(Count Raye Genre © 196by Mecrow Ie A ghee, Pita athe {oe Se fis, Tock ar te ay pe te of ares aly Card Nae 6431519 RAS Physics RR, 8EP17 1069 Neon” q Preface A steady rain of charged particen, moving at nearly the speed ot Yih, falls upon our planet at alte and frm al dietons, ‘These particles, Known a aa rye ar jst te mle fon ‘ary atoms rippal oftheir eleton forth most pt ce of adogen “The property of coum rays that sts the rays opart fom all ‘other kinds af radiation and scnunte forthe sxteacdiry ale they have played inthe development of mera hain ihe very larg individual ences of cxsmicay pate. Before the ds ‘vey of connie ray, the partie of hight eeey known to ‘hypiciss were thow emit ia the spontaneous desay of radio ffi of ccamie rays under cutzlled Iboraory emit, Physics bran developing secabrator upabl of ¥lding per Seles ot higher and higher energies. Rezeliy, man-madeachines, ‘ving achieved energies about 1,000 tes the charts ‘of matral radioactivity, hve overtaken the “average” ommiety Particle, But cosmic raps have very wide range of eery, aad for of them are kno to ave mor than a inn ite the onegY ofthe particles produced by the most powerfl ef our avocleratr. Io this book Ihave red ta eae bow. sartine fran enna ‘evil observation, physics dizovered the eitene of comic "ays: how, though bal century af aed work, try Gal ound ‘ut yueity min conte rare town the poo, they disco ‘ed «host of mew parties Ut are horn out of eneigy eo ive 07005054 Preface bot «minute ration of «second, and ths opened tne net ot lementarypartile physier et how, fr ll their bos, they now ‘problem than any ey sey sled: he preblem of the rg of Tat tet this story might have some iteret ot only forthe professional physicist bat for any person with acuity about (ris are made, ‘Thecefone, have tried to keep the language a impln verse witht violating aia ecracy and Thave ‘otted ll the techival details and mathematical developments that ere not teed for understanding the eweatil parts of the sory. T know tht in doing T ave failed to give proper eog- ition to many ditnguiabed scieatsta who made vital conts- Dutlos w the development of soamie ray physics Te would be fate forme to apalogise to them: ested, I tras in their ndes- ‘ang af Ue constr iposed by the character of thi book. Tot abo waen th reader that cause af personal invalve= meat in the subject, I could not be expected to write the sory of ‘Ram ays a imparbay as Tight ave had T bees werly fpectatar Infact, what Ihave tld this bok sto large extent ‘Rey of tow my understanding of oomiornyeeta developed troup the years ‘Therefore, it inquite posible Ut my ova work tnd tint of my eoliabrators may have been given unde promi- ‘Many fronds have geerouly eed with advice and ogre uss am Geply haf allo tna Dt pir to ‘Giuseppe Ochilnt and the at Francia Fridman, who tok the Ime trout the sohole manwscsibt and did ot sare me their tenstructve ein, T wich alo to express my appreciation to [Anthony Wiggenhor fr Bi moet consintons and competent stra work Bruno Roast weone 10 " 12 wouter space 1 ‘Atoms and radiations 13. Tho nature of cosmic rays 27 Punting clues 43 Using the earth as a magnet to analyze cosmic rays 53 Positrons and the materialization of energy 77 Hlectrons, photons, ‘Mu mesons 101 Pimesons 125 Ind showers 87 Nuviear interactions of cosmic rays 149 ‘What cosmic rays are and what they do in the atmosphere 163, Giant showers of the atmosphere 17913° The Van Allen radiation belt 193 14 Cosmic rays and te sun 205 15, The origin of cosmic rays: fan unsolved problem 219 ‘epoetisce A. Mass porunit area 233 1B Powers of ten 235 © Logarithmic soatos 237 BD Energy and momentum 239 E Theelectron volt 243, F Computation of magnetic Hoidity 245 G The neutron and the structure of atomic nuclei 247 H The neutrino 251 Elementary particles 255 Index 261 Cosmic RaysCommie Rays Conn 164 Menon A Rewer rn in ‘ak Ste of Aen" partly ped iney frm ion priate tn psa Liver of Conga Cli Cart Nak 1520 . ~ Physics RR. Gi Ty ‘BEP17 1969 “4 Preface {A stay rain of sarge partisan, moving ot nary the aoe Tight fas upon oor planet at alten aod fom all diction, ‘The particles, Known a nem ay, ae Just the sul of ond ary etoms sppel of tr lestrone for he mt part ack of hydroge. “Te propery of cose rays Wat sets the ray apart fm all ‘other Lins of radiation nd woznant forthe extraordinary role they have played in the devalgment af moder pig the vory larg individual energies of cmmicray aril Beer the dis ‘over of cowie ay, the partis of highest eneey kaown 10 Physica were thow emit ia the spestanoun dey of radio: ‘civ atoms. Sometime ate, gly i an rt a dpa the ‘fot of coumie tye wml mtd aban clo, ‘lysis began developing accelerators capable of yielding per. tiles ot higher and hieer eerie. Recently man muda machine, ving achive eerie about 10000 times thowe character of paturalredicatvty, have overtaken the “average” owe rc. Dut coumic ay have e vey wie ang of eer, and few of them are known to have more than a bilo ines th ney ‘fhe pavticlnprodacd by th oat yore fea eet In this book Fhave ied to relate how, starting fom seringy trivial observations, pice discovered the exten of came ryhow, through ble centary of bard work, thes nally found ‘ut pecsely what cosmic raysare; own the procs they dav ‘rede now uf we prc that ae Bor Out ot eegy a ve u7ues nel Professor, Bruno Rossi ery Breve Bo Cosmic RaysA radiation from outer space Atsit dock onthe morning af August 7, 1912, bal tended {rom el ar the town af Ae in Aut. In the gon ot the balloon were three men: aavigator, » metsclogt, nd lysis. During the next 254 hours, the balloon tom to an slttude of 18.00 fest while ditng rapidly northward. For ‘nother hoor it oad between 1,00 apd 1600 et. At non the Trou toca down tear the German tava of isk, 39 tls ‘ait of Beri and wane 15 miles cm Avs "The php and ldo f the fight wat Vitor Pease ‘nd taken with him hres letospes ef he hind the Ing we to detect and ensure the redition ented by radium and ther radioactive santanees. Wile hs companion took care of the ‘aviation and mensred atta and temperate, Hs watched retour ele ep. "MoM er, reel sy fe t,he pte the ncAbb At lt ee sell 2 Cone Raye Novos 1918, lowe of the Ona oat Meh Bit ‘ehh Hess mmaroe hin work with he statment: “The reaults fm berating are bat exclained by the esumption that tadintion of very gost penetrating power eer our etoaphere from above.” the bepioning of one of the most extraordinary sutventurin in he bistory of ence. Sabsequat investigations of the "radiation fom shave” opened wp the new and bowlering ‘wold of high-energy physics. Here scents foand pate af ‘italic dimeoson, with ener thousands, lions, Lilins Urlloos of tine greater than the energy of parila ted by radioactive mates found on earth Here or te Gre ime they tne procs i wich pen of lis ae rated vat of Chery and then promply disappear ia giving bth to other Perec Rajond thie Hea’s discovery revealed new vistas in ‘rophysis end cooley. Th myeteraun radiation was ound to cary inpetast messages conceraing the physical eondton of the distant region of space through whch ft had traveled on a sre tthe earth, Aad Gall in an efor to explain the rein of UUcrataton, physica developed aumber of wove ene aboot the tar ofthe event tat take place instars an inthe mames odie gu that il intestllar space. ‘Dat in August, 1912, 90 one —iolading Heas— had any eon to surpct sich developments. What ther, had prompted Hew to peter i experiment? Abd on What evened he be in coclsioa?| ying about for long tine. Hass discovery was to exception, or mor than a century pyscste bai Kaown that a golddeat Clettscope (Fig. T-) or alg fastrumeat will wot hold an ‘etic change indefinitely. The phenomenon of loss of charge it amis anja ove ake = ag nod peso one When a ebargal piace of lan, for example wooched ogsnn the trial yd ean eleceonope the tno leaves supende from the ‘ol ly spar. This happen Because both Taves have aoqired the ‘A radiation fam oer space a sree eng (ee can) a ego pe er ‘The leaves rain apart for tine aftr the glass hie been t= ‘moved: but eventually ie by ite they deep ati rin ‘otitis a the etic charge graduelly dapper. nan ardinaryelectescope the charge escapes naiay thro ‘he isting seve that separates te rod from the meal ra, ‘With special care, tis leak can be reduced petal to 210; bt rea, the decomp wil ot rin change eda. Now wil the ase of any particular gat Gistend of ar in an siti ‘lectrwcope case ct the fal sult ‘Dy the ead ofthe ninetenth cary, physics had ened enough aboat the stratare of matter to te able to explain the ‘ontaneou dicharge of eeewospes. rity. they knew that mater consists of stows, thet each chemical element repeat & {oinin varlous combination to orm moles of deen chem tubstances, While thi pictur of what atoms "lok like” wan from preci, they knew that atoms ordiarily contin eal ‘quantities of postive and negative charge, To thes overall balance A Ale‘ Coumie Rye of opposite charg thy said the eal tate of atoms ed Som. Manor they tno tht the ces thst Topi sulle of some vile dlamentry ara Tndesd, Tort tte Sepak hpi ff Taomans ts deve por very alas — We elton wich he ened {he furdamentl wif este care ‘on cording to spectre, the daha of he eae scope wi toe explied by theft at ps alae aso Sie tharcete nesta alm oan son 05 hun et with ec pve care. The Clete SEN irs ete neta mea, A nmbe of ‘Spurned sw oie th the i orgs routing {ie doceecope avs aways gy ionized tht aay hun sama pacotage five etn and charge ade Sao brotha ori fh vee rly ‘Banga ey ses negate Snob rpel paste om 13. The ‘positive charge that holds the leaves apart is gradually satay teetve longed the lees drop. Convery, Teh ehral forsee pile om wi thesane el Fie 12 Dias an eee by A radiation fram ote spce H ‘ue wat waste ran or te everprsent, st nia tion of gases? Physstsseking to enewer tha quetion in the ‘rly years ofthe twentoth entry were tar that varius Kind ‘of raintion could ionize esa. In 1095 Wisin Roentgen ad Alscovered X-ays and had found tht an eletonope dichareed ‘immediately wea paced infec an X-ay tbe Tho ext year Hens Beoqurel covered rdiastivity, and in 1898 Pier end Movie Cote soca a bul rm, Te en ah one rdioectve substances also cated ionising ros capable of dix: charging an clcteoarp. I the ght a farts, met physi were line to conse the cared Saizaton of gan rent ing fom some sort of wenk radiata rier tha frm a spot taneous breakup of ga molclos ‘ne obvious posbilty was thst the radiation ame rm all ease of rdiontve ubstance jest te wars rl tlostescopas were made. This pa tarned ott be ply core far same af the lnisation as often tend to ach rive However, adiuctive contamination of the arroment could wot count for the mboe elect. Espernenters were able to doreme the rat of discharge by surounding an elecronpe with ead or vate; ths part ofthe onsiag mditon had to comes en tae, [XC the ame time thet Igor of matter rele to pee tn appreciable decrease poled to redition of considerable rotating power For decade the pevaig opinion atsibuted the woure of tho pontrating radiation to mite quantities of redioective materials inthe earth's rst. Clery, ne oa et the sump ‘ion by comparing obervatins at dierent altudes If the radiation roponsbl fr the dntarge of the clestemaye eae from the earth, it boa be strongest ner the earth's surface ad brome pogresielywinker with itrensn liad ‘Several investigators, nclading Thornes Wallin Germany en |. Gockel in Switzerland, uodertoc to put the hypothesis to an ‘apermental ext. y that time aletroope were mach mare ‘efned and relisble than the ald-ashioned gle type. Pr-enero . ot a nal ie som meter wth intent end it two very iy Wal in 1909, He reacted eave with ttl wires held under tense by aight quarts Ser (1-3) ‘When thee, the two wien would feped eath othe, a (Bo seyrtion ld be mesure by mens of «micescpe. In 1910 Waele fcr tothe top of te Ef Pver th 192 Conk! wed ssa iontraent t« blloo ant Neither fund tthe hed ext. Tho rte of dnhars di ot decease with ated, or last id ot drama fat at ed eta oe ‘was the situation when Hess beeame interested in the eo ad ited serie ballon fights ht clea a {ememerahsanent sf Avant, it ie slctrarpee wee of the Wal type, castle wilh particle. Two of the thre insvumest hd ight ct tht the inteaal i proae eel constant anon Crea, he ayo Ui cents wan dependet of alte, (Th pny 7}. \ Seeenees A retin fn eter pace a ‘because the number of oe prs pradaced in given volun feat ‘by a given intensity of rdition i proportion to the es eres Tsar lays produced — and neutralized — by twon one pan tive and one negative. Hence the tem ion pai) ‘A en agar cen tute tmospher, Het found thatthe iovzatin became semenhat weaker aft, Indiatal by slower rts af setae daharg Unguction ably, there ws aradiaton emanating fe the eats cart. Bot above 2,00 fet the tra revered itself and te iiation been o increase gradually with attade, a though the balloon were ‘moving Lovard te source ofthe ining adaton talea of ray {rom Indo, at 1600 feet the cstmciymn mere dschatag bout fou tne alr than they had a ground led I was in fonder io explain this unexpected inceae that Howe palate ‘diation falling upon the earth from somewhere beyond the stencphere, ‘Mi wumption was certainly «bel one, and many year were to poss before it became geneally cceptd, Fst of al, ober ‘exprimentore had to enc the Gangs pated by Hem, Whe they di, they fund tbat the laren of rdtion engi with tude continued wll above 16000 fst. Especially otewerthy vere the daring ballon Tights carried out by W. Kobliatr of Germany betwee 1918s 1919. In hs ight ue reached & mas ‘sm alae of aboat 2,000 fet, where fod an in ‘adition considerably stronger than that detected by Hem. tes revolutionary —explaations for the slurred ioizatnn C.T.R. Wiloo, the inventor of the cloud chamber and oot a he leading experts incon pheaomene, nugget tht the radia tion wis produced by thunderoena high up ia the atmosphere. ‘of raiactive gs. (Some radioactive auttane, chard, lemeat 86, wer known to exit in the gas stain) Tor ee ean, these rdioatve asa bad a ndency to eancatat atea Coumie Raye copper layer ofthe atmopher, they wood explain the incense Senization a higher altitudes. ‘On bth of thse esaumptions the intensity ofthe unknown radiation shuld vary according to weather eontos, it should ‘iowa di not occur tall ines, and it was hardly coneivable ‘het the ditrtin of the Repetitive ea i he ‘linmpbere would rein eontant at al mes of Ue day oF Year td through al changes of weather. Now, Hess alread pointed fut the apparent absence of woch intensity variation, and ller ‘nvesiatioas confirmed bia ndings. Cleey, dsite diangre- teat sed uncertainties de to the itd ecaraoy ofthe inatre toeatein ut at the tine, the radiation was onthe whos remarkably uiform. Te came by day and by night, nummer and winter, ‘ino bie, with itl cbnage from oe day to he next, and with Title change from one place to enober at te ax alia, ‘The work of Millikan and Wegener Sli, ot ll physic wee sid. Mit ht! ang te ‘Mepis was Robert A Milan, fear of pis tthe al Tomi Insts of Tecnology. He nd bis calabro died to cane for tennves whee he expres ate ete by Hw ad eter workers were cect, wthr there sty wre cmpiing rao to ow nthe viene of aiton Trou ovter pect There wna sro of rearabl expiants carved oat betwen 1923 end 1925, volving mesurenent ade der water at well ana igh alto. Miter’ esperments Convinel msl and nal eeryone ee i the sete com- ‘Sumy tnt toe rane fancy Hom wwe fone yond the ers atmo, And twas Milan who av te nn st doabis aboot th existence of oars were apparently dapeled by an esptiment perform at Mir Lake A raion fa oer space * ‘aoa Arrownend Late m the San Bernardino Tange of southern Calfernin. The eespative alte ofthe lke ar 1100 nd 5100 fet. To any rain passing vty Urowgh the atone pore, the additional 6,100 feet a aie above Arowhead Lake ould represent an absorbing masa ger unit ate af lake era ‘equivalent to ft of water. by sinking his slerosep to various ‘dept in the two lke, Milian found that “within the limits uf ‘mera Stor, every reghng im Arrownend Lake te ‘onde t a reading six fet frtber down in Muir Lake, thos how that th xpd ome fn deal fom above and et thei orgn neil outside the layer of atmeapve bate Ue level of the two Ike,” ‘Amore dead explanation of the argument on which Mil an bused his cousin appear ia Fig. Int, As Totnot, i sould be pinta wat that is urgent le rier foxproot at ‘opel correct. Fo eons dined in Chap. 8 equal macs ber ant area of air and writer dn nt absorbs acy the sone fretion of cosmic rays. Had the experimental data been mote scours than the sat of the at permite at he time, Milken would have detected diflrener between readings in Arvmbend Lake and readings 6 fet farter down in Mule Lake: Conceivably ‘Bie fading might hve prevent Ln ona tething he eared cenclsint ‘The wrk of Milka’ eam made sory nt only bean a the acientie reals obainod bat lo because ofthe novel ed ingenioas techniques employed. Aa important innovation ws the ‘pplation of wounding batoora to cami-rey esearch, Hes and Kokihiratr bad had to accompany tee eletomyes inorder to hrrve thm. The we of unmanto balla line eth he danger and the high cost of mannidallon fights. Milton’ etropes, masterpieces of raidoem ar senivty er ‘bre aloft by to balons; ata erin ait one the leona ‘ould burst and the other woul then bring th euipent gently ‘mck wo earth. During the igh, «simple deve ‘continously "Son Appi.a wo Commie Rave Aen fm se : CC A See epee pa SI cern On i ‘hosp agen epi one eirsghosn \ “unprecedented degree of perfection by the German physi Exich Fegeer end his group. To thee sett we owe some of the moat ‘courte monmarements ever made of coamic-ay inition as 8 faedon of lie ad dope (Figs 1-3 wad 1-0), P15 Inlet comic rp aca spb depth a ‘eared by Rete eds gop wt ale tre dies The ‘cepa spor al etna ue pe a ‘he grave these, Tvl ave tener oo ein odo by xe rsa ct od tte ‘Sram neue he coy ey toned abe ip 1-4 Pape o Ma's eprint Me Lake an Aroha {ak eutropha tare it {ie ones gt ch fra on ‘hove le evel Mi ae mt vers ae tla po eet ‘aoc tel apr ui ee i ater a comm pt Seay Tm cml in yr nt es ‘oe If bomover, wow ay (he lta) were rented in the age, Se Sco Real wo nd oe yt a2 Cowie Reys sia —— Hint orctmimtase Seton cneryeitcnanet aspen Scoccenngtnnsseaonctomeitions I Atoms and radiations 2 Unley ait may we, no seriou allempt was made to find out ‘whut comic aye actualy we unl 18 year He's dncorce OF cour, it would have been dil to emily theaters ot ‘aio rans with the compsrativaly crude prince lease then avaiable The metho wed so wozeaflly in sade fe example, Xaye and radinctivity could wot be apn to cama rays. Keays and rudoectvity eam fm welldfned sours tnd ‘ete subject to experimental conta oa lboratory. Cnmisrys, om the other hand cmd wo ee fre everywtere, They cold ‘ot be turned on and lf at will ar X-rays could, And, ule a sample of radioactive matin the sonee af coc cope nee {naceble, not toy unknowa. More iat, at pound ler, here it would have bon ent to ty the, the niin eles "IL 24 ye tran 14, tt He ss bl Pin hp rb dre.enna 2 u Counie Raye cami rays were excnlingy small compared to those cased by ‘Aide from practical difulten, however, ther was Hite incentive to investigate the orble of the nat af eer rouse most sceatiteElieved they ally Knew the answer What ware the reaos forthe prevaling misconceptions about cule ays And whut were te ih Debind the experiment, ‘gu in 1929, tht eventual edt ou preset uderatanding of recall wliat was koown in 1929 about atoma and radiations Atom the 16 years after Ho's dinover, pics had achieved much clearer understanding of semi ttre. ey hae tht stows coon of a comparatively hevy,psitvay charged nals turroanded by @ eoud af negatively charged lccons of neat Deggble mas, Also, they ed disovered that clowial pyson could provide no aatfctory description of Uh beter of lec ‘toon in atoma, andthe hed developed new dy — kaon 0 vantum machanies —to deal with that and other toa pe. ‘Afr atomic uc, various investigators had measured thee nase, clectric charge, and apprormate tices. Very Hil wan ‘own aboot thar strates, boweves Alter the discovery a aio, bata east the nl of heavier deen did For example, occasionally enoceus of radium disinepatad yp laneouly info mules of radon aod» clea of blir called salah parte a) ‘has, the radium nuseus was nota “simple” patie, More- rst al tw hone 10 Jorn gape pare ‘ould breakup the al of certain element euch a ito aad ‘aus them to ect pave partis — prone — ident with Alana and reditions “ Iydrogen nue. There were speculations hat all nuel wore ferme om the same Dulding boca Indeed, sine ueat ‘mses were known to be nearly wholenumber multiple of the ‘proton andthe (practically rol) electron Bot wintins didnot sczep thin bypass withnat mie ving because they wero well wat that i presented ¢mamber of serosa. The puzale of the contin of ele as to be salve «few years later Whed the Uniti py omen Chadrick dincovered the neuron Then became clear tt mele ‘oat of prota ad nent! se Appear ‘A the tne Tam apking of the wo entdons efrr dos tow, to 6 variety of difleat physical poebomton baring ‘tan features in common. One ofthe mon portant share ints of any radiations its energy. All radiations ee eaegy carves and they wil give up part or all of thie energy to ta svproprine abaorber. tn aay cases the edad energy can bo Aleteced diet i the fora of hata inthe see exam of an ‘hint oneal to bright enlghe Physica generally distinguished between two road groupe of radiations: cypuscaar and dermagntic. Corp rate, ‘on ince ete rayt (2) hgh ped lsu emit i the ‘pontanous decay of carta radioactive atoms; w cay, o bes ‘deco de wpotanoous day of ranting aaa ad ‘eticlly accelerated parle sch as eathade rays, which are tlecttna ete hy he negetine satu roth sng te elect dncarge in a vacuum tue. Elccemognticrdiatonn included vile light, infared end leave rey, Xe, aod ‘emma rays (7). Gamma rays are among the prods rae, ‘tive decay, and they are itt smultancoly with fayea earlier year, the man diferene beten the tan ne ‘traditions appeared tobe tat eoxporculr ray were parties sd electromagnetic rays were wave. By the late 192s, however, Ane eveopenent of quantum phys tad brought about dante revision of this vow. Physicist raed tht all ays behave in (Particles of electromagnetic radiations bad been named lon) ‘The conept of womething tat behaves both aa wave and ‘pasties diflealt to grsp;fortunstly, however its not emcne tal wo our dicuson. Ast tars out, in fac, cme rays contain nly photons aud wher part of very Nigh ergy hase wave ‘hrc are never dominat. Ts a what flows me ea fowet about waves and take the view that serpunlr a well ot tlectemagntic aye consist of invidas! particles, ct quana Even though, by 1929, the fundamental discon between particles and waves had disapeared, it was stl convenient itis cow —to mainain the teaitonlcastifention between core [ptolar age and lectisnapnic aos. Alleorpuscular rays ar parts to whic a deficite mast can be asia (2.1 X10 gram fr an slot in ny ba {6.68 x 10- gram for a elim nocews ina epartie hou)! The kinetic energy, oF emery of motion exch particle depends ‘ona velosty a ml of cure, oso i at and the vse vary comiderabl. Particles of the Lad found in any corpusaler ‘adios travel at “relativistic” venir (dat a Pcon comparable tothe vloity of ligh).* According to the laws of reaivic, a8 opposed to clase, machanin, no atria Ce psa) particle can ever reach the veloty of light. about 30,00 klretry/iec in a vecuun), even though approaches {his veloc more and move lly a ie Moe energy nceae, On the other hand, the photons af electromagnetic radiations Ant pennants man Although ng er lite cere, Fe yore o 1, Aponte B. eo Aloms and raisins n Atay ates ot ot ght. Moreover, ldhough partes offsite mate may atl nating texte prices when they are “stopped” by an aber, photows dappar altogether Uy, fn fxanpe, trmafering the nergy to destrons or alone ie All electromagnetic rediatons are slike in another resol hey ‘noma rom the acelerataltoton of ect charge: What Aiskingisen one typeof eetromagnetcreiation fom mother np he ifn dal eae the Poon, Photons of vale ight are more energetic tha infrared photo nd ee ‘energetic han utravislet photons: hear n tn, re lene sougee han X-ray photos; and thelr are les eaeeeic than ray photon, ‘f te radiations known pir to Ue dicoery of cami ny hoo emitted by radinctive substances hd the higho ene, nar the course of individual «pst, parite and rey ‘hotoon ae of the order of millon of dec ole. By contrat, photons of visible light have ener ofthe anor 10 tse ‘oka. (Obe eletron vol, abbeevited e isthe Linc eegy ot an electron acelerated by « potential difrence of ne al! Conc pysles lnvalen much greater energie, which ae ‘measured in milo of elton vote (MeV) billions econ volts Be). {nization by corpuscular rays ABT have lend nat rom the wo ofthe nett entry je ‘nad ben the common practice of phys to detect certain alae ‘ons by thi property of ining gas. By the late 19a the ‘manner in which diferent types of radiation inze gaa wos well ‘undertood. Ths matter is of fundamental impertane to cay Sees vf winthapplesomena; for antl resayur sne, the only means of studying coamic radiation was through is Foci eet om name Hones, T mnt ak tot ny tees1 Comic Raye oat ready fair wih nian in a to bear wth me Trough the foboving deci Constr ft a beam of charg parties (6 ap, my) est gon Wie ue oc Pa poe rare oo {he geile fern Gar the aengemet of the cons inthe lal I editor aio sete he Strom muy ia we en eave bend pov reed lea agen psa. The elec elf may renal iofer a we ad wander boat he gua ight oration, cr nay eich fal tos oer lel ad fra a heey Sees lat ie c,h herp parte aver ts wake ‘rl too “Te on nil an be made ibe oth igo istrument now the do haere by C2 Wien in BT Wlte' erga dood chen or eopnsion she, to di {aguante spe eenly« am Dox wih Imovble wal or pton Fi. 2-1). Th abr oti «tre [Pack apron ste ssa pre mg ot ‘ea ue en yc pg {he gas expand and ter temperature ope I the enperatre opin ‘great enough, the alcohol vapor condenses into droplets, sch fom a fog tne carb. Proper ctrl ofthe expansion, Teves cn ss uate ge aad S Fig 21 Expnia cout canter Wa eit pdb ong sop in tempeetere ws fe entice of viper, wc Alama and rtiations 5 the vapor will candene only arin one. Conseenty. «changed partie traversing the chamber about te ine ofthe expan vill eve a “sl track in the frm f visible deplete Unt ‘Snuine wnt pace tal fon ‘To be detected, the particle must travers the chamber at ‘ome time during the eae expansion paws, Ifthe prt ater the chamber 0 soon ~ more the few slink pie to expassivo, the ion wl die amay before the esr ut cule {iteaters a ate more tha few illaconds fer expansion, ‘the gases wil warn up again Lf the ion ti is ores Th the chamber ene fx a pal of about one hand of secind each ine ii expanded ast-moving partic with dient lotic cargo dfer= ‘nt velocities produce in tl of diferent destion ox gue For 4 given velocity, the deny, or number fins er wit lng te rl, tceaes wth neresing charge. he explanation fy ‘imple, The etic fren exert onthe electrons ofa mica by artis pusing near are propio eet charge fhe bate, Therefore, parce of greater charge cau rare vilnt lntucancra than parties of walle charge. nel thin they ines ‘lager nunber of mokcule while traveling a gven distance in o. ox given charge, the fn dea decrease with ncatng ‘ely. To understand the easen fr this ello, cmse partis ‘hat passed near» malate The partie darn the sola ‘ppreciably only while itis within certain minute distance, Henct, the tine of faternction i ln for «slow-mo sist ‘aa fora fabmoving one Oval, the longer the fsa ot Interaction, the more efctive the fre wll bei duping the ‘motels: Tinton, somer puis nas mare hen ee faster partie. AT mestiond befor. whon the nei eergy as ye increase tndefitly,the velasity ofthe. patie eventualy spproches that of light. The deity of the rch left by auch 2 ‘muti a at docrenses with incresing energy, latte tae to * practically constant value chareteritic of price moving at2 Commie Raye erly he velo of ight rg. 3). ene, wre one le to the amount of ionization proce by any charged particle. The tei af walt posible deyity rane lh hy nny charge rte for example, an elton or a protce) moving ot nearly the velocity of Tight. Sach partie i called yy physics & ‘mining parle, Por exemple, 8 rays wth hile ener feof the order of 1 MeV, which re singly charged and travel at bout 9 per ent ae vet f light, Ulver sme ke ‘minimuiniing parts. In aie ot sandard temperate and ruts they pas hon 5 pie of positive and negative font fer centimeter of path, On the oer had parties ented in {he radiative devay of pooniom bave an energy of 53 MeV and ‘eloity ony 5.4 per con that of ight: ey erry to elementary ‘hrs aad prodoce about 24,000 on pais pe cetimeter of pth inare Toniztion proces simi to thos in ges ls ocur when chorgt util pas rough scr soll, But mbatver the bance sold gui, or gat the pales los, in general, vezy amnllfrocton of thir energy in any ionization “event” Tlomething ofthe order oF 30 eV in se. Yet the comuatve eects ‘many soch eventa will adualy slow down » pate and renualying i to sent, In fk in th ote 19200 I wacom ‘only believed that all cenged patie eaveling through mater rat ther enerey loa ctily by inzation, This belie, as we thal ee, raed cut tobe wrong. Tonttation by photons “The discuson thu fara concerned only the forza cat by festanoving charged parte. But what about photons, whieh ‘trom el om a mole by @ movie, are pre tan rey es nar velba i ene eid Ne le oy te Ucn encom De ‘tno star someting an th a he ta tn reo sow te Tae oo dney I eins by» Commie Raye arty no charge? Photons too can ionize gs, but by a dierent eee eeentunteess fesly the the one Involving charged partes. For example, «MeV electron onze ‘wt altel forever cntser of ath i air at stanard temperature and presi, wheress a photon af the same cneey tuaves on average ditanon of 170 metas beer it kek an elee- tron cot ofa molec, Furtiermore, uke a charged parte, thich love nly amine fection of ts eaergy i each ellison, © Pioton tes mast or parhop alo 1 nergy in a ingle nen “This bs diflercaes in tehavioe betwen photons and charged articles i not to aurpiing, since charged patie dos not Fave to "hit en elctan directly to hod it ott of « molec tis the parte’ elctrosate repulsion or attraction acting upon the lcs tat sake the cate fame and ite of these force is effective at ditanom much grater than the dimensions ft the pert teil The photon. beause it leks on electric ‘hare, not capable of such oagrange fle. Nothing bappens tnt it makes "dst hit” oa an eloetron, Bona of the ual Nite ofthe tage, ebch an event is aura rare But whe fecurs, it se mach sore vile aoe than an interaction at finance this account of cm ay, we tall be concerned for the moat part with photons whose enerny is mach greater than the ‘inion ceaney to temowe an electro from an atm © a fmolcue, IU tarat ov thet with respect to thse photons, the ‘tro bebave ely a re perl tn other words the Tact tht they are prt of @ complex stoic or wolsuar structure “Te cosine af photon with an electron clot cee the colin fa rmoving blared al with all ats. The photon (he ‘moving all) bows a an angle wth is energy much reduced, ile the esteem (th ball at et) is knocked of in diferent Ghecuon ei) Tepe fats keaton and ‘deseo elled the Compl ee after A. H. Compton, who ‘Rerwoed iin 1923, Whe a ear of Mgh-nerry photon ten Alans and ritions 58th the numberof moll nied a onmensexedingy ual. The recs pea tes met ns prac in thee solnony hee, cary off «sizable faction ef te poten crs ny sete apie Prog le nen iti coin ta Th gts mie a Uhrough the few hih-ned secmnary nactone th eh he wm that they ‘Absorption and sneray loss healing ott ly fh agin {me kinds af rye bebe thre iret the Charged partis le tn ogy wat hit by bit trough large Fonzation events. A baa of partial hving the ame maa, charge, and initial kinetic soeegy, 8 reason explained in Append A, the range igen measured in gama per square reninete rather ih What happens to am canst ene to any hen hota tat tee zh istagny« qvatin cbmc. Itnny bade Seo phy, elt eecy for Compton clon sliostimdiatay or efter traveling a cane siderable distance. Consequently, i beam of photons tht bas Tiare certain distance some pons ll hav sesame energy they stared with wile other have lost Inge share of ther lected anay Tom the hea Te the case ofa photon beam, we ‘an pedi only the eerage behavior of the particles, We can sy Chace certain Fraction of all photons taversing a given mas of ‘ante wll be lst fom the bear. This fraction depends cn the {Dishes ofthe obsorter, en te materia the wns and if til he potons have these ener, onthe Value ofthat energ. Tally, the abort ved ft Inger of tho sane ‘ictnom, the sie foton ofthe ineieat photons abeiebed in tach layer, Suppone, for example, thatthe fraction ebeorbed is {O porcan Starting with e millon photon, afer has yer he umber of plotons ithe beam wil be 900,000 (00,000 ~ Wolo): ater the socal Iny 1 wll be B1,000 (20,000 — ‘ma), wed so on. By ploting the numberof surviving photons er tuntion tari thickness one obaia an aberlin care, Tech es tha shown io Fig 2-4. To mathematical lang, «curve {his general shape aio be exponential "Arire Ive sen, pholons of ven energy travel dierent lstances before undergoing hee fst ealisons. The average dix incr teal he mean fee pty and ks the rage of partis, itiseteo measured in gr per nquare centimeter. One can prove {all ot ater todo 0 ete) that the men fe ath in ‘tho equal tothe abeorber thickness noesary to ont dows the be of photos to 1/21 of tna vale. (The umber 2 {he bse of ate lgaits) Therefore, the shorter the as fice pth, Ue eerper the abvorption eave cerpinecl ray end photon in 1929. Bore tring to the ques ‘i amie ry a thei ysl nator, Hou ik to point ‘out thot this understanding rested en wo important assumptions that charged parties ne energy oaly by ionization and that Aen and radiations 2% photons lw ceey only by wai Campton alisons. Ay Inter rw thon, horeve, a alit ih neri sti lee pace ly ghey ry toon are shores much more eal than the pyc 0 tem peed Tee saga oto il te dase in Cape Tanda. i 1 iN i 5 5 5 2 i i I eRee The nature of cosmic rays ‘The gammurray hypetheats Most of th ary workers inthe field of oa ey wee convinced that the rave were simply photone of brevioalydlcovered. Infact a late as {ure commonly refered to coamic cays as Ulragumrnrbotins (stragumme ratio). The ean is eny to undewtond tae fom coanie ray, the matt penetrating radiation Known at aha ine comned fy saya heat adobe aston The ee fre path of yay photos ine meaued hndee of mctan heros 9 ann of camsrne merges shored cope ‘several meter andthe ranges af «patices wee salle il Moreover, unos computations, based on the acmon {eersnerey pootos were aborted prelomlassy took Compton caisions, predicted an increasing mean ne path tho Coun Raye increing poten erg, l contmaton of hi petition tad tecnfonad experi Unt he et eet yap rer le ow aeptonmensrement in ie stoic an we Shown the coi ration tobe more petting thn ny aie ee Fien nS and 1-1 ws thn staal o Uk hat commie styrene hm te ep tos eed ong aye Some pn wling to tut henry the Upton eles o fogs oexerpn wher ta sot ys bon ‘ated expernertally, etna th ees of he hypothetical tne terpenes teostsry phcees orn the she Sami vam thy enclose of polos ih teu ranging fom 20030 to evel dre MeV. The sn wua thes fam porte noggin put foray itn oh sing ln, iy the emrey reed droge rye evi deat fe frinrdalhydege sped thoughout te anv ‘Mutiuen’s hypotheate a eam ot highenery pol lt having Sey a ues ttn tg mtr, ave aborbol exponential (Fig. 2-4). The slaaplee eves eed bya men fo pth rhe tut rt {fr lores atria, apn onthe poten eer. Bo eee the comirny pone ceil re ney (ich very tne slerton couldnt be repro by 8 Spe Sipe ar, bea com yd nt em 8 Yl ‘otdfcl to errr for this eft and to compote te toe The nalre of eam raye » berption carve of photons incident from all dietons ne ‘harotreed byw prtilie mean fee pt Mikan noted thet the actual atorption curve of coum rays Ai nt cnet tnay single sre te coupe Noes itcould be represented by the sum ofthe absorption curves Ue ‘rus of photons with mean fron path of 3001 an vot rae aye uang Lira thary of the Compton ella (Rn sad [Nithioe ba not ye ble th), Milian aeived at eneges 26,110, and 82 MeV for i these ‘holon, He therefore concluded hat comic rndinton wes fi ‘mow prt a mistureof phate with thon engin Wie serching for clues othe erga ofthe patos, which ‘peered to come i esa number from every seo af th ka ‘Pentancos proce of fusion. Once ie while, for campla, fay ‘nydogen atoms might meet and feta arm = elon ne A hela atom weigh lightly lett 438% 10° gram ‘ethan fur hydrogen atoms. Accorting to Einaten's pin fcivaeue breween maw and ener, this means tae Seto to forms rom four bydrogen tana an amaustaf energy {alto 4% 10°" tine the apn the vest o hp, ‘eae! In the usual uit the amount of rele ener 27 MeV. Nov, allowing for experimental rn, 27 MeV nat the energy of the fist af the thee group of photons found re cosmic radiation, Consequently, Miltan concluded thet hoc, Photos rel fam the synthe of helm in intl apa ‘ean emarkably suse. Among the ost abundat events {in the universe ar nitogen and orven tne» coi Rye {oartsn hydrein atoms into one atam of tones would produce ‘bout 100 Mev of energy. Sima, the sytiei of one oxyfet ‘own from sixteen stm of hydrogen would release an energy of “These vaca ae cle to eachother an to the estimate for the photos of Milian’ wd erp Quite natal, Milian ‘onde Unt the polos alan ale from the eyathsi of Iver element, namely itogen and oxygen. But that wax nat sl For, os other calcultios showed, if twenty-eight bydropen ‘tors fret form one atm of sien, nother abundaat element, {ie proses woul sls an team of ence very nearly egal to the corey ofthe photons in the third group. This set of exe ‘ences, which turned out to be purdy wzidental, convinced ‘Milian that cosmic rayn were indol uh "het ery" of atoms Ing continuously created in space ‘The coincidence experiments of othe and Kobthérstor (Of course, fo tne to tne physics expres doubt aboot the tntre of case ray. But the prevaling view of cowie cay at high-energy polos was not sus hallnged until 1925, when ‘the Garman py Walder Bale wal W. Ketter ple Theda paper tiled “Das Weaen der Hosheostrablung™ (The [Nats othe Rainn frm Above") a is paper. Bote and Koliinter slated certain experiments snd arrived at certain fonelsas that maod a turing point i the history of counic- ‘ay roarh, The experimeats were ade pstble by uh important techni development earlier the sae year: the invention of ‘ecteowopes of tht fype ted in carer work on commie rave could detet only the combiae lnsng elects of large num eof parties ove ratvly long periods of time. Thy cold ‘ot detect indigo patie, ease the passage of sogle fre hugh an slseape dow ot reduce eauugh oan The nate of comic rye A ‘Ther wef cou, neuen cape ef etn ; : ope dng nie ining parse. For many year sys bd tos ing wT eds daca a price by curving thet hain pc on prio a ee Marsve, Han Gugsof Gamany, wile wikisg te hs lebron of vst Ratatat cry of Moscone {tom 1906 to 113, had clase i he devaopana cs ‘lexi dvi wn i een ne ily, pasted vod pjecig it cal a tye eer voluge rts tana he ob eg i er ld ea SE ‘ce by an inmulator,loislng particles eatar the box Unoagh i {teat tbe pin. Th window covered by thin alu thetic mene ‘coh et gt and Sot pene cao Selene noe cette ts EEE tt ine cop ce ie tei Te wi thn ty se ep ‘the charg leak to groued through the rxnur es2 Connie Rays ‘toc potent wit rexpeet tO the box. When te penal ‘erence is aa Un certain rita! vav (muly ofthe oder fm promo) the elect Bld simply ones postve ons ward the oegativey cbarged walls and negative fons lectons) tard the postvely charg point, just as ons of opposite sign are ‘ep toward the cam andthe leave of «changed eletrtope. "re Wit ae my mer eal on the yt ane paratively slow becuse both portive and negative jon calide feoqiently withthe gas molculss. But at potential diferences ove the crcl valve someting new happeos ia the vst of the pint mete the elect eld i nonget. Inthe abort ine intervl between ellison, ome of the eerroos aqui stint Kinetic energy & break up the gus molecules with which they tale, In tha eaiinions more eletrons are ented) they ar ‘elle toward the pont sod become expale of long the ext melecules they encounter. ‘The rest growing avalanche of ons. The gat suddenly scien very large etal conductivity and e share ahea Place. The vale othe pot evoner foe in thia multpbetion fect, whereby the few ons produced by the pamage of singe Tanitog pete elle to teggr n charg tht can eeay be detected, for example, « Wal electrosope connect os shown in Fi 31 Tiowever, noe ofthe inarumenta that [have mentioned wat ‘ell ated to commiosay stud. The coud chamber was dfcult Toran and wat senative for no more than small action of sect a each exposing. The Aoorescnt material of eintilation Imore eaviy than oto he parties oct wih he commie ‘adiation, The pit oanter nas aot very stable ane eld ot be ‘ade sfieaty lng tobe of much se inthe study eration ‘woe intensity was a smal as hat of cxmie rye The anaes to te ned cxsmioeay paps ce tn 192 ‘ith the invention, by Geiger and one of his stadent, W. Mer, The nalre of emi rye 2 te toca Ge Mie contr or GM counter fer sh). ‘Thisotramen oo ofthe most widely wed tak of eprint shy a the sweet ean, eel coi Wt met {ube with hin meta ie sec agai (32) The {ube i fit evacuated sod then Bed wis» gw ov specter ot oat one-eth a en emeaper, Under operating cnn, Ue ‘ie is eld at apse potent with reaper tthe tale, “Toe ca comuer yrs be mae ple mt point outer that ital we of th xd elec wich tage inn ai rel in the ge gs «diag. Te epg olage sal Ieteca 100 and 1300 vs andthe os insane over pecialylswole volume: The GM cuter Comparatively en ob, ach eel hen hep counter and canbe made vrety ef wis pt see aces in amet sever en eng 1a the exprint, Bathe and Khater ad setup two GM couates. rch sone to annotate ty aes ci rye. They ied Wat the conta, when paced 0 above the ther «anal dstnce spat (Fe 3) aed i. Te age Mie tema i on SS ler enon wl Si eal enc ‘Sar tote hor nig 3 ae4 Q Fig 3-2. TeoGM ote pd ne ahve hte nd once one [keeps Slonrdectoes a here aes Iie charge inten, Tho Stans cares, ol REELS tte hao tt ot eyo “Scie tn be ac it ot en tune Cerca ietwcqaim rete "hotonline ena csc: yom Campton als (Fi. 3) Howee pb Capen caameetsthewellor inthe ust cunere very onal nthe ‘bay wo Compose ee A Babe SP hirr sly saa, toe sed en fet he ape ct ia cre pres reap both smn Fg aster, tb pre cn ot be ihc (Me ne coer ve Gear a ad Tf a Ss) weal sop ach pri iS, eek Ate he ew tha ha rier rain, cme ait igo he ape Fence pcr este of highenerey pla Se pone 1 eas itt ce tne ores SIS par nig have nen he el ecto rng em eee A Pan! re th mer fhe The ale of coi rye s rina pr ello ae on 8 seve dnd Th al cat a eal inven thn ugha to tne tc abet ny ea aoe 4 lic em i ttre coum de bt thigh dnty mal spon ng nc Fee) New ly atv pe pee a {2 ol ten th canes pre eee hein aed that tet abn Cv nd an wit he sk Tes er th lpr mt cae ee Sve ld pant lp Fle. 3-4 Photos and charged-particle oxi ‘a. phot produces te ee el al at /20 1) = 1/0) ot me ca an nh rier) Every price png hn ees peeit 4 Camis Rays ‘sss mos very surprng; or erring to oven the mort everous estinats, only «small fraction ofthe reo electron found at any plat i the stmeophore shold have bad «greater range. Bothe and. Koblhister concluded tat the tha current ideas concerning the nature of easmic rey were probably wrong Sud that he primary evemic radian dl) coulsed of aged ‘nutes rater han phos, ‘Photons vers charged particles Consider for # moment the consequences of the two contrasting hypotheses, namely, that primary exis rye ae (1) pony, fenvellyaceptl vew, o (2) charged parts, 8 proponed by eral nt 1929, glee oto were thought to he abroad trough Coenptonelisons "one ad creed particles supply lost enerey oaly rough the ieniztion of mater (For the sak of snp, the raye may be ‘sured otal vectically downward ted f coming from all icles) 1, Nears lve the abcrpion crve of cosmic caiation semble the necro curve of potas having oan free path about 200 em nao water. Hence ane ca simplify matiers by mvming thet comieray photons found ear ee level have « tinge energy coraponding to this mean fee path. Caleuations Imed cathe theory ofthe Compton eft! predict an nergy of rproinately 60 Mev for photoes witha mean foe path of 300 leminsior wate. Asa farther smplication, ssume that when 2 Compton caso occurs, the potas napa by rig op ll it energy to an eloton. "Then each rec ctr wil have ino water. van th ad by ian ge 3 The naar of ome rays ich they recived thir eacegy) tT etm tthe lin a 20, a depth of 210 gmt (6 tc tone ne commie radiation atthe tee ‘ow do the so-calin intesen rnin SOS mes ete se 6000 pot, ey ~ he “Tne vals comand to thee shown in Fig. 36, Nowe that even 2. Ifthe primary cosmic rani stn cot gel pr energies: for iig @ ig. 24 Comer hn vol en an) card pre tng te The nal of commie rage » a ete ea ent 26 Nate afer pre rat ai eth en lee Annie that ved acide Samet of tng phone oa ‘Scag ply wit pric taba ‘count ay given lvls the aoe a incase Ln ther word, the ‘uve of the eorposuar radiation, a+ unaly ‘ensured it ie to that ofthe photon raieton (Pg se Although the typothass of «primary photon mditen ond ‘he hypothe of «primary corpuscular adit len ently erent pictures of the raion after it has pod though Inyer of matter (Fig 3-50 and 8), the absorption messente ‘lon batve 1989 yrshled to way ef dnguthing tea he two hypothe ‘The sicance of th nites eupciment of ute ad ohihrter wan that they afedd, for theft tie, the pou ‘lity of diatogihing between the consqucaren uf the oocenine» Comic Rays hrntinee Fal eimary sonnicvaye ae ys ua Me ers, no concences whotever would have been record wlth ‘41 cf gold between the counters; 60-MeV electrons rarnat Aeavel hat fr troogh gl. But primary comic ray ar charged partes, hen inorder to penetrate fr as they do though the svcophcic al matey sms Of ten must bave ete ee ‘eater than 60 MeV. Consauenty, they cold ls have pene, lente 4.1 em of eld at therahy are naeed the cboeed csncdences Wis true that the propoeots ofthe photon hype thous omic rays mere a mate of photons of diferent socio sore geal than 60 MeV, A small faction of the rel secvon, ‘herfore,weuld have paso Ung he pl block lH te experiments, Although this eroumetace makes the interpretation ‘ofthe experiment itl dz. it doe nt shange the ease ‘io, The crucial point is thi: An abworber tint prac aly rior ehange in the radiation intensity when paced above an ectreope ofa singe Ub counter produces completly dior eat eects — depending on whether primary commie yt ro ‘hates oe charged particles — whon placed betes tas coorton the rey are photons, the ebsorte dy ‘ough eeeey to tcverse the aborbe) Ifthe sae re urged ‘arte, the absorber afsets the coincidence rate only aighy ‘The vener eam sats hinge on ths pot by ging back to Fig. 3-5, Suppose fit that tw thin-alled counter lie ne above the othe at be evel wth ne shereorbntwece tem. To Pig, tnd} ove finds at sen evel sit ionising particles capable of ‘uavening both counters and thus producing cinciests, Now onsier what happens when an absorber (oqivlent, ny, to 26 fem of wate) is placed betwee the counters Sopene Brat that Primacy cna nae vege parice. Feo eo pris brsent ten lve seach level A, 25 g/cm below en level (Fig. 5-50) This meant the mum af otnrdenne how dered cnesith The nalre of emie rays a {offen that primary cami ry are photon Only oe Grate SH peel lecteoes present at se level roses ‘tao Sica i ted on even enum tov and envy ial vatsslempl econ ee, ‘ch were the ca, the soda dh cletrons would have had a rate ater mere ftom went hve pated tee a Caz ie counter an they might have produced aca 8 inary carnation fu fo rally: Comin nents a ie a penave very differently than charged ticles were ‘behave at the time. a aa eres, te work of Both and Kohlhrser ws mile wi the history of comic ray. The particular inte, stondi @ Cxmie Raye te eet tinea an apt ig teed met na ht forte fet ine pita Manpled to deen he alr of come yeep Th elf he pre el ope ary ae ud thus throwa the question wide open. Puzzling clues 4 ‘The history of cami 998i the fllowing years sw cal ater ‘ined wi ny own fe a scent tat I can hardly exo ti temptation to insert sme personal ate in thin acon Wheat happen torre the paper by Both at Kurt, 1 wan 28 years ld and adjust completed » year aan stant to Pro, Antoaio Gatato, director ofthe psc labestry ofthe Univety of Maes, inArceti, Kay. Among my caleage ‘ere Gilbert Berrni and Giuseppe Occhi of whom sore ‘il be ard later in thi ating. Nae of ts was cmmled fo any long-range remarch program. Ths paper of Bothe and Kohl ‘iter came ks aah ight even the saan swe ‘ected work, fll of mysteries, which none had yet beges plore. It soon became my overwhslning ambition to priate Within few months I had bat my fest G6 ouster, had ovine ano mth for earings ome ohh ‘vac tubes oe Fig. 41), and ind begun tome caperinnta, ‘The summer of 1980 took me to Charatenbure. Gems, os4 ene rare scr! i fh a Bot brates athe Pace Tec Rota Te pts oth rn eon Ymorovement, Bote and Kober rg exper ‘Sent The improvement consted omnia mang wae Touparion af te cadence ae rnd when an ehotber I l at Scapa Toa (Beyer cd het Ty Ty Tota pro Th eet pedo 9 ine Spt the latent pl ae pti ty TES netponnd When coe the GM cone sys dcr, ee auane abe T, beans engereriy meat od the abe A CAe cider caret, wc bower, stu to ow thon Ty aR med hege dct chang ay oe SEES bale ao ore STEGSCN angen te ret Wat owe a iar sma {Ubtouy, the al Urs tes Become eesnducting, he cent trong Jokive eternal Thelin op 4 nits the ocr Pena tap eater (Ror rer fvling my ber of tee. Puslng lee a ‘nesalnne counter mth those recrded when the mc abscrber ‘ras between the counter Upon retin to Arcot, I eutinid to expiant alg similar ines About these erly experiments I sal ay only thet they stengtened my feling of wooden of ane bere te dimly pereivod new fats tht were beioning to emerge. T wan anvinged that coum rays woald tn out to be womethng fund ‘wently ifwont ho ihe BEF snow dl, hes, the Properties of photons and charged parties changed dati 0s eke ener increased Thin revision wa the mate fr ‘wo eperneats I shoul ke to desire Conmic-ay penetration of load othe and Kober ad shown that «lage fection of the ‘omy particle found eae na er wore capable tri ‘41 of gold, std my own work in Bots Iabeatry had ome mea there, Carioos to id oat whether, perchance ow how pres might have enough nergy to everett are thicknoes of mater, sy, 1 meter aed, {arenged three CM counter along vertical lin (Pig. 48). The al ken ot ead ‘between the counters was inily 25cm. By piling up mornber of ea Deck, 1 could increase the atarber thick tm toa ‘fT meter, and I found tat 6p tof the come ray prion ‘capable of traversing 25cm ofa ao teaver I sete a ea ‘ice 85m of en worl hal rd, ot aly ‘few (es Thad thought) bata very sable ction a the coun ‘ay partes found ner no level had s ange pcats then nee ot ead Considering thatthe maximum eae in ld of aye fre raamooctiveaubatances i aly a fraction eft millet, ane an ‘esl appreciate the suprise caused by thie Inthe fin pce, ‘seems ny parish, nitevr ete Not be may eg of mognitide more energetic than rays. Ta fac, they bed tsame 7 Comic Raye poms coe a the range of bllizn of electron volts, These cee were rer than any Wat con plmily be Fase ‘th athe of ements Ad for many pict it was a great thy were foe to abandon Millan's fuscnating Uy aboot the orga of anni ay. Moreover, the ay hypoth, aeady shen by the work of Bothe and Kabiier, had reve an ‘ren mare serous bow. Inca wn wae wep mn hy he cy rather than two were employed ia the experneat 1 ave jot Acid. The puro ofthe third counter wan to reduce the ‘umber of unvanta, chee esncene, tha i sncdeoen aed by diferent particles crowing th country sont simul Uaneouly. An elton cance devo, Fg. S-, made ‘emi to et down the number of cance cacdenes cone ireiy ve nth terns ue tha Leer eet he ‘omber of wich events woul Bove ben greater han the nam of (Gus csicidencen renting fom the pamage of singe commioray fe yig.4t Experimental erngenest wed t_ deman- iLegrreme i usher ctr a Once trams tes oak using lee « artis trough both counter. With a tic coute ia betwen we number of rie coincidences remned changed, athe numberof chance esncdences was drastically rel Sacmnadary affects of conte rays ‘The secon experineot flowed frm observations that seme to oct tht lighenerey comncry partic secssnally ee cod secondary insising particle in tater. Perpn the sent ‘igiicant observations wore than made in 1989 by the Rootes ‘Physic D, Sobctzyn. Working with «cloud chamber paced in ‘magnetic fed, Skobeteyn bad potographod the tench f wn, tumully energetic negeive particles pain trwoeh te amie ‘The curvatre ofthe trncla (Chap. 5) indicated parce ears smoch grater the thw of elinary rye Sholay tenet hat the tacks were probably let by tlctoos rene ran Compton clisons withthe hypethatrl seem ry pte ‘Skobeltzy abo pated oat thecal appearance, i ia ‘ictares of high-energy parse, of two and ia tow ce, thn ‘wou ia the mame pte. I was pou to explain the maltge tracks by amuming that «recollection had undergone oneoe ‘mare cals somewhere near the chal elamer ted ws the calls hed ected seradary parses of Meleat energy. enerat the chamber wall To vestigate the nupcted production of scandy parties by conmic rays in matter I placa thee GM counten ors a west svey (Pgs 3). THe tree Counter cold se be dee charged by a woge partic traveling ina staght lin, and yet, ‘hen comoletely mud! by eed, she ees can gs umber feces wome tye pe hur), With the ues ‘art ofthe ed hing removed, the ecient rate al nce ao, The oeences could oly have ben the seca tree ‘nos onnig parte cng simultancualy fom te end,y Coie Raye tag rays ux even wi we top ad removed, tere wa mal residual eect of roughly two coincidences per hoor, wich at the tye Feld ot fly explain Te Iter torn ot tht he ect swan due to the production of eoondary rays in the stcapbere (Gee Chap. 12). ‘Theunespeced fing was tbe grest abundance of ondary ryt, as evidenced by the high coineidenoe rte In order to appre- ‘hte hy Wa none nr i uy eal a ey of the raul. The only known interaction of high-energy photons ‘wes the Compton effect. A Comton clison produces single ‘eel eectuoa, ad therefore i coud not aout fr the groups of parties found coming out of the lad sorb The aturence ff to Compton clits ane ext to te other and invalving the sane photon is such «rare phenomenen tht i can be ignore SStopter: Charged partie do knock ston out of etme — this infact, the cormon ioizton proce; bot thee electrons orinariy have avery small energy. Only on rae oocasins is ‘detron ejected wth slicen energy to ena fom the aber. ‘Ths, nothing of what was known atthe tine could explain te abundant predueton of secondary partic reveled by the ‘experiment. Actual, the coals a thi expersent appeared so Inerdie tthe ton f the een fran tee T bet Fett Tine amy ot Oot ea ee ee atocciveneamse ot © oleic, Gor tow Thepiereiats deco Semen asic or ar cn oe Passing eae » toed my pp ht hy ele pli The paper wos later accepted by another journal : Ba is at othe being, fo son Dec ne hts ‘meracuons of coe radiation with matter gies to eect ‘mor complex and unusual than anyone ba the ight to efr fom ‘my counter experiments, The divety of thar samplers oot the ft rst of new experimental device Gat wast pinpar Important rol the history of eo rae: the counters dood chamber, male erally tat i tte wit ee istrat whew the dol cham“ he Sonn ry, teed of wl pte old tine serrate ne te Nae et iil te» pe nd p hcg Tt tint esa rattan a hi ‘echan On, for eames ge GM cron ne Segre ne inmsnavaunomeptndentnes STIgES (iio cen) me Son Tey a Asie penn came rea mre. oie Baye sd elow the chamber, connect both counters to eineidenoe rslnse mechanism (Pig. 4). More esis than doe, of eure nical achievement. It was cocatructed in 1982 and 1983 a the Cavendish Laboratory of Cambri University by P. M.S Blackett an Giuseppe Ovchilni. Blackett was akendy wel oown for hin laad-chamber stadia of radioactivity. Occhi ‘hie working in Aros, was ait beianing bia siento carer. The 1993 paper in which Blackett and Oecisink described hele int oberetins with the coanlencontlle chamber marked another slletone in the history of enamioray research. T ball ome back to ina later chapter, Here I wih v9 mention ‘only one ret A number of pictures showed te treks of many fortes hat clly eval rn th intention a singe igh hegy comity snsewhere in the viiity of the chamber (ig. 45). Thee groups of perils, or shaer, were uruestion {bY the cae the coinidenes Between counter ot i hat Thad observe prevoaly. ‘ld camber pris Shee Tora a me (Shsiow sat pomp ‘Gp ong Ao uke te i 65 Petgph ond Blt ad Oi wih counter ger thet be Usk ten taser een See dg eR StUe 2 Cami Rye ‘A sumenary ‘et me summarize billy what hat Ben learoed this far: 1. The r2ay bypoban bad no expevimenta!fudotion 2. Much of te coumi adiation found ear wa level consisted of charged particles tbat poses energie of 1 BeV or mae and ‘vere capable of traversing very lng thickets of matter 3 Cont age majuenuy gave eo very eampie proces Jn whic large nab of soondary parties were generated ‘Te wala pratactlon of secondary ryt meant thet @ sigsicent actin of Us partic obeervd arma evel had been ‘reduced inthe tmomphnes Att tive, aay of ware end {o colder th most poetating parties (how capable of travel ing largo distance ia ead) to be the ral primary etic rye and ‘he "aftr" aril (those babe by few ertinetrs of ad) to be secondary in origin. However we cacy relied the po ality tht only afew and pebay we of te pry par tikes might beable to penetrate any pont distance tough the tmoanhere without underoine eins, In that csepracticly {the particles fund var vn vel would be secondary prota of celisions ‘The roblom ofthe nate of cic aps, which mas booming much moeecompliated than anyone bad imapoed could, really Involved tro dierent quanta 1. What was the nature ofthe primary radiation fling oa the stone fo vt space 2: What was the compaition of the oa rd obervod in the atsoabere? vee if al primary 1 Kind, won lear that the oe oa wary iin, vrs ikly tobe quits complex. ode, ia the next two dade it vs tobe found that tho lea uation cotaine ot enya the ‘aliatogs previously known, and several Kids of raya tht theo sts were to dream about, Dut many others a well Using the earth as a magnet to analyze cosmic rays 3 cnpereeltasna htt sae nt et seca narra reac manoed bales Inter, sningrckte were tad. I soir atearnats malagmnagaa ie freee Sei catsnen cote Snaciheo eee res ooo gyn een Tn tecloriis dierent waifasmaieumnane rman sce trey nt Gi warateneemeeel Shaanry Came Raye rear the earth’ center and with is north pole toward the se- ‘More pest, he center the teeta magnetic ioe de ‘sliced about 200 mils from the center of Ue earth, and it axis fer a an angle of about II rom the geographic ax (Pg. 5-L) ‘The eld tel extends far beyond the each ofthe atmosphere [Atan aide 1,00 sles atengd ll abou oneal ie {eld wtrength th earths rac, By contrat, the romani i tom aes 20 ain contittas lc tha I pr eo the etal stnapher. a “Thon, the primary comic ray ennanter the magnetic ‘wll before they have ance to cle with the mole of Ue £1 “Te mm i rt ei te fn sraaey Set ar et Sp aed ee ‘Tine Sch aunt temo SOSSOR SR ee Rept i See wh ‘rn tue en roe i or a a SOTA Gear ore toe ‘Siivedec wae The pant ep st wnat cy sing he eth 0 a maga lo analyte cums aye % stmomphere. I the primary rays ae eletrialy charged parte, {he wil be delete hy the sets faa eon t ‘other depending on whether ther charge is poe or negative they are neal parties or photos, they wil pas trout the ‘eld undetected. And although teen's magnetic eld much ‘weaker than the lds prodvced by laboratory electromagnet ile seermonn extent moce than nan fin mshi, Hence Aletions are to be expected even for shared primary particles of very great ene. Magnets otlaity ‘To make the discon in this chapter more precise it will be ‘octal orev very bel some o he tan ots concern the ‘motion of chargol parts in magnetic Geld A moving charged Drie ina mapwti ald expernoomw dlting fore tht cin at rght angles to both the magaetc Geld and the direction of ‘oto, Ifthe fli uniform and perpendicolr to the dietion ‘f moto, thn continuous sideways raat! ean the partie to ‘move na rl (Fi. 5-2). Now fr partie of given charge, the dln Pf thie cise in inverly proportional othe sagveic ‘ed tength B and diretly proportional to the mowentam the partie? In other word, the product BR (magnetic eld times radu) fs directly proportional to the momentom. For partic of the ‘me moment bl wth iret mous of charge, on the other nod, the product BI is inversely proportional tothe charge. A selnbarged partie cnpeconee = mace aie Uae eh 8 singly charged partie, and ite wajctory i Uherefore defer {into ctl of sale radi ‘The product BM it known at the mapnlic rigidly of the artic The ual unit fr measuring magoetic eld is the yeu Geer ele the are fain py ta th ath phi3 Cumie Raye ee Soham cheer terrirem ty Saree ieee gare Seine ane mega ater pment cece seme ete ym scot om et Siena ‘i rd a pes ning he ath a magnet tana coomic rays ” ‘eto eer is lege compared to Une et energy: the fetor 300, | - 1 ie Fig, 89 Latte tt none inte, wring the ati ‘iti eas Vl Each eve iso pest pra st ty, lm he i nr a rc eg ‘Stumod tapas crth nal sone fol dicta The co lucy of ech maple iy at wild sie npr ‘wl soni of 3.2 X10 guano cmp erdadd fw ant ld don een by Siximiy al Poms me Re Piary Connie Rey Complete exc Irm an equatorial elt extending frm about 12° N to 12S peomagnetic latte; thatthe fax ofthese pats tnd tht above 43" it each © coorant vale equal to the Nur ‘that would be observed in the abwnce of anv maenetie ft orkon geomagnetic aot mas eacmpanid ad Indeed stimulated, by extensive experimental workin wie een tis from many dierent counteesparipated. The wit ombi tious program was the one undertaken in 1980 by A. H. Compton, oh, with the help of many callaboratr cated outa wor-wide firey of omakoreynleador Both at 08 level st at Rh iad on mountain For my owa part. I concentrated my fats onthe cst went fet. "There were tno min reasons fr thin preference. One was thot te eastest elect, to my mind, provided a sare txt of ‘magnetic ileace than the Ittude el, becatse it didnot involve u comparton of eosnicray iteoitns at dierent low ‘ons Variation fo the conditions of Ue nanan fan ome region ofthe earth to another, which eoaldconceivaly sma « rmagoitic latitude ect, could not produce a eat-wet myn retry. The cod reaon, of couse, was thnt if com aye were letras charged, the east-west elect woud ala reveal sgn Cte charge, 4o 193, a the Ares laboratory I made my fst etenpt to Astct an ont ort eet. The type fitment Fel fo i Purp ater became known a the eemioray elope This itu. ‘ment const simply af two or more G-M counters in icone franged with their caters on a straight Tine called the art (Fig. 5-10). Only particles coming from dietinn ner the axis ‘a cers ll counters at tereby prods emultaeous dis charge, of coincidences, By ehanging te reatation of the tel Using te earth a mage analye cami rye o ‘opi then trom posible to compar the numbers of csi '2y pats eviving fam ilont Secon, Te edo oe the tkscope depends, of cour, on thse ad wyecetona de {Rulers Figure 510s hows a eleope with awe Bld coe, Fie 2-10, weope with enroll foe Inte ee, ent Tpit the GM teascape aerate atl fo rtf ha gemogonti nnn P21) We east to detect any Sift dfeece. between the cotng rates rectdd inthe two directions. Te in av the ft se triers forth ence one fel wes Lah ‘pear, with we ination tha the eet ight be ace ‘ecard aber than by meteor ites castret fie wan dicovered in tice septs eae Thoma Henson, wrtng a Moss iy CF N ee Inde, 2.250 mca above sn lee), and Lula Wr Aes coloration wth Campton, wokiog a hese osteo {he otra ocx rye io beget fom the mea he ro he cat The dere was appoint 10 pr et wth te ? y 6) 4 Ca oh POEM Gee Mit wy nig of te 8 monn nis 8 oe mh nd Sen) saat ‘sow Gd of vw. The etl os eagh tn sey ‘reagh oe0 Camis Rave o Siena te lacy aod the mean eal comoay tdesope st a an ange of 4S" to te verte A tew months later Seo De Benedetti and 1, working in Ammar ies (11°N germogneti late, 79 mtr abeve son aed, Found an exci of 25 percent in Us eat diction, again with the Aelacone at at 45° othe vertical was thir lear that a portion, pus allo the primary comic radiation conse of pstively charged parties. This was ‘Thost ones et, for the common le wig prope Using te earth as mage analy coum aye 0 f the carpacular hypothe bad been that the primary commie iscovered oe yar eal, we would have conched that comic 1 And happen we would have been right. But in 192 anew postive particle ad Ten discovered — Ue pin sto pan (Chap) Ths we had to lave the quedion of the nature of inary sami rye In abeyance util new evidence develened. Inthe following years weal of experimental data on the astenetefot, end prtcelaty onthe latitude eet, became ‘valle. In 1980 Compton summarited the existing information {in the form of graph, which reproduced in Fig. 5-12. The curves Compton called tem. Tess graph also shows the gromngneti quntr andthe geomagnetic paral at 50° N and SS, Ae the figure makes event, the ncaa follow geomagnetic pales mor cll than they do geograpi parlel Thi fct ported ee view unt the mens vito of cos radiation ore te cath’ surface were de primarily tothe verti magnet Gd ‘The poablty of ome atmospheric intuence, however, could ‘ot be ruled out Indeed, in 1987 Compton and his collborators btained postive evidence of » light decree inthe nce of commie rays at sa level asthe tmpertare of the etmaapere fncrene. Since the aveege lperatine of the atop (greater near the equator thas sume orl ha a eid ol inde et found at sea evel ws actually de to the temperate ve Ae eart's magnetic il accounted for abut twothidse the total eet. Inte bat alo wih longitude, a4 Compton's raph shows (Fig 512). For example, the ata along the somagneic eulerring he arth a magn boar cumie rae n 3 {all toa minimum inthe Indian Osean, This observation, to, Ss {he picture. ABT mention a the burning of ts seepage ‘ale ofthe earth's mastic ipl doesnot eoecide exes wit {he wosrapic centr is displaced toward the Inian reno ‘ie she magne tld there tengo and profess © no fl ‘Pronouns dere ia the cour ito, > ‘The offect of the atmosphere ‘Toon fa, Uae ignored the atmosphere, nd he tine has come tn ‘eae bom ia peice might alt our dnc he Teed atin the pecding chapter, at the tne when the iver related here were made, thre were aealy pd rast i belong that. the local ration cserved inthe stenaphen {ht number of sndary partis oterved unre ete Blanket ould incase or eres te numberof rary re ‘Tae eft would not, however, equa pronounced, bcos te Binary prt tht show te larget lade vera floes eae, andthe a ely to padue fever sonny rics inthe ataapore In this connection, i is intresting to conser the measure ‘ments st high altitudes on mountains and by mete nf hae Att nes me in th erty 1980 hy Ue loam esha wih (Compton and with Milikan. Thee mesurement showed Un Inte et hana more pannus teste ee (Fig. 513). This result was cary to acount fo, Under « sealn ‘tmoepberithiskoe (hat i at hih lit) the ace 3 Fi i i i 2 f i" Conic Raye ‘the GM counters could detect sith dielly or theugh thie secondary rays) primary particles of lover etry, which were ‘motu strony muenced bythe ents magnet fi. ‘The interrelation ofthe eave elec, onthe eter hand, ‘lisons of primary rays with ets abd molecules went of at Wide angles to the primary diction, the szondary radiation in ‘he almospere would be distbated mors os uniformly fall Aietions,trepetive of the distin fom which the peimary ‘ai ane nt ce, We oa peta observe an eas wet fect only by sending our intument ler of the atiepbere, hae the pimaryenaminradiatonanived undisturbed. Nose: Tes, we hed detected an eastwont eft under a conierable ‘stnepliric thickness where pesunsbly most of the observed ‘ye were secondary. Thus we canlded thatthe secondary rage ‘roduced inthe atmosphere mst be atagy “Vinod up" ia the “This concoson recived support from another expvinentl servation. Measurements with the camninmny tcp soa ‘sharp maximum of inteaity is the loa radiation when the tle scope was pointod straight up. The maximum could be explained ‘an etect of atmospheric abeeptan, cae the radiation tay «zving the atnespbere vertically pase through a smaller amount ‘2t matter than the redation trevering the atime i my ‘er direction, Suchen explanation, however, wold hold trot ‘a if the secndary cay traveled in moc oles the seme dpe ‘on a he primary ras tat produced then Using he arth a a magnet analy cami ays 5 8Positrons and the materialization of energy 6 ‘Throw the your conai-vay phat have bea faced wth two istict bat cloly related problenn The int, of couse, sen te ature of comic rays, Th second in; What Kan f en, {st in nature, and bow do parts of very high omy bebeceeTestor bins withthe kel coun diton, Inthe expsi- ‘ments of Dothe and Kobiheser the einidece rte ha dropped 2h per coi wen. ct gld was placed between the cours ‘On the other hand, my ows experiments had sown that, after ‘came much “hard” and Unt lnge proportion of them were apa of traversing led thiknses ofthe ender of meters. Otter ‘measurements conGrmed these reals (Fig. 1). Terfoe, the eel comic redatio contained tno distinct groups of patios: “st group reponse fx hel fas opt te sop curve of Fig. 6-1, and a “penetrating” gro, rene forthe ‘at “ii” ofthe cere Moreover, a we had eared at leas aote of the cosmioay tices produced the comple secondary proces called showers, Horever, we bed not yet found out what the various kinds af secondary parties wer. As forth shower, ey mee thought to reel fom he dantagrtion of toi uct, bt Ua amg remained to be tested. dice ui — | Fg 61 Sl and posting grou of comin pre tw eel) ‘ota rape tarp pa fate ta tet ton sv os est). The haz sale gee ta i ef he oe Positans and the malraliction of energy ‘The diacavery of the positron ven before the diacvery of showers, Cath D. Aeron, in ‘Milikan's laboratory at the Calfortia lsitate of Tecboloey hd started anexperinental peogram tha, together with the one tngun ite Inter by Blackett and Occhi, was to provide tial anes to ou questo. The mao real ts mock wa he dicovery ofthe partie eer, parron, af the range ‘éreumstanes alicnding its birth alte dp ourece This experiments Anderon used «slut chamber place ia the fel oa powerful lectomaguet. Ata maxiey fl etength (028,000 gate was abo to measure the magic deco ef ‘rocks whose radius of curvator wes as great es 7 meters and ‘shove mati igity wat therfore sughly 1 10 gu om (Cat in, 24000 gauss x 700 em). The ortespnding Mine ener. es — abvat 6 BeV for pats withthe mano an lero wed boat 4 BeV for particles with the mast of «poten (Fig. $3) — ere several hundred tno greater Ua ny energy tht onan incase had een enya of measuring. Ison became spp ‘eat that the particles ofthe local oni radiation bad « wide ange f energie extending wall beyond | eV In ait ot ‘nl their trajectories bent to the ight and half to the It. he unig the direction of travel to be downward in every cae Anderton conclu that pitively and negatively charg pr ‘les were about equally abundant in te loa! cote aan, ‘At fit Aine Ughe the meatve perils were sates ‘and the pustive pertcos protons Av the experimental, deta came mors prorie, hewover. ro siged te stones a Interpretation; for the Goud chamber abo made it poate to atimate the ionising power of the partes from the womber of ropes along their tracks. Now, the ionizing power dense with increasing velocity (Chap. 2). For a. given magnetic «aver particle, Theor, the ighter partie as‘ aller Tesxing eet,™ ‘oumie aye To illustrate this point, the gratia Fe. 6-9 give the Son eaity 06 fanetion rigidity for sketron and prtans, The curves (ina tothe oo ia Fig 2-2, which give ion deaty ane fotin of Kinetic cers) show that cleo sol protons with fufcenty mall magni prodoe very drat dentin ol inization, Cnsomntly, i Anteren' pers te ee ‘rons, ther teals mould lave bees dene han the rake the egntive partles, ‘Uoairary to expectation, the ination densities were pro: tially the ame, eve for maguetic gic in the range ow 10¢ wur.ca, whore proton woul have nial at eae tits toe heavily than electrons. I was tempting to accept these rena ae evidence fr the existence of hitherto wokrnen partie with ‘ositve mentary cbrge and ata lw to tate he elt But thet was such e daring conclusion that all ose oars of rrr tnd te realy examiae, Hee, Andersen ge aeioas cuaidratio wo the pom thatthe partie he thought were ative pile moving dowevard might tn teal, be eogts ‘detrons moving apmard. To tet this alternative tpleetinn, Anderon partitioned his coud chamber into an upper sel tomes ‘ection by means of w lead plate A partie treverig te pate ‘ould ule an energy oat and ths emerge wth a corspodiog!y ‘Fedaced rigs, rey Slog i drecton of motion, The res obtained withthe new arrangement revealed par- tile moving upmard an well downward aly utying hones son's misgivings However asthe cloud chub photog aso ‘proved beyood any doubt, ome of the positive partes had measly ‘he sane mote a the electron." Curouly enough, the most con: ining evidence came from the pietare of a postive pete ‘moving upwond: a the alec uf de ea plate, Would un doubly have been mistaken for an ortinary negative electron “Ascent mene of tera fcarver td hoe denon fs nar of wnt aad Ando ovate ae a ‘Bum, sole ot ls to ‘pe ar i a gtAb 2 Connie Raye roving downward (Sse Fig. 6-3) The distin of motion ofthe the plate het «considerably anal rads of carvetare than the portion below the plate. The magnetic deflection indices « Dastvly charged pete, The mapueticrigity changer roan 21% 10" guste to 7.6 x 10° gaus-em a te pate tay- fic the plate, and the Sato deity ajar to be about ‘All thse resi are easly undertod if the parila mae los to that of an lecteon. Buta proton with a magtcrigity The Poa ns vp, 8) Posivon and he mation of energy 6 87.6 X 10% guus-om would proce density of iazntin mich ngs of oly Sin the ga of the chamter, ween he laerved length of the track it mir than 5 em c's theory and the origin of ponitror cei, in England, were carrying oat thei experiments with {he eounter-contrall oud chamber. Thee experinmnt, heeee ‘eveaing the great complet f comic ay iateracbun, pad ther resus of ruil importance. Tn the fst place, Hlrhett rad Occhi wee able wo conten Anderson's discovery of the yo ‘oon, announced a few months eater. Inthe secon plac, they feand that all shower patie defaced by the romper weak nagtc lds ued ia Ur experiments (aul eos 2000 3.00 gr) wee citer negative oe potitive ele. had, ‘ome showers at less, the number of postive and native par {icles were comparable ‘Blackett and Ocenia al then many pctre with the loud chamber parttoned by & lad plate. The pictures often showed two or more showers ciinetingsimaltanuely fee the late andthe chamber walls The fequentcocurrente of tiple hacers was quite wurprising. I aed a if paris gered in showers were mote ily to produce weary shower an were the average coumieray partie found inthe etmaphee, Las of hat appeared to originate inthe plat without eny inaing tech catering the plate frm above, Sach showers, Uerfore, mere na roduc by eletoa 0 by ‘ny other charged partic. I. became necesary to posulete th ‘wbtene of weal aye capable t prodaciog ones In Hlscket ‘nd Occhio’ view, the neutral aye were pebublyhighenesy ‘hoton. The experiments ment om to pot cut thet appre“ Commie Raye ‘hn pts nese won ong the secondary prdcle of homers; for it ws not ansoal to detect multiple showers mith “nonin ink” (Fe. 4). ‘One of the members of the Cavendish Laboratory, where Blache and Occhi did thir experiments, was PAM. Die ' young theonst wo a few years eater had’ developal «ew ‘theory ofthe electron. In his theory Dire sought to combine the Inia pinion af quantom sca i tHe Pott of iosten's elativity theory. To moet people Dinas theory did nat make smoch sense: it predicted such obviously absurd things se particles with negative mass and negative energy. Dinseshowed, however, by a eather fae argument, hat in heir coo besalvaged i one aud theists of postive ‘au wall os negative electons. Althogh be teed to enti the attve ero with the prot, hi tory stubbornly easel to ‘orien to the hypothetical particle aoase diferent from hat ofthe * ois ote aad Ui) vik prods sey seme ‘nthe bra meal te we the che. aed ee spare ‘ses yar eran, Pract of Bel Se fe "STAI, m3] orion and the maleialittion of nerey 5 guton ~ mc nd this cowry was rated inthe fo of ‘Wy did showers appear to cota equ numbers of patie sod negative electrons? The anawer again according ie Dn thea, wa tht a poste elation var ines prt apeeg 8 negative eletrn, The mast ef the tn secttons eal fom a mabritvton prem (hn npr practin) sk Bator allo the etry a he primary pate was tanned eres hous were caplle of prodcing pa af ante oh neative eaten tog he mate of ea Fly, ome physi had voted that highgyy aye from radioactive sources were shored in mater noes ca {Ban the theory of Klin and Nihina predict (Chap, yn {cea absorption could now be explained by pir moheere ls i ees, pootan were alurbed to lip pattie and negative elcicons James Chadvsk, Bleck, al tehitn in England, ws well as rine and Feds tae cere,Electrons, photons, and showers a ‘The dicovery of the poiteon, the experimental Lat of Dire’ theory, andthe diet ‘twvetion uf erent ie whale ‘eanformed into matter and matte into energy re ssn the ‘mot striking accomplishments af physics inthe tenth comury "Noverthlo, these achievement ett unanswered many gcse about comnioray showers. Blackett and Ooch hol fmm 0? What was theatre of thet itzrectoos Did thy involve atomic nace Tas, wee the ‘de anepned and Wich partic nthe aca couse sein ‘ere capable of initiating sbowers? The need for new epurmenl data ert now that werk es grt ate Experimental aramertins af shewere Although the sloud chamber was unsurpassed a an stunt for icorxing Ue mative of complex intestine ad fo sayyo Coomie Raye ‘maida events, sme ofthe mot sont data on shower nd ‘the radiation that produced them came fom the simple, euler tun of G M counter atu line (Fi. 49). The years all ie dacovery of showers taw mutneraus cinldence expe ‘mente perfrmed with G-M cumtor nenye in meng ieee laboretoria. T shall aot even atlempt to give ® comprehensive ‘count of the new information thus gathered; intend, Tahal ‘uel mention tr erty rela st were partcalaly sient forthe understanding of showers. ‘Theft rst wae th ele shower cry mich eben bow the cxncdeace rate tren atthe thicknew of the aware ‘hove the country increas. The tial homer curve show in Fig. 7-1 was derived from data obtained ith the esperimetal ‘srangement shown inthe ist, The material sbove the counters Ten As te carve swe, whe tbe Toad thick wa i creas, the rate of coincidences duet showers coming ofthe lead increased api at fet, ace « msinum bet Land 2 em, and then — quite unepectlly — dered rapidly een. At the tine, many of us ha thought the penetating partie found i the atmospore were the pitary econ rays themasves, Sappotedly thee particles initted shower by intersting with ‘stomio nut. Th spe of healer curve tlds We mee oe ‘he wrong tack. The penetrating conic rny pute bad known sean range ofthe order of str in lend thie momar aed he ‘ergs would not change appreciably ia the penetration afew ‘mtimetes ofthe metal. And yet the sumber of showers cig ftom a ayer of ead decrensed by eoughly oe all when the lad aye thickness was incresed fom 25cm. Clery, thereat ‘maponible for showero we tush more cul alm by lad than the penetrating corpuscular radiation wan, ‘The seer result had todo wth the at at which showre curred in diferent substances. In placing above the counters layers of lad, ico, and aluminum all having the eae ms pr ‘oevera’ gram per equre cenimeter) I Tound a ate shower ratio of 42:1 fo the thre metal ‘Ths ope Blerons, photons, and showers » ‘showers were produced much mere aundantl ina given mam of « brary elment (or example led) thn nthe ne emo gh sme for example, amin). Other experiment sowed tet ‘aver ements wer alo more elev aarber of he raion ‘commas fr te sowers. This pct difernc in havin Between heavy and ight elements wan 8 novel fetae in igh ery shrsice The ionnao:hnwa of ange Pare a eA 2 the ocnrence of Campion calor, were approximately te ‘same in diferent materials when thickunees were tmoered ‘rama per square centimeter ruber than in coaineten If i Pe ' Some ce. Theo f ep br itd a Sean ston adn sae ee { Tbe 2 0 Commis Raye ‘These experinentalobervations, in edition wo others T have mitt, sugeted a number of interesting exnlasions concerning the “sowerprequeng radiation” and is place inthe general framework of casmierey phenomena. A concrete aad Petbe cba bepas roy ada serge Dotcnagy on ees {hort devclopment made it unmet to eanstruct the com= plete pctore pice by piece from purely empirical data. This Sevalopment came abbat aot becsan physic bad dicovered ‘ny esentally now principle, but rather beet, from exiting ‘eave ny I scar hing ware pede ofthe behavior of highenergy eletons and photons. ‘The theory of Bethe and Heiter towns known that fst ctr, wen rpily brought to et in smaier, produced photoo. (This, in fact, the wanes in which evapo are gmat) Tenn geclly bevel lever, ht the ergy eat by lctroos trough photon eaiaioneonauted a tal ation ofthe eer lest trough insti. Bat in 188 Hans A" Beth and W Heiter, then a Eagan, reported tho tenis ofcaleultion pentng oa very dierent coco, They ‘ed considered in tall what eppend when charged parle peed near an stom aude and i tajectary was bet by the ‘ron ccs fld stot wi the porte elatn charge of the aude, According tthe laa Weary of eet and magnetic Gels, any tected charge nila cetromagnetic ‘ave Since the motion along 8 curved trjecory i acoeratd ‘ool, charged parties pang neat wnclen mst radiate; hat ‘iti magange ut oom poy te pares ms oto "Tm mt Hh lo svi. Rath and War he se quantum Gory (because they were dating with ind ‘baton prs) and elvis equtins case theyre {iking wi rare moving a has mec gi Tee ‘on rota were flo Bletrans, phos, and showers o 1, aati tes are encrmousy gree fr light particles cha acta) than fo ray pats sch morta) Tin ie ‘aly understandable because parle radiate os real of sderated mote, and for a piven farce the aceeation ely grote! w the mae Th reer the ma, the sale the aceleratoa, 2 Fora ten mae per anil are, sudinton Ines ane much ‘rae elements of high lomie number Ua inert of le lane number Rather than go ito deta, Taal ely wenton ‘nt ats rsa related to he fact tet. the deleting free cxprienced by prt passing near a nucleus propartinal th sete charge on ths mules, The ato naar Zl the ‘umber of postive charges (pots) i's clus Ts node it higher atomic numbers, that i, with ereater eet hare, mune reales acderation and ecresponingly lager rian te 3 Raion tant crease rapuly wilh ene. Radiation Sones ier in thi respect fom lonlzation loses, whith foe ‘erease with ineonsing energy and then bec mare at ‘onstant (Fig. 2-2). As the energy inte, therlce, raion Jase wll evenly overtake sonizatialoses. For cle thn appeat at about 10 MeV in lad and at eb 100 MV i ig (Fig, 7-2). (The elation of radiation loss to ene canna be ‘spain by any sple wgument hase on taal pion, Decause i involve relative onsieratons) Bethe nd Iie wo reported the rather startling results of {hei clelations en the proces of pir production. Torpent one fhe pinta the evetng shop Beno teny peteeed oe roducton of pit of puiive and vegtive eletcons by photon Oppecheiner nd one of hi students had looked smelt mare dest into the ature ofthe staal process, Appel the most ‘ey event was ae in which a photon psig throgh be srong lei Hold of an atoms nacim menty Oappeed, pe 5 Appt.” ume Hay za | : : | : toiation| ig. 16 ae tw of ewe ig into eaten pene Oi i of ete ye at [ioe anane The poyhe ier tal’ et oes ee (= 160) tava oft acs 17 prt lsc op elation (AH/E = 0.017) se the ray 16 eee beds take eae ‘es tom sie ui pv nd ogni letronm, Bete and ‘oiter made aa scart empataton otha prove and found the flowing 1. Fora geen photon ese te probabil of pir proition in tyes of diferent elements wh be vame mast per unl ae ere reply th te sais mami Eo eee I «ate the ase of ition te acto, be dependence ‘on stone number ian eet ofthe electric charge of moet Photon, sthough they cary no charg, are «form of elt. felt he wenger the Gd the mre probable the intercon ‘Th a plot of given energy is more Hel to sve ie to a lero par en pasingthoigh the song el hgh 2 ‘Been, phon, and showers 0 ‘ucews then itis when pasing through the comparatively weak fad ofa tow. 2 nutes, 2, Starting om a ergy of MEV, wich pir production fit becomes pon, te prolly of par producing (hikes of male fat inerenns mpl with tv ergy ond ie eel ofa nearly ast ae, Since Une robe bility of Compton colons deceses steadily with inerosog ‘Sty, tows that at ow energie re cued any ir eect. Th enoey at wisps prodction vetakes oe ‘Compton efect inabout 5 Mev ia la and aba 29 MeV ieee e7-). At the ie Bethe and Heer developed thee thoy it was the coon bel that al charged partes inthe lel coun ‘dato were either postive or nepative elateoas But thes te fact tat many ofthis aril pestraed as much ast mater otwee oo Cosmic Raye lead appeared to conteadict the theory For if the theory were ortet, only electrons of abmurdly high energies should have been apa of taverang such a thik alsrter. Moreover, Anderon ha observed in his loud chaser erged parties of abot 200 predicted. Indeed, Bethe and Hier, onthe bse ofthe valle experimental evidence, coooded that "the quantum theory is ‘etaitaly wrong fr etceons f aac high eos.” ‘The shower thoory | thor time ater, however, there was evidence fom a dierent ‘quarter thet the thoey of Beto and Hei, contrary tothe elie ‘tte authors themselves, was waqustionshy cote or sececas land photos of very high eer. In fat, he theory provided the ‘The den on which the explanation rss ia relly quite simple (Fg. 71), For example, suppose a highenegy photon — with an energy of several BeV, sy enters Hock of ead. After raving ‘shor distance (pprosimately 7 mm according othe theory) it positive te negative), ‘rien vetweeotaom mare the energy of the fcdeat photon. The two eletrons do not tavel far Before each of thee radiates ‘Beton, theaby lang gs fain feng. ‘The newly crated photons soon materiale into elcron ‘airs andthe procs continues With each new interaction two Parise come from oot. Two electrons arise fom singe pon ‘ne decteon and ose photon, from sng eleteo, Corpo: Sls the tidal parle energy hy on the avenge ea in Tn. 'As'@ rel the partis increase in number ot ft wile thei energy drome ‘Brena, asthe orginal energy i shared amg are and ‘more ofthe nevly created parte, mot ofthe leon hve 0 Title energy that they no kanger rade eSeny and are quickly ‘rough tore hy onan foe. Smiley, more and oc of he owlyredated pots lack aft ener to produce het ‘is aod are won absorbed in Compton clic. Te shower, sown ol, raul di ot. The phage in Fig 7-5 show an ‘cual shower anit develops though a aumberof bras plate in « large lod eae “Ths interpretation of easmicry showers was developed al ‘matt snltancoualy by Hom J. Bhabba and eer in England fod by J.P. Canoe and Oppeniws inthe United Sato The etd hove ofthe esse pres, nthe gral biking up of shower through air production asd radiative allan he own, preset a dificult mathematical problem. Aenog the many setts who contributed to ite lation Tsou lite to ‘mantener Lev U. Landa, Igor Tamm, aad SZ. Belsky of Rumi; Harland 8. Soyder, Robert Serber, and Wendell H, ot Tdi, ‘The problem was ofa slaisial nature, The ext cit which a gives photon mats oe a given ston rite i ‘ater of chance, How the energy of Ue photon orth ketene ‘haved between the tn pte alu ge evet\ 1 * oumic Raye of shower electrons tobe fund under various ticks of Jed un eeetsons of 1.1 BeV and 3.0 BeV enerry have iit the Thower Toe carves iat & aig smanty tothe expe ‘mental shower curve i Fig, 7-1. ln both the experimental and faliowed by fist drop beyond the mau; and in bo cea the maximum appears at lead thick ofthe err of 1 ean. ‘Or course, the two curves donot reresnatpedely the same ‘hing. Th expesimental curve gives the pombe a clnidence, rested by GM counter ot ofl a nti ea ek tet, whereas the theoretical curve give the nimber of shomer pats emerging fom a layer of ed, ain a a anti of led thieknes. Nonetheless, the snilarty i tainly not aciental cuss the probability usta sbower emerging fom the abeorber i peaduce colneidenceinereaen withthe tamber of prties in the shower Detaled anlyl of many axpvimental data showed that on the whe the cewade theory satisfactorily explain the obvered {eatre of showers. Quite illsminating in thi regur the develoy- ment of shower in ratria of difleret stoic umber AS T inte out ite evi, both te itl ie of the experimental lower curve a ie sulmaqueat drop are eer for lento Ligh stomic numer woch as Iead (Z'= 2) thn for one of low tame number rach me aluminum (Z = 1) whan the hence fe mead in grams per square cetimotr. Precis the same Inhavor found nthe eee shower curv the reson being that u pooton will traverse a smaller thickness of lend than of sluminum befor undergoing materization and an eletoa wil items a photon “The succefl eolanatin of showers wroved the esta const of Bate ad Heiter theory and elaine severe ober important fects 1. The loa eam radiation contain elton ed photons ith ceegis of ilions of electron vot. Blt, pols, end showers * 2. Te obra swe ret fom eee poi ate bythe strom nd pean 3. Theva ncrcton raps fr he cade ae ‘atv alos of drs and yi pructnn ypc ‘Pace rennet sy of tone nl, tae, they ddd inva any hangin th store a al nner {0 the caer bl tht sere ae thera oma a inugrato, Exchnucon ie ey tre (ee stetos ot ene pan and one str). The ga Mary Perr tint ny appar to deg as age ck ‘from seve advection scng ee Stern ate 4 Theeriing patch costae thet congoaet he lol cman ae tharos a shone cpg in te atone win te ot othe Ya ea re perma ‘These rom of ose, wre very easing. However, it was sil nesosary to account forthe apparent conteaditen twos ‘he expermenta data on showers, which seomel to conn te {cory of Bethe an Heider, and dhe dita on penetrating parton shin seed to dagrve hare the experMu mesons ration proces at high ecegon they hed eal to pstlete tleton energie of few Ba inorder ta expan the orosone ‘lean power o hoe parties. ‘The get pura, thn, was the aaa othe so-calllshower- Brdving radiation. Obvioy, te praetia a howe vated ‘erating moe than inzation lam by electro sad Comper olson by photons, After lering ana gis pas ea "ado poesia eal Ut the sowerpodocog ‘adiatin const of high-energy elactros aod photo Febertoa Commie Raye Wnt, hn, wre ite pt To brio pi sigue ev and i pope ang coe ty pit Er the puts re ot cen iy a ‘Silent ory ba va oaera rege Tov. Bead a crn ial ner in ler nord eto tte is tyr ton thy chee peneatg pan ret Ge wes wrumpton bc eae. On he cor ad the Bh pyc EI Wisin 80 an he Gen pit von Weer M5 ad how, he ‘St inmate ed rs tn cag ‘ttc by dna vets nd toh cal se po ‘Sr wel byt ew Be Oth eer fa ve ie ‘Surg tee el tga wane {Shea eur tnt vuln a th xenon Sage Senet tie arr snes wr a argo te pe perl ecg tay Ba, wrote Se oe ong prs oped obese Bao a Timm phyita Inguno pcan sas te at vm Aesiing oh, pre dom nota ch sn sete, i mat hav apie nm (Chap. Sse ly Sows pre avi hte en wee ps, Wins teat 3th cing cy pl wr font prin a tsp, or couche experts fed cety shea iw penceig parr tear sce lage ot Bh [A now particle of intormediate mass i proton hypothe muneuatsty rat tub comtderte alte, Tadd Wilma bad edly made his propnl before ssi ory potas aap Mametens i. sstmive doud-camber sie by Andean Sth Ned Semeye tthe Cabin Institute of Fcknloy began to cover evidence dinely contacting i ‘vost ed shvins Aa i eeeye a ‘aa endplate, 35min ik fort pref saying te oeay Io by comic rye ia tte Many ef tie ‘eva partie with tag rin hte 10 dT {von that dt se ow heavy ptr of Ue ‘Seep sot ave ig.) but wien everige Pine Tot ls energy than the ration theory profited foe Sere Hoveve, ner las by radia atti ett, Whe Abe theory pedis on the ener, lags ery loin 3.3mm fad woul have bec sus pone fr sane Hans tee the ler witht pani nara sonic nant ‘nin sng na pete eyo Ta lune and Neldeemeyer's exptinents wer very uggatve but ot enti conlve "tun wore dnaisesboeeey replaced ie ead pate with latin plate Lem tc nich noe ‘chivat to neatly 2m of adm far radon Las re coors. The prtaiity that an econ wel pss rh fecha thik plate without suing rade alsin wen gle, The rents of te ew epatinena, whch they pbs lied inthe mig of 1937, ead the follwing ft 1, There ext two sharply separated groups of particles The fit group consist of penetrating parties, which lew sll frvton of tain snag im ers wh pte, THe Bond ‘up const of abaorinbl parts, which le large fraction of thei ey. The entry lat of the nba ert ‘greet withthe velus compte for ection tha rane nad ionize sccording to theory. Hence the absorbable particles are probably sects. The energy lone ofthe peneentng parts Donever, i ncounted or entirely by unzation; therfore, he penbling particles dona adeptos Conmie Raye 2. Absrbable pute, Beene they often cece i groups, sare prensmably secondary particles of shores erpiaating above ‘he chamber. The pate hemaevesrequealy produce shower, confining te view that chey re eletons, Penteatig particle, 13 Of the particles whos eload-chamber trac how the ae carvature, smelt large amount of energy a ther lone sal ‘mounts of energy in traversing the plate, Consent, lceons fannot behave a8 absorbable parties below a oartain critical ougy anda pent yuh ave that energy. For they ‘ids nha, the eoerey Tan wold slays be the sae for pa ticks of the same mantis rgity hat i, caretars af ene ject), This cone the coalstn thatthe bubavie of peat ‘tating particle cannot be explined by a breakdown of Bethe and Healers theory, and it proves nt the peoieting particles are ot letras 4. Many ofthe penetrating parties have magnetic iin of les than 1.5 X 10 gauss. Blow tin valve prota inalae at Jas three tines mre heavily than fat electron (Fis. 6-2. ‘The ization dent long the racks of thee pate, were in abot the sue a tat of elactrons. Sno the penetrating pa ‘lls one es thn protons, thelr mse mat be mal tha te pron ens ince Uy donot reat mc as eleteone, he tam mot be eger then the eactron mus, ‘rom theo remlta, Neddonmeyer and Anderton concluded hat nal ktnoed, “thors ot prt font charg, but th ‘mas (which may aot have uniqoe val) large han that ofthe ‘normal fee electron and much smaller than that of = prota.” [Neddermeyer and Anderson were unable wo determine the maa of ‘he new parties with nny reewasble acurey. Nor, fr Chat rate, could they rule out the posit that penetrating par Mu mene 10s tice these rns a8 lectone bt posed some know ‘roprty that prevented them from aditing as noal lotr adits, The reason for thi unctityiclerfom the Gwen Fig 8-1, where ferzation deity i pit a fiction of ‘eso his fn sly lg prs Wi ie nerd ‘between thw of tr elton andthe proton. At engi ign cf about 10 exun-cm. nn shargnt artis wits money several hundced times that of the estrone he dtogsed ‘tom an lecton onthe basin ofthe fon tis the two pte leave, Only parca whoer muss approvinates ee exo te rots ionize heavly enough to announce ther paste Hlntty rom Fig. -1 its lo evident that nore Uo meatire thie ‘mas twas neces to bterepectrating parton ary toe oeray. This it what J.C, Street and EC. Stevenson, workiag Harvard Uaiverity, had set out todo while Nelermeyer ead Ande mee eayng ot their own expiant, Like the late, Steet and Stevtuon wed cloud chamber a ‘magnet fild. Sine low-energy parle were ar a ie poe eating group, they tie to increas he yd of tefl picts by olterving only grtles tht stopped in the chamber. To thine they teggoed the chamber with an arengemeat of G-M ouster ‘hat sented wea «partie eotrng the chamber aed Wo cose out of ita ll Ti. 0-2). Tey also wok pate to pers the chamber in wach away a8 fcitae the eunting of deplete and Lerefore the measurement of the ainsi. Wh devin ‘Strat and Stevenson obaied «number of pictur, among wich ‘as one of particles importanoe that was pulled in the al of 1981 (Fig. 43). The canceteatin of droplets hag the tach Indintn an ionization deity of abut si times the minineon snd the irene af the vk hen tage gin a {Grotctanter manent of bit dei, hich nloe Soe tga ting 8 un ee he aah Mes ‘Sie te jntinat of hc ce evap oon osha ‘oni so in rin ero ogau Came Rays 2 Pig 81 Taiaton deity a « taon of ment gy or sly ‘hase of rt at, Th cnr he beaks ‘tty meant he end Pg 8, Mu mets ww etarnng he mat aprile om ne ‘edt se ct tant pi sin cy, ‘ait Wh eo guy om ace ce toni natin. tebe mapa ry ett da a ‘staan mn dy a ston atl cane tenet ae ‘aot me wh eat mati se es {1 ie pce et ma 83 ptr hap a ae tte ng 62) ‘er mapas nn ayn a ee im po ce ppt mene pr fla ‘gat mol phon fi, a = 46% I ed ‘sede yar dae ef conse ‘As uh tow cana wy pt wen ae yt uo =a pens pcm 4 Aa ‘es pct ye aia ce ‘ong 9.6 X 10 gun cm. The pint coraponding to te wo valoes ionization and glity fl ce tothe "20" ern in Fig. 8 ‘Tho particle in qusion, tha, had & mass of approtnately 200 lotr man, “Tu th work of Stet and Stevenson, in ato to exab- linking beyond any doubt th existeace of a new partis leo road shiny snout tine of hs Tm ee pee as variously call baryon, yukon, meron, and meso, hela ‘tame eventually won general acomtanne Usar ren tvectin: tion reveled the existence of otier mons, phys pave the ‘tiga meson th identifying prefs ms). ‘Over tne yeas many phyicitsexdenvoted to make precie ‘meapurements ofthe mas of msn cme ofthe nt aerate Aeterminaion ween tae of Reber B. Brod ad avoni 7 2 1a Cosmic Raye Lette rg 82 Rep get lee essing porta Th a chor © ‘Soca and he pate cn. ae a 1 the Univesity of Clforia in Berkley, Instead of measring Iageticriglity end aaanion, Bred’ roup measured maple Fiity and ange. The curves ia Fig. 6-4 show the relationship eines the two quantes fr partie of dileeat masse et ilseate the principle ofthe method. The arangement of ove of the experiments thown in Fig 5. I conte af to lod hanes placl one above the other. The upper charber mea ‘ed the magnetic igdty the lower chamber contained ¢ number fled plates and measured the range The final vale af the pmeson masa announéed by Brod’ vp in 1900 wae 206 22 cna me, BY OY, & ans were also bing prodecel erty inthe laboratory by meas high nore nara nent Tay the sented Sec of the meson mas, which comes fom a vtiety of experince articily profuse means, a 206.8 electron masses. The dscovery of » mesons in 1937 brought ta coe the ‘cond chap in the history of conic rave hich hut opened ‘in we experiment of othe and Kehr. The nets ots ‘eal cose rant observed in the attoaphee nas now cen Moe penseting pve move 4 sent the enabasle paresm0 Coumie eye Ma mea um s aneact stamina he mats parle om magna ily and ange . ' Tei 4can dad dent a ew mt ey ‘ssoqehn tm ey Te a Rte ‘rg a ato ib Sle The wei ans ne at ‘thr net ues tiie ein rT ape iy {ode api nip tego a gh pn tion omar pc. F Ihneminnseatatentg £9 hemeeend nites oti en he TT aie Peet ea tage em $9 psn me pgh ch aa ti bee 1 eon ma The wee me tsi ey anal ety wil om Nike : A a = on ey Pig 25 Sei ir the rer BR, conven ‘ay ns oh anon Fi. t-4 Regen ada acne of eg gtr gly eard Soe ae eee Bath dd ia ferent mann Te weal arrests in tl damon G nl ar ed by prt Se Sut tiecnerieanal ogee swe ie ea {Gaara thw Matern ‘Chantada mages le urate oh ks sen et cae ‘etna, nd potion coated frp ‘ons fi ch 88 em tk Was found near valve entice ge ‘aero ag Yekawa's theory ‘The diseovery ofthe » meson, like that of the postive dec, td been preceded by «theoretical prin. In 1935 the JapaneseSKS ne oun Raye physicist Hidehi Vokown hed atlated the onsen of « ute ‘stomic avtle several hundred times heavier than the vceon 1 eanpot do justice to Yakawa's theoretical reasoning within the ‘oundso this took, and what follows is hry more ten a crade fttempt to lod some small degeee of plausibly to his con ‘As I mentioned bily in Chap. 2, natre bos obliged us to exept the fact that al raintion hone in rrtainrrpecte v8, in otber respects as particles. The waver associ with ‘Photons ae eletromagnetic waves. An uch the are related to the ‘lestreforenbetneen charged parties. Ta fect, quanta theory ‘ovals cloe reatonship between the proper of pata ad hematin af lactis ars, let foes of attraction between the pote mules and ‘he negative electron ofan atom ae the fre that then together. By 195 the nucleus ital wat known to conta both rotons and outro! Now, protons repel each other becuse of ‘he clestsc carpe, whereas neutrons do ot interact eetealy ‘with one another or wit patos. Yet atone nll remarkably Sable structures. This fet had made it ecary to canns free ‘of ateaction oe nonelete nate between proton and neurons, Over the small distance character of atomic nll these ‘cla Frcs are much stronger than site fers: ver peter distances they are much weaker. In other words, nicer fro Asem with distance far ure rapily than they mould thoy Tnhuved according to the inverw-aquare lan, which, goverst lotic fore, ‘oka argued that, jot as dete foes are apocatl with the photon, so mucer forces should he ascited with some Kind ‘farce, He then proce to stady the propertien of tia Inypothaia! partici and found that the srt range of lear of several hundred electron mass Yuawa eso predic that the parties ascied with the muder eld nll be neatly "Se hgpnte Ma mesons aa um, wom dee mucha the nl of radioactive miatances do. Furthermore, the mean ie ofthe» man, beer it decry, shonld tof the rder af | mien (10 * cant), ae he de itgration poducia each partic dou be ne clcaen and oe ‘eatrno, The Iter was note with nm mess ad ne seca sarge whose existece fad boon ptuated by Wolfgang Pel tnd Enrico Fermi in order to explain why the clezoasemied in te day a ven radioactive seme have varey of cryin? AMter the deovery of misses, tome ylysiine, reahing YYohawa's theory, concluded that the peoctating partie ie zai rediton were the “guanta of he nucen fee fll ps ‘td by the theory — heats th nae yahon. Awl be se Chap 9, this denifcation proved lacorrect. Morcover, whee Un goat of th nla fore held wa oud, opera dered femewbat frm tho eovisaged by Yukawa, Nevertire, the iden that cosmiesay meme might be Ya pare a to very important dover. ‘The dlacovery of marmeson decay Betweeo 1986 and 1987, wate tans in England, Franc, Gee: ‘many, and Italy had made ecrata measurements the nos of cosmic-ray parties found t vain aliades tn te atmo ‘here And the reits tad been rather puzling. Contrary fo the The mart onan sb om th hry dct, sing tht pees vege TESA Aaa da csp fi ‘a ener 27 bof mtn ey seeane nm Commie Raye carl findings of Milika's group (Chap. 1), it ooked si ait ‘Stearn coum aye move edesey an sit or ei outer Aid when layers ofthe same mass per unit area were compare stor High sion appre th eter sborbe than the deer ai fn the lower aang Now, Yulawa parties were supposed to bo unstable If coumi-y terns were Hesical with Yukawa particles, they told decay spoatancouly. In 1838 the Geman physicist H. Kuba posted out that thie property fered soars lasation forthe anomalous abeoeption of cxnicey parties in ir. The arsument & very simple (Fig, 8-6). Cone, for ‘ample, layer of water 10 em heh. Near 2a lovel lye ee ‘ofthe same mas pr wit area 8,00 em tick, snc lo 800 Inhee the air desty is one-half hat ats level, the oquvaent Trinye ie 16000 em ik, A pte maving at tee the peed ‘fight wl travel 10 em in 3X 10 wend, or 0.033 mero Seca, Th se patie will end 0.265 micratcond to teavel $3.00 cm and 0.8 meroneond to travel 160 es ‘Suppose now tat mescon bave @ man i of the order of wicemtends Phen praczally nave w toes ill deo wile Aravering 10cm of water Oly mesons with orange less than 10, ‘vf wate wil be topped by thin absorb, Many mesos. how rer, wll undergo spontaneous decey while rversig 8:00 em of Sir and oven more will do vo bile traversing 15,000 em of ai Consequenty, tothe normal absorption of moos is ede the ‘Mfct of apentancous doo. Asa rst, at will appear to bea iti, which in exaelly what the experiments had indicated KublenkamodTs idea vat taken up by e number of investi. tors including Werner Henberg and Bale la Germany and [Blackett in England, who worked out is various cotequenes lioctve deny of mesons wan ope of the eost holy debated ets bn ramieny phon, The experimental evidence fom 7.64 cougars of serine fale tlhe ‘ice ma pr wt ra: Egl sro merc oe re ‘ee ewer se wan cies wpa tay ring he frst drag tere Tes aca ae ‘Serta wit he oat pe ateA Nal us Connie Raye ‘stmosperc absorption was highly suggetv, but not compeling. In addition, attempis o delet the decay of mesons diet fe ‘loud-hamber experiments had all ale. becme intersted in thi problem mya while isting tie "hous fn Trea Foye n Lpenage, rected by Nii Bob in the fall of 1938 and Blackett’ Inboratory a the Univesity of Manohaaer ding th allowing winter ho oping o 999 1 ‘moved to the University of Chicago atthe invitation of A. H Compton. At the time, Twas toying withthe ea of testing the hypothe of the iestabity wf mesons by making advected ‘reir comparisn of meson ebsorpion in sir and in ome dae material {Compton most generously put st my dispel the means fr carrying at this experiment, Two members is poup, Newnan Uitberry and J. Barton Hoag, fered their eistanc, We st up, in a truck, « meson detector condating of three GM tobe in ‘incidence, with enough lea between and around the counter to ot of the electron eomponent (Fig 8-7). With thi equipment we took measrementa in Chisago (180 meters above ses veer 1we drove to Colorado and took measurements at Denver (L600 ‘meter, Bebo Lake (3240 meters), and ME. vans 4.300 rete). [Aveach ofthe Colorado stations we counted mesons th with and without layer of graphite (abou 87 p/em*) above the counter “Theres are presented i Fig 8% They owed the bsp tion in graphite to be much les than that in atv For example, laring tram a stronophere depth af 699 g/t (Ezho Lake), the addition of 07 em* of graphite cut down the nomber of isons by 10 par cent, while the edition of BT e/em of reed tia number by 20 per ent. The edditonal appareat sorption was duc othe decay of mesons in Might” threugh the naytee From te measurement of the additions absorption we were hl to entimatsrghly the mea Te eehing te fatima, we had to take into aeoout the Tat that according to the theory of relativity, the determination of w time interval do Sh Ld Memes ue ‘elon the frame of reference in wich the messurement is mine, for ample hed is moving wR 8 velocity» wih een ‘ome observer, twill appt to Uk at lowe att that aorvce ‘than to another reer sing withthe doc Me ne ee between ticks, a measred by the is and scoond obcrves ‘eapectively, are in the rato of 1/VT = w where «ts vera o ght ‘When difereot valves are subtitted for inl thatthe fet become appre aly nin he elo heck nse clos o¢ (hat, when the vale ofthe denominator VT vee ‘pproches zo). Now, untae emie ry manna oba “docks” moving at very great apes, The moaned meas ic ¥ of these mons is therfore markedly greater thon Ue moog ‘Me + of mewn at rt. For example it found tht for mec ith a Lieto energy of 50 MeV, v/s = 47m other mena, he ‘measured mean ite f than meno 47 ties age an 16,351 sprit arog fr tho ‘thes he menial pp, were iNad ue oui Raye ‘mean life at ret! Therefore, to determine the mesa ie of mesons ‘seta wo Laow tir energy By suing suitable cntimatn of cece (ot, mre prc, ofthe vere ney of hereon we ‘rclaevig) we ound sea fron te of te ener of? micrseaads (2 X10 exe). f Toa oh of Feb Penta of memos men i et ni {St nan fale (i Hn rap) boven aa Ma mesons ne Similar experiments were perfor in the foloving years by suauy nahi, cng Ws Nh, Ht Nieae Neen Martin A. Pomerantz, and Ur calaborator in he United Sates nd Gilera Reraetin impo Poneont, Orne Mess te ober in Kay. On the whole, thee rsuls mee i agrocment wih ‘ur. Tn pasing, I should like to recall ne ch experiment, pe formed by David B. Hall sd msl, n which we neared Ue spparent mean lives of mesons of diferent eer ed oan hat hey chnged with ence oto he any uf ety pei ‘The eft was quite lage — about a foto f 8 from te fate othe slowest mesos detected in the experiment "octroms frow the decay Of mat mesone In the meantime, Wiliams and G. B, Naberts in agand bad suceeded in obtaining the fst eadchamterpictre of mena decay. The meson in question, positively charged, he spp ‘he gu of tho chamber (every ave evo ied), and out of te ‘dof ta track had appeared the track of «pantie dco, Tis ‘ictre, bates providing ial, rial prt of mown dec, alee ‘owed that (eh antspated) when a mes dimppoara, letra i ara (Many pictur of hs hind mere obtained i ater ‘years: Figure 69 shows partial clear example expert ‘meat performed in 1948 by Rolert W. Thomoon, then a graduate ‘sunt tthe Moanachonett aia of Techs) Uiroct measurements of the moan life (of mut meson ‘Th next onjor sep was taken by Franco Rast Wilms sod okerts’ photograph had shown pictorial the decay of « mon ruin reat bylonaton sen mater Mesos stg ie ‘ater should not dec immoliatly, ut should wait eound for period eval om the sveragn, to thir mean ie Ses te* NaKG Ma means ray ‘monn fie bad already been estimated to be several microsecond, it was expected that lceoa arising fom the decay of» meson letrons hy mesos brought to rt in mate, Rast in 941 ‘formed the experinent ilstited schematically in Fig. 8-10MRA me Coun Raye ‘The GM counters G, to Ox and Gand the asscatd electron. Great seated meson that sted ithe Mek arbor ‘Thee mesons discharged one of ere G, counters ax well the single counters Gy Gy and C, but tey didnot discharge ay ofthe Uacountr. Along each de ofthe abort were it counters ‘those function wns to detet the elton vain from the dey ‘ wtopped mesion, A colniduos crit gov a signal whenever tne cf the Cy counters was screed lo than I srocond after the acval of « man. Two other exnceac cal, operating inthe same mane, had alowed delays of and 15 wicromonnds aseti found that the 2icessoad ccit recorded more vivid ha te Pion el. Theat et mee ‘deers ining emitted with delay grater than T micrmtnd Tut ean than 2 ateti lno found that the IS sir recorded more coincidences thn the 2-micreesoad ict. Thus, ‘considerable fraction ofthe letrons wee beng exited after © ‘diy of more than 2 miromeonds bit Tes than IS. Aa expected fiom previous timate, hen, the elton rnin fron te decay f opyed mone had ome oat of the above overs ne interval ofthe order of miroesods. On the Bess of the ative ‘numbers of exncdences recorded by the thre diferent cet, Fest estimated tho mean feof masons at rst to be about 1.5 microconds. Ta the meantine, Thad moved to Corzll Univers, wba L ‘nd strtod a cera program in coumie rye together wit two yong sumioes,Konnath 1 Grr ane Norte. Neruoa. Ye 195 Neteson and I made a precise snd of meson decay by wig Inarangement of G-M counter an ebsorer sina to Rast ‘Thenovl feature of our experineat was aa “lca lock” that se bil fr the parpose and that enabled ws to mensue the ind tletrns. We found that the decay of mens, like the decay of ‘adionctive ators, exoonentil Fie 8-11, Tia ren tht. nt ‘hang lgegoop of moans pst at «ve tn, fie rc ‘Son will dooty daring the net mcraecond regard of tow lang | j \ acy crv mes trout a eek aed by ‘toon ont insta. Sows 0 the Hl et Ga eae {along te wiv ef «mae che hae he ted esha ‘he tne levees ae dey eel eco ‘tema ttn so thera on Ft cai bance ‘er the J iowa. 4300 mann tr ee en? esmm Connie Raye rents, me oblaine forthe mean life a valu of 2:15 micowecods, With on etinated err of BY mirnnsond In the next few years several other physicists made smi ‘eanrements on cosmi-ay mesons and eon the valve we tnd found. Among tham were R- Chaminade, A: Fro, and Mace in France and Marcell Convers and Pico in Tl. ‘Mls it manu ye w yale gr Wi iene) sceceators, ie mann le wor measured with greater accurary tnd tured out to be 2.212 micrereonds mst te nape sh ey naked in eeerare H ‘inves tht of tegen wide a 'ta wir heya wound Sr spent shen the Greed Pi mesons ‘The itary of wet exploration, eth histry of orosical ‘explora, i ful of istance in wich an unerpctel doracy ‘overdone the orignal gal. Column, searching for neo outst nd in he at dence Un th eat, daconcel America, Phy, searching for ¢slaton to the samoroy ‘usa in the fourth decade ofthe tenth nentury, sone ney ‘ro previouty unknown partic, the psitvon nad they coon, ‘Th dncovery ofthese partic, which arse fom the intretons ‘ higanegy may with mater but re nat emeng the tog ‘locks of ernary mater, opend an ently new eld a researc ere omnirny phyicie found nuh w wealth of nor ae ‘unexpected phenomena that fr many years Ue exploration otha ‘eld was their main cone Eentaaly the development of acclrator in the snl Wilon eV range, by proving cotrld aad mach trae ‘ruse of higlrery Pare, brought decline in coumotoy reeuarch a6 a rean for studying elementary paren, Before iat Imooene. hownvir. cans ry phys al mse I1% Cs Rage ing a fuiely commpretensve, though not entirely complete er very ‘sted, map of tne ene td of lemetarypartice pyc, ‘The puraling behavior of aogative mu mesons For psi interentedin the atomic ales, at wel for thee ‘he mest important development i the sof the sew word of parle pyle came with the Alscovery ofthe pi meson (2) in 1947. The investigations leading to this dscovery beean in 190, when the lope phys Sino Tomonags and Gentaro Araki pat oot that pore tnd negative» mesons shoud bebave in «carateriatialy difer- ‘ent mane after coming to rest in maller. ‘pave meson, they argued, can never appt very near an atomin nolo bona the dle free of eps coral by the positive muse charge. Therefos it wil "wait around” unt it disappears by spontaneous decay. A aantve mes, how ‘ver, isattacod by the nuclon charge and Us might be captured by nucleus before it as e ehance to decay. I the interaction ‘eaweeo mesons and the nude ofan abcrber i elienty ‘rong, almost all the negative» mewas will be swallowed up by ‘row f tho wl dee ite sation Ue norton weaker, some wil be absorbed advo will decay, Te any em, the life expectancy of seentive meas must Jes than tht of positive mesons forthe inter de « “natural death, whl the former are expe tothe ational ek of acc ‘ti ody nado capes Ou empana ege tes presumably diseppear, ad thie mas ar into eoegy acing to Einstein's erating. ik ine bom sch a lean fone ‘Sold ene the oucleas to explode. ‘Shorly after Tomonagn aod Araki publsd thee paper, ast pertomed the experiment on watson decay dwbed the preceding chapter. By compaig the nue of mean tp Sd cin at ay ea fan elive mst he pre nde Dn ae Fag el pe ‘art pl pe red ft ve ete reply tee peo Pet ean Roam aya eee? ‘seman apn ince arpa mre ‘de shan dingo tk Wo myo aye sector tse atte na ha item ng ren rpc ered ‘et oe hating meee ata as eimacnn rt ecopma omy rn (rsh got pc of tet cp eee fom rca wa). Tarn an eat ‘cic omnny mom Se its uo one meetin opens seo anar ees ic pet pet crane Tetra bow tna oF “oe off ye map ne arc Too Oey crab nde be es sane acme Sopp tach eS Teed pae ured ecterera bate ets ite tan res Reena St wed cnt a el nai Sete eee es rn tee pti men ate tard ado ‘ee oil dal fry tn eon An iden tyne ee fee eels ‘RETR ote enperment war amps Taal ul codes tat SEES oer acmn emanates i arn oe twa cana1 Cue Rays the magnetization is oversd in both bars, ie Jens wil conen- teat negative meron and reject pitive meso ‘Wit aa ion absorber below thei Tens, Cover and his to colleagues found only postive msson giving ie tothe dled shrasterists pasta ony. Tt ey COME {hat practically al negative mesons stopping in eon were capture by ion nuclei before they had a ehanon tn dito pen Between 1947 and 194, the Hain group, well as research ‘teams tthe Univeraty of Chicago and the Mavwachosets Tt {ute of Tecnology, extended the decay experiments toa numberof Arent eubtanen, "Tho mot inporant seul, st anna bythe Talins revealed that eaptre by the atomie moi Liht ements (for example, carbon) dil not compete gently with he spontaneous deny of negative mena. The probability of @ o le, $-1 Maratea coming etn on tae magn in opie tn. (0) Tenge a ponte wa rh cen at te ‘epee in thar thes wma cre a pp a {eid by he mae fl tra oo rata) The a. ‘late ere etree Sh a Cart cans ay fmt oes seo aa ry tom De oer ster th Wen) el eet hem oar hots Pimeons 1 udear capture appeared to incense gradually with inteasing stomie number. Ta magnesia (2~ 12) about oneal ef te ‘segntive 4 mesos daappered by desny, onal by nace ‘eapture, In element heavier the en ‘exseedad spontaneous decay: in cements lighter than megneso, the reverse was tron “The (AC LA nuclear caplare became increasingly fective vit increasing atomic number wat tin tel suring. Henry ‘ce hve a eee pitve charge ad Urtne un pr & more efective trap for negative mes to fall at. Phi however, found it extremely dial to understand how. rven lees aight a carbon (2 = 6), oeative mse could py ‘cenpe nuclear capture. Thr aguent ana falls, Mu tnenong ‘nee knows to ave a mea feof about # mieosconds Now, 2 miroeconds may soem a very abort intra but onthe Moms eae of time i wan vary long Tn fat, i mon att 0 lon times loger tht the mat generous thertcal inate af the interval required for aula cape, ‘nother word, on could be sre on there! gronds hat allorgative« mesons, one they were stoppin carbon, would fal into carton cle fre cyl cont deny. i bvertha ‘eat mot mons di undergo spontaneous decy, they mut retain ee ientiy wih the cl foes entered wo rat that hey ‘nd chance to come out agin. Inthe lngung of modem physio, {hia meant an exceedingly weak ieraton between the 1. meno tnd the potas and nettons of carbon aul Sch a wenk interaction wan paring, to ay the leat. f the ft plac, fp meno were the “gunute th len foe fll ‘reicted by Yukawa (oe Chop. 8) thy bad to interact tonal ith protons and weatrns, In the end plane, it metho, ‘mesons were produced inthe pase of highenrgy putes {Heough nul an event that last an exteely short ine somes sig ae cero 10» ond Ui wee the ae why he ‘pparite proces, namely the absorption of u ms by nace, ‘nie pind eral nner Th eens see,a0 Cane Haye was another iatanoe of the close interlay hetween tah Abevelopmenta and scentie edvancen, of which the history ot sence fers 0 many examples Nuclear emulsions ‘The cloud chamber is e tly wonderful too. 1 has enabled Physicists wo “we elementary particles andthe rete of thie Calon with atoms ce nude. Bat, ike any exernenal device, the cloud chamber has ihren Hinitatios. Beate of the low emit of gases, vey few of te patcen enterg lod caer Calide with nucleo top within the amber, “To imorove the situation. physicist in th 10%, hogan to build ager chambers and ta plac bn of eld tata ac as ‘arb ot various mel) arom ther, Te ecaigue of milipate amber proved very ws na namber of tad, neo whch ‘all late ia the next chapter. SU wan not am ext at fectory waitin to the prblams for when n patie otra within a plate (wich is osaly trom afew milimatre to few eotietere tic), it is impoabe to ww excty bat happens at the point where the colin oscar. Sinlry, when « partie ‘sop in a plate and then decays, the decay products can be ‘laerved oly i tey be enough ears wo ome oat of te plate ‘Thediect obeervation of atrctios and daray proce eis sme done naatanon in whi partes have ¢ good shane sf ‘undergoing clio or of cami to ret and in whch they will temebiow lave vile tracks. Inthe rae 1940 phyicits cco ia peretig # de- ‘tector with the dasied properties, the socal nilar emulsion. Photographic wvlnn lth of wun Ine wey se a tion studies for many years They had ben eapenibe fr Rees fut dscoveey of X-rays, bd saved an imootan lea lar ys, and had been aed oormonally coma ray ear "The elect of highenergy radiations upon a photographic rou ese to tha of igh. Tolsng parc “setae” {he grains of silver bromide that they encounter along their pth reduce the versed rain to silver, Under © misowope, the ‘tajectore of individual ionising partes aoosar a oma of ark. silver gris. But ordinary emulsoot are seoative nly to come paratively slow partie, which lave a very dente tril of oe in Ue make, Moreover, sel he middle 1900 the aval emul sions wee exceedingly thi, wad ony parties taveling lest exactly parallel tthe phatogrphic plot lft a tach of ey ‘spprecibl length For these reno, potgrapi emulsions had ‘een alot completely abandoned ana meas of detecting charged particle, ‘The emulton enique was revved by a group of picts 8 the Univeity of Britl fo England wae Ue leap ©. F, Powall and Occhiln. Working in collaboration with ‘ricotis at the Ilford Company, they benarad ew snl hat contained n much higher concentration of sve bromide thon cxdiaary photographic type and were ths tore serve te insg parts. Soon afterward, acetate of the Keak Come ‘pny io the United States were ao working in thi eld end ‘making important contrition tote progtem. New ad ingenious ‘methods for developing expe platen made it posible to at eoulioae almost « millimeter tick, o more than 100 tine thicker than those pevouly aval. A Tate tactical develop ‘ment was the alrigped enulion, an emulsion without any glass ‘ching, which cold be sacha i layers frm what bane ‘Kaown a emtion chambers [At the ame tim. phyiriteKeare epeans neem ‘he peopeties of charged particles from the sppescaace of the tracks in mocear emulsions. Whea the emulsion is developed under sarery contraied eaotilens, the density of the Hack lve ‘erie along tack is proportional othe deity of on pie that {ha pune would pentane fan gan, Th te donaty woe ‘ith ineensing velocity in hoown ad wll deed Atother measurable character i elering, he "vie ‘inn of tack. The seateringdecenny othe kinete ergy Increases, Dat it also depends ta some extent on the maa of theint Sao pattises leat ame. 1 FH bm 28 Mews 8) 2 Pe (886m meat pnts ie ep fe Gedy i 2. a i tie ma ptt si ain, ‘il iol ns miter hor ee 2m pitied taal mainpnee oa ity ein ety nsec ae, Particle. Fialy. if « partie stops ia the culsio, one can ‘mere is range; the range, to, depends on the ergy aed he tas ofthe partie, Conaaqunty, by measuring sy es ote toc casts grain deity, sete and range it beers esse to determine the parle mam (Fig. 92) la prince, {his mati for determining nie that wed en ‘hmberexperanta (Fg 8-1 and), ‘The discovery of the pi meson, ‘lection in which th porte eects Pe eae a rain density incre atthe particle aprshes Ue ole ne ‘ange indicates a masa areal handed tines tht fn sea (ig, »3). trom the point at which tht pare coma we sae nother particle emerges. The cad partie, whch mes ‘etfs the main aftr eng 8 dlaner of gh ne: i i i i i | e:$3 Potonicerp seve +m (0) omit ret TESS Geen Lanes Maint © Sone nod C77 Payal Nav pe 80197) Pi oesone i ‘an 05 mm, sla appears to have mass ofa few andre elton ‘mse. However, caret measurement of the ra dots wt Aiferent distances fom the end of the rauge show conluively ‘hat the snd pete serra itr han she Bee After discarding veveral interpretations, Laon, Occhi, ‘nd Powll came tothe caocasion thatthe icture showed the ‘cay of ene meson ito aighter mean Butte bene “parent” article could not be the meson smociated withthe penetrating decay, it produces an letra, not another eae. Ths, une there were more than two kinds of mowing wee the Tighter “daughter” particle that bad to be ead withthe peevioaly -unown meso, 1 the explanation were correct, the secondary meio, ater coming to rt inthe eubio, shold decay aad proce a ‘licen seaiive to detect nino ons partly nacho faa leet. When emulsions sensitive wo thw parts bese svallabe in 1919, the decay electron duly appeared (Fg. 94) ‘There was no longer any dbl about the coach cack bythe Debut group. The heave, pret partite benme kaowa a the ‘rman, The lighter secondary partie, which util ha tine had een the oly nen, ralled the» ron ‘The discovery of the mesan clarified the mean puzele oosidembly. The “quanta of the clear fre predicted by Mg 94 Phooakigh of tsa ia eur eau swig «= [Ucar Poni HMasbad, ©. Poel ml DM. Ros6 Cui Raye tiles produced in hgh-eeegy nacear interectons Tho fact thet ‘mesons did not interact strongly with nul wee no lnger sur ‘oso, broase mesons mere not produced ta nucker inter ‘stint but were Bor through the decay of + meson Ths picture, vs wos ul lderent trom th tae, thelial one, Yukawa hed thought his particles would deny into electrons, Instead thev decayed nto, menon, ad penny hare doce into electrons, Bat what about negative x meso, the ores f the ‘csn ple? Ir means were ately the pater ef Yahoos theory, and if they were sbundanty produced In norler ater ‘ction thea negative meta that stopped i tale er ao ‘aared promptly by nul As Thave already pointed ot the energy suddenly released hy the nppuaranca ofa captre wean should produce a nucea explnon That is exactly what heppens eztv x mesons coming to ret in a aulearemuion are reve sen to decay nto» meson. Rather, n "sar appear the cod ‘of hn tack, as was rst shown yD. H. Perkin ad by Oech sn Powel in 1047 (ig. 5). The wai produced by te pang into which the nucleus diinteraen an rl of te eoplodnn ‘Thus ualke a negative w meson. a nentve mewn that ops ie matter hos no chance to decay before « muceur comity the cdl” ct of tapping and “king” ft Sie the mesons found i the cosnie radiation er so level sere akon entely ofthe» variety mecha to decay fst. that practically none of thom survived te jaa teh, tae tmoephee. The enlist calelations indicted «mean life co ‘idrably shorter than 1 microscand. This turmies proved tobe "Iti inrtngto te hat whe rm tp a emai, hey ors aa ane e Sne ntn ‘me ce eh ey i ry Se Tey Stns en te tat a pe emia Pimevne ro ‘seis even tough the argent on which it rested was not atiely foolproof (r mesons fal to tavl afar ap meses car, tevin daoying mare rely they intraetmuee fe gently with tonic nace). Experiment carried out between 1988 ‘When the ean if ni mec thx aaj mesons had ben ceed thes remaiaed he qution of what daitonen Prodota arom inthe decay of thee marties Vatawe het [EES wees fe a” se by Co Foca es ‘Pager, Barat & Go. (Paden Li ones up re18 Com Raye cod that hia quantum of the aulear fre il would deny nto the decay of esos were p mesons rather than deco, And the ‘sna, which dd ive eto electrons, bed nothing to do with ‘Yhawa's theory. Consequently, tar was no reliable theory on hich to base any pediton concerning the decay of either meson, ‘nly experiment ecu provide we answer Ta the deen ofa mean on inthe day of radioactive aor) with Einstein's equation B ~ me’ The as tat dapper isthe

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