Loading Effects

The output of a sensor device may deviate from the correct

value due to loading effect. We can categorize two types
of loading effect:
• Inter element loading
A given element in the system may modify the
characteristics of the previous element.
• Process loading
The introduction of the sensing element into the process or
system being measured causes the value of the measured
variable to change.

Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 1

 Electrical loading (two-port networks)

A. A sensor device is represented by Thevenin equivalent circuit

ZL
VL = iZ L = E th ,
Z th + Z L
loading of the Thevenin equivalent circuit
ZL≧Zth, VL→ETH
maximum voltage transfer from the network to the load.

Eth: Voltage source, open circuit voltage of the network across the
output terminal.
All voltage sources reduced to zero and replaced by their internal
impedance.
Zth: The impedance looking back into the terminal.

Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 2

 Example: Temperature measurement system

2 × 10 6
10 4
VIN = 40 ×10 −6 T , VL = 1000VIN
2 × 10 + 20
6
75 + 10 4
−6 2 × 106 104
TM = 25VL = 40 × 10 × 25 × 1000T × ×
2 × 10 + 20 75 + 104
6

= 0.99257T, loading error = 0.0075T

Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 3

 Use of buffer amplifier to reduce loading effects

• PH transducer (glass electrode): use of Buffer Amplifier

Sensitivity: Eth = 59 PH(mV) or 1 PH →59mV Sensitivity=59mV/PH
Zth = 109Ω
Indicator : Zth = RL =104Ω

1
Scale sensitivity : PH/mV
59
4
10 1 −5
PH M = 59 PH ( 4 ) × ≈ 10 PH
10 + 10 9
59

Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 4

 Buffer Amplifier

→ Buffer Amplifier

1012 10 4 1
PH M = 59 × 12 9
× 4
× = 0.998003
10 + 10 10 + 10 59

Loading error: -0.002 PH

Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 5

 Loading Effect of Potentiometer

• The fraction displacement: x = d/dT

• total resistance: RP Ω
Open circuit voltage
E th R p x across the output
• E th = ? = ⇒ E th = Vs x
Vs Rp thermals AB
Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 6
 Loading Effect of Potentiometer

• R th =?

⎧ Vs = 0
⎨
⎩internal impedance = 0
Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 7
 Loading Effect of Potentiometer

1 1 1
= +
R th R p x R p (1 − x)

R p (1 - x)R p x
R th = = R p x(1 - x)
R p (x + 1 − x)

RL RL 1
• VL = E th = Vs x = Vs x
R L + R th R p x(1 − x) + R L Rp
x(1 − x) + 1
RL

Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 8

 Loading Effect of Potentiometer

• Loading effect
the relationship between VL and x is non-linear,
the amount of non-linearity depending on the
ratio RP/PL

1
N(x) = E th − VL = Vs x{1 − }
Rp
( )x(1 − x) + 1
RL

Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 9

 Loading Effect of Potentiometer

Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 10

 Loading Effect of Potentiometer

2 Rp
™Design x (1 - x)(
RL
)
N(x) = Vs { }
Rp
1 + ( )x(1 − x)
Rp RL
if ≤1
RL
Rp
N(x) ≈ Vs ( )(x 2 − x 3 )
RL
N(x) has a maximum value of
4 Rp
ˆ = Vs ( )
N
when x = 2/3 27 , R L
as a percentage of full-scale deflection
400 Rp o Rp
ˆ =
N ≈ 15 percent
27 R L o RL
Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 11
 Loading Effect of Potentiometer

N̂ = 2 ﹪ RP 20
→ 15 ≤ 2 ⇒ R P ≤ × 103 Ω
RL 15
dT = 10 cm
RL = 10 K Ω 1K potentiometer (=RP)

dVL
≈ Vs → the greater VS, the higher sensitivity
dx
2
But considering the power dissipation VS
≤ 0.1W
RP
⇒ VS ≤ 0.1× 103 ≤ 10V

→ Sensitivity = 1.0 Vcm-1

Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 12
 Norton equivalent circuit

• Norton equivalent circuit

ZN: the impedance looking back into the output terminals with all
voltage source reduced to zero and replaced by their internal
impedance.
iN: the current which flows when the terminals are short circuited.

Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 13

 Norton equivalent ckt

VL = i N Z ⎫
1 1 ⎪
1 ⎬ VL = i N
ZN ZL
= + ZN + ZL
Z ZN ZL ⎭ ⎪

ZL << ZN, VL→iNZL

maximum current through the load.

Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 14

 Differential Pressure Transmitter

Output: 4 ~ 20 mA current
Input: differential pressure 0~2 × 104 Pa N/m2

Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 15

 Differential Pressure Transmitter

R N (R C + R R )
VL = i N
R N + RC + RR

total load = RC+RR

VR RR
=
VL R C + R R

RN
VR = i N R R = 0.995 i N R R
R N + RC + RR

™ the recorded voltage derivates from the desired range of 1 to 5 volts by

0.05 ﹪

Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 16

 Piezoelectric Force Measurement

dt

1 1 RL
= C N s + C Cs + Z=
Z RL (C N + CC )R Ls + 1
ΔVL (s) RL Influence the
=
Δi N (s) (C N + CC )R Ls + 1 dynamic
characteristics
Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 17
 Process Loading

Process F = kPx+FS
FS = ksx
FS
F = kp ( ) + Fs
kS
k p + kS
= Fs ( )
kS
kS
FS = F
k p + kS

We want : ks>> kP in
order to minimize
loading error.

Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 18

 Mechanical impedance

d 2x dx
F =m + λ + kx
dt dt
•

ΔF (s) = (ms + λ + k )Δx(s)

s
ΔF
Mechanical impedance Z m = •
( s ) = ms + λ + k
s
Δx

Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 19

 Equivalent Ckt
i di 1
V = L + Ri + ∫ idt
L dt C
1
ΔV ( s ) = ( Ls + R + )Δi ( s )
V Cs
ΔV 1
R Electrical impedance ZE = ( s ) = Ls + R +
Δi Cs

x& ⎧
m → L
⎫
⎪⎪ ⎪⎪
m ⎨λ → R ⎬
1 ⎪k → 1 ⎪
F k ⎪⎩ C ⎪⎭
λ Equivalent Ckt

Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 20

 General Transducer
•

x i
F V

i
• •

x i x

E th i N ZN
F ZM V F ZM V
Z th

Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 21

 Process Loading

Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 22

 Process Loading
• ••

process F - k x − λ x − F = m x
p p S p
• ••

F −k x −λ x = m x
S
•
S S s

dx • •

m + λ x + k ∫ x dt = F − F
dt
p p p S

dx • •

m + λ x + k ∫ x dt =F
dt
s S S S

k •

(mps + λ + )Δ x = ΔF - ΔF p

S
P S

k •

(mss + λ + )Δ x = ΔF S

S
S S

k
Process impedance Z MP (s) = m ps + λ P + P
S
k
Sensor impedance Z MS (s) = mSs + λ S + S
S
Z MS
ΔFS (s) = ΔF(s)
Z MS + Z MP
Sensors and Interfacing Loading effect 23