of concrete
caused by a big crack after the 70th cycle but that did not show much
loss in the relative dynamic modulus of elasticity. Fig. 21 through Fig. 23
show some pictures of the cracked sample. The cause of this crack is
believed to be due to the stresses from the steel strands since the crack
happened at the interface between concrete and steel as shown in Fig. 22
and Fig. 23. These stresses are believed to be due to saw-cutting through
the steel. This likely caused micro-cracking that was not apparent until it
was opened during the freeze-thaw cycling by ice.
M.T. Albahttiti, et al. Cement and Concrete Composites 104 (2019) 103418

Table 4
Summary of all results at failure compared to initial values for each sample.
Sample Failing Initial Results Results at Failure or at 300 Cycles
Cycle
Weight, lb Fundamental Frequency UPV, ft/s (m/s) Weight, lb Length Change Fundamental Frequency UPV, ft/s (m/s) RDME (%)
(kg) (Hz) (kg) (%) (Hz)

HT1 143 350.1 – 9974.4 350.2 – – 817.4 (249.14) 0.7

(157.55) (3040.2) (157.59)
HT2 179 351.9 – 9760.2 352 (158.4) – – 7510.3 42.6
(158.36) (2974.91) (2289.14)
HT3 248 339.2 – 7765 (2366.77) 339.9 – – 817.4 (249.14) 1.1
(152.64) (152.96)
HT4 300 349.2 – 9213 (2808.12) 351.7 – – 817.4 (249.14) 0.8
(157.14) (158.27)
HT5 – 481.3 – 9413.4 481.6 – – 8788.9 87.2
(216.59) (2869.2) (216.72) (2678.86)
HT6 215 500.4 – 9532.4 504.4 – – 739.5 (225.4) 0.6
(225.18) (2905.48) (226.98)
06-M1 76 5 (2.25) 4072 – 5.1 (2.3) 1 2806 – 47.5
06-M2 76 4.5 (2.03) 3638 – 4.5 (2.03) 0.2 1797 – 24.4
06-B 53 5.6 (2.52) 3765 – 5.7 (2.57) 0.2 2398 – 40.6
F-M1 – 5.1 (2.3) 3530 – 5.1 (2.3) 0 3520 – 99.4
F-M2 – 5.2 (2.34) 3477 – 5.2 (2.34) 0 3145 – 81.8
F–B – 5.1 (2.3) 3574 – 5.1 (2.3) 0 3550 – 98.7
1-M1 – 3.7 (1.67) 2925 – 3.8 (1.71) 0 2878 – 96.8
1-M2 – 4.1 (1.85) 3008 – 4.2 (1.89) 0 2980 – 98.1
1-B 265 4.8 (2.16) 3467 – 4.9 (2.21) 0.1 1208 – 12.1
09-M1 53 3.3 (1.49) 2837 – 3.3 (1.49) 0.1 1953 – 47.4
09-M2 53 3.8 (1.71) 3066 – 3.8 (1.71) 0.1 1675 – 29.8
09-B 53 5.3 (2.39) 3633 – 5.4 (2.43) 0.3 1338 – 13.6
PA-1 121 4.3 (1.94) 3335 – 4.4 (1.98) 0.2 2529 – 57.5
PA-2 102 4.6 (2.07) 3438 – 4.7 (2.12) 0.5 2563 – 53.5
PA-W 102 5.6 (2.52) 3403 – 5.7 (2.57) 0.6 2642 – 60
PNA-1 68 4.6 (2.07) 3398 – 4.6 (2.07) 0.1 1787 – 27.7
PNA-2 68 5.3 (2.39) 3652 – 5.4 (2.43) 0.2 1367 – 14
PNA-W 68 5.3 (2.39) 3560 – 5.4 (2.43) 0.5 44 – 0
NPA-1 102 4.7 (2.12) 3467 – 4.8 (2.16) 0.2 2578 – 55.3
NPA-2 121 4.7 (2.12) 3335 – 4.8 (2.16) 0.3 2248 – 45.4
NPA-W 102 5.4 (2.43) 3599 – 5.4 (2.43) 0.1 2754 – 58.6
NPNA-1 68 5 (2.25) 3315 – 5.1 (2.3) 0.2 1016 – 9.4
NPNA-2 68 4.8 (2.16) 3301 – 4.9 (2.21) 0.5 1401 – 18
NPNA-W 68 5.7 (2.57) 3560 – 5.7 (2.57) 0.5 1777 – 24.9
NWA-1 – 4.5 (2.03) 3408 – 4.5 (2.03) 0 3394 – 99.2
NWA-2 – 4.5 (2.03) 3325 – 4.5 (2.03) 0 3311 – 99.2
NWA-W – 5.4 (2.43) 3560 – 5.4 (2.43) 0 3569 – 100
NWNA-1 68 5.3 (2.39) 3540 – 5.4 (2.43) 0.7 1182 – 11.1
NWNA-2 68 4.6 (2.07) 3311 – 4.7 (2.12) 1 44 – 0
NWNA-W 68 5.2 (2.34) 3330 – 5.3 (2.39) 0.5 1201 – 13
C1-A – 7.6 (3.42) 2008 – 7.6 (3.42) −0.1 1885 – 89.1
C4-A – 7.7 (3.47) 2008 – 7.7 (3.47) −0.1 1904 – 91.6
C1-NA 249 7.6 (3.42) 1860 – 7.6 (3.42) 0.1 1162 – 39.1
C4-NA 180 7.6 (3.42) 2008 – 7.6 (3.42) 0.1 1387 – 47.7

Fig. 21. Cracked saw-cut sample.

6. Conclusions

The goal of this research was to assess the effects of sample excising,
prestress relief by sawcutting, and metal inclusions on the freeze-thaw
durability of concrete. The results obtained from the saw-cut samples
indicate that saw-cutting has a minimal effect on the freeze-thaw dur-
Fig. 20. Freeze-thaw performance of Plain vs Reinforced vs Reinforced Saw-Cut ability, while the presence of prestressed reinforcement in the saw-cut
Concrete. sections can lead to microcracking that opens up during freeze-thaw
testing. Half Tie 3 (HT3) developed cracking parallel to the

8
M.T. Albahttiti, et al.
Fig. 22. Cracked saw-cut sample ends.
Fig. 23. Cracked saw-cut sample showing reinforcement.
reinforcement and in the saw-cut side of the sample. Saw-cut pre-
stressed samples showed deterioration not representative of half tie
performance seen in the larger sample. In the verification and valida-
tion study, the results indicated that saw-cutting reinforced concrete
may create damage in the concrete. Finally, while all the samples ad-
hered to the ASTM C666 requirements in term of the freeze-thaw cycles,
the rapid rate of temperature change could result in larger thermal
stress in the case of the smaller samples. Unfortunately, this was not
Cement and Concrete Composites 104 (2019) 103418
assessed in this study and hopefully it could be assessed in the future. In
addition, the research team recommend testing the wet burlap wrapped
in plastic sheets in compare to the ASTM C666 Procedure A with the
box method on small sample as a benchmark.
Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge the great support of the Federal Railroad
Administration, United States [Grant No. DTFR53-12-C-00026].
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