LOADS ON STRUCTURES

OVERVIEW
The objective of a structural engineer is to design a structure that will be able to
withstand all the loads to which it is subjected while serving its intended purpose
throughout its intended life span. In designing a structure, an engineer must, therefore,
consider all the loads that can realistically be expected to act on the structure during its
planned life span. The loads that act on common civil engineering structures can be
grouped according to their nature and source into three classes: (1) dead loads due to
the weight of the structural system itself and any other material permanently attached to
it; (2) live loads, which are movable or moving loads due to the use of the structure; and
(3) environmental loads, which are caused by environmental effects, such as wind, snow,
and earthquakes.
OVERVIEW
In addition to estimating the
magnitudes of the design loads, an engineer
must also consider the possibility that some of
these loads might act simultaneously on the
structure. The structure is finally designed so
that it will be able to withstand the most
unfavorable combination of loads that is likely
to occur in its lifetime.
TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

The objectives of this module are:

1. To describe the types of loads commonly encountered in the design of structures;

2. To introduce the basic concepts of load estimation; and
3. To describe the typical structural systems used in common buildings and bridges
for transmitting loads to the ground.
PRE-ACTIVITY

Identify the type

of structure of
the following
pictures.
PRE-ACTIVITY

Identify the type

of structure of
the following
pictures.
PRE-ACTIVITY

Identify the type

of structure of
the following
pictures.
SELF-ASSESSMENT

Below is a list of knowledge and tools you need to posses before we start the
module. Check the appropriate box which describes your level of intelligence of the
following questions.

1- Beginning 2- Developing 3- Approaching Proficiency

4- Proficient 5- Advanced
SELF-ASSESSMENT
STATEMENTS 1 2 3 4 5
1. I can identify the type of support connections
2. I can identify the type of structure
3. I know how to use the following software:
a. MS PowerPoint
b. Google Classroom
c. Google Meet
d. STAAD Pro
DISCUSSION

2.1 Structural Systems for Transmitting Loads

In most common buildings, bridges and other civil engineering facilities,
two or more of the basic structural types (e.g., beams, columns, slabs and trusses,
etc.) are assembled together to form a structural system that can transmit the
applied loads to the ground through the foundation. Such structural systems are
also referred to as framing systems or frameworks, and the components of such
an assemblage are called structural members.
 An example of the load-carrying system for a single-story building is shown in Fig.
2.1(a). The system consists of a reinforced-concrete roof slab resting on four steel beams,
which in turn, are supported by two larger beams, called girders. The girders are then
supported on four columns attached to the footings at the ground level. Because all
connections are assumed to be bolted (i.e., shear or hinged) connections, they can only
transmit forces but not moments. Thus, diagonal braces are needed to resist the horizontal
loads caused by wind and earthquakes. In Fig. 2.1(a) this cross-bracing is shown only on
two sides of the building for simplicity. Such bracing (or other means of transmitting
horizontal forces, such as shear walls) should be provided on all four sides of the building
to resist loads applied in any direction in the horizontal plane. Note that the architectural
features, such as exterior brickwork, partitions or non-load-bearing walls, doors and
windows, are not considered to be a part of the load-resisting structural system, although
their weights are considered in the design calculations.
 The structural systems of most buildings and bridges are designed to
withstand loads in both the vertical and horizontal directions. The vertical loads,
due mainly to the occupancy, self-weight and snow or rain, are commonly
referred to as the gravity loads (although not all vertical loads are caused by
gravity). The horizontal loads, induced mainly by wind and earthquakes, are called
the lateral loads. The term load path is used to describe how a load acting on the
building (or bridge) is transmitted, through the various members of the structural
system, to the ground.
 The vertical (gravity) load path for the
single-story building of Fig. 2.1(a) is depicted in
Fig. 2.1(b). Any vertical distributed area load (force
per area), such as due to snow, applied to the roof
slab is first transmitted to the beams EF, GH, IJ,
and KL as a distributed line load (force per length).
As the beams are supported by girders EK and FL,
the beam reactions become concentrated forces
on the girders (in reverse directions), thereby
transmitting the roof load to the girders as
concentrated loads at points E through L. Similarly,
the girders, that are supported by columns AE, BF,
CK, and DL, transfer the load, via their reactions, to
the columns as axial compressive forces. The
columns, in turn, transmit the load to the footings
(A through D), which finally distribute the load to
the ground. Note that the diagonal braces do not
participate in transmitting the gravity load.
 Figure 2.1(c) depicts the horizontal (lateral) load path for the same single-
story building. Any horizontal load (such as due to wind or earthquake) applied
to the roof slab is transmitted by the slab as in-plane lateral forces to the two
vertical frames, AEFB and CKLD, which then carry the load to the footings. As
shown in Fig. 2.1(c), each vertical frame consists of a beam, two columns and
two inclined braces, connected together by hinged connections. Such frames,
called the braced frames, essentially act as plane trusses under the action of
lateral loads, with the braces transmitting the load from the roof-level to the
footings.
DISCUSSION
Floor Systems & Tributary Areas
As in the case of the single-story building discussed previously, the floor
and roof slabs of multi-story buildings, and the deck slabs of bridges, are often
supported on rectangular grids of beams and girders called floor systems.
During the design process, an engineer needs to determine how much of
the total distributed load applied over the area of the slab is carried by each
member (i.e., a beam, a girder or a column) of the floor system. The portion of the
slab area whose load is carried by a particular member is called the tributary area
of the member.
 The slabs used in buildings and bridges are usually designed as one-way
slabs. Such slabs are assumed to be supported on two sides, and bend only in
one direction like wide beams. For floor systems with one-way slabs, the
tributary area of each beam is considered to be rectangular, of a length equal to
that of the beam, and a width extending to half the distance to the adjacent
beam on each side, as shown in Fig. 2.4(b). The tributary areas of girders and
columns are defined similarly, and are depicted in Figs. 2.4(c) and (d),
respectively.
 For floor systems with a beam length to spacing ratio of less than 1.5 (i.e.,
L/s < 1.5), the slabs are designed as two-way slabs, supported on all four sides.
Such a slab is assumed to bend in two perpendicular directions like a plate, and
transmits its load to all four supporting beams along its edges. Figures 2.5(a)
and (b) depict the tributary areas of the edge beams supporting square and
rectangular two-way slabs, respectively. These figures also show the loads
carried by edge beams due to a uniformly distributed pressure w (force per unit
area) applied to the surface area of the slab.
DISCUSSION
2.2 Dead Loads
Dead loads are gravity loads of constant
magnitudes and fixed positions that act permanently on
the structure. Such loads consist of the weights of the
structural system itself and of all other material and
equipment permanently attached to the structural system.
For example, the dead loads for a building structure
include the weights of frames, framing and bracing
systems, floors, roofs, ceilings, walls, stairways, heating and
air-conditioning systems, plumbing, electrical systems, and
so forth.
2.3 Live Loads
Live loads are loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused by the
use of the structure. The magnitudes of design live loads are usually specified in
building codes. The position of a live load may change, so each member of the
structure must be designed for the position of the load that causes the maximum
stress in that member.
Live Loads for Buildings
Live loads for buildings are usually
specified as uniformly distributed surface
loads in pounds per square foot or kilopascals.
For a comprehensive list of live loads for
various types of buildings and for provisions
regarding roof live loads, concentrated loads,
and reduction in live loads, the reader is
referred to the ASCE 7 Standard or NSCP
2010/2015.
Live Loads for Bridges
Live loads due to vehicular traffic on highway bridges are specified by the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials in the Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridge, which is commonly referred to as the AASHTO
Specification.
As the heaviest loading on highway bridges is usually caused by trucks, the
AASHTO Specification defines two systems of standard trucks, H trucks and HS
trucks, to represent the vehicular loads for design purposes.
 The H-truck loadings (or H loadings), representing a two-axle truck, are
designated by the letter H, followed by the total weight of the truck and load in tons
and the year in which the loading was initially specified. For example, the loading
H20-44 represents a code for a two-axle truck weighing 20 tons initially instituted in
the 1944 edition of the AASHTO Specification.
The HS-truck loadings (or HS loadings) represent a two-axle tractor truck with
a single-axle semitrailer. These loadings are designated by the letters HS followed by
the weight of the corresponding H truck in tons and the year in which the loading
was initially specified.
Live Loads for Railway
Live loads for railroad bridges are specified by the American Railway Engineering and
Maintenance of Way Association (AREMA) in the Manual for Railway Engineering. These
loadings, which are commonly known as Cooper E loadings, consist of two sets of nine
concentrated loads, each separated by specified distances, representing the two locomotives
followed by a uniform loading representing the weight of the freight cars.
Impact
When live loads are applied rapidly to a structure, they cause larger stresses than
those that would be produced if the same loads would have been applied gradually. The
dynamic effect of the load that causes this increase in stress in the structure is referred to as
impact. To account for the increase in stress due to impact, the live loads expected to cause
such a dynamic effect on structures are increased by certain impact percentages, or impact
factors. The impact percentages and factors, which are usually based on past experience
and/or experimental results, are specified in the building codes.
2.4 Environmental Loads
 Wind Loads
Wind loads are produced by the flow of
wind around the structure. The magnitudes of
wind loads that may act on a structure depend
on the geographical location of the structure,
obstructions in its surrounding terrain, such as
nearby buildings, and the geometry and the
vibrational characteristics of the structure itself.
Applying Bernoulli’s principle:
2.4 Environmental Loads
 Wind Loads
Wind loads are produced by the flow of
wind around the structure. The magnitudes of
wind loads that may act on a structure depend
on the geographical location of the structure,
obstructions in its surrounding terrain, such as
nearby buildings, and the geometry and the
vibrational characteristics of the structure itself.
Applying Bernoulli’s principle:
2.4 Environmental Loads
 Earthquake Loads

An earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of the earth’s surface.

Although the ground surface moves in both horizontal and vertical directions
during an earthquake, the magnitude of the vertical component of ground
motion is usually small and does not have a significant effect on most structures.
It is the horizontal component of ground motion that causes structural damage
and that must be considered in designs of structures located in earthquake-
prone areas.
 During an earthquake, as the foundation of the structure moves
with the ground, the above-ground portion of the structure, because of
the inertia of its mass, resists the motion, thereby causing the structure
to vibrate in the horizontal direction (Fig. 2.14). These vibrations produce
horizontal shear forces in the structure. For an accurate prediction of the
stresses that may develop in a structure in the case of an earthquake, a
dynamic analysis, considering the mass and stiffness characteristics of
the structure, must be performed. However, for low- to medium-height
rectangular buildings, most codes employ equivalent static forces to
design for earthquake resistance. In this empirical approach, the
dynamic effect of the earthquake is approximated by a set of lateral
(horizontal) forces applied to the structure, and static analysis is
performed to evaluate stresses in the structure.
2.4 Environmental Loads
 Hydrostatic & Soil Pressure Loads
Structures used to retain water, such as
dams and tanks, as well as coastal structures
partially or fully submerged in water must be
designed to resist hydrostatic pressure.
Hydrostatic pressure acts normal to the
submerged surface of the structure, with its
magnitude varying linearly with height, as
shown in the figure. Thus, the pressure at a
point located at a distance h below the surface
of the liquid can be expressed as:
2.5. Load Combination
As stated previously, once the magnitudes of the
design loads for a structure have been estimated, an
engineer must consider all loads that might act
simultaneously on the structure at a given time. For
example, it is highly unlikely that an earthquake and the
maximum wind loads will occur simultaneously. Based on
past experience and probability analysis, the NSCP
specifies that the buildings be designed so that their
strength equals or exceeds the following combinations of
factored loads:
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Basic wind speed in LA: 85 mph

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MAIN TASK

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MAIN TASK
1. Find a pair.
2. List two existing buildings in Ormoc City. Choose from these types of occupancy: commercial,
institutional, recreational or residential (hotels or with occupancy more than 20 people).
3. Capture & identify the type of structure present in the listed buildings.
4. Capture, identify and explain the loads on the structures of the listed buildings.
5. As a structural engineer, explain if the listed buildings are well-designed & can withstand the three
types of loads (dead loads, live loads, environmental loads) throughout their life span.
6. Write and discuss the above-mentioned instructions in an analytical report, making number 5 step as
the conclusion of the report.
7. Analytical report will be written in a short bond paper, 1.5” left margin & the rest 1”, 1.5 spacing,
Microsoft PhagsPa font style, 12 font size, STRICTLY TECHNICAL ENGLISH. Use APA Style.
8. You are given a month to complete this task. Upload the report in my email:
phoebe.lanzaderas@evsu.edu.ph in .pdf format.
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