Key Concept: Early America often struggled as it developed politically, economically and socially.
off debts to individual states. He also encouraged the creation of
Who He Was
George Washington’s role as officer and eventually
commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the
Revolutionary War against Britain, lead to his candidacy as
the first U.S. President. He was sworn in 1788 and served
two presidential terms (eight years). In that time he
accomplished much in both domestic and foreign policy.
Domestic Policy
The moment the United States were free of British rule, the
population was approximately four million in 13 states. All 13
states were loosely governed by the Articles of
Confederation. This Confederation government seemed
unable to settle disputes between states and lacked the
funds needed to thrive. The Articles made it difficult for the
national government to tax or collect debts, recruit soldiers
for an army, or be amended (changed) without unanimous
votes from all states. Gaining unanimous votes was all but
impossible. In May 1787, George Washington and the other
founding fathers called for a convention to revise the Articles
of Confederation. This assembly of representatives from
each state became known as the Constitutional Convention.
Fifty-five delegates would eventually attended and created
the U.S. Constitution.
Once the federal government was established and the
Constitution ratified (approved), George Washington focused
his attentions on national debt accrued from the American
Revolution. With the help of Lieutenant Colonel James
Hamilton, he issued security bonds (a loan with a promise to
pay back when money was earned through new taxes) to pay
a national financial institution: The Bank of the United States.
This made a common currency throughout the 13 states, and
allow them to borrow money. In addition to these steps forward
in financial stability, Washington and Hamilton set up a Tariff
Program, a set of government-issued subsidies (hand outs) to
businesses and enacted taxes on imported goods. This enabled
American producers to compete with foreign importers.
However, the polarized responses to all these policies lead to the
creation of two political parties: the Federalists and the
Democratic Republicans.
“The basis of our political system is the right of
the people to make and to alter their
constitutions of government.” ~Washington
In addition to taxing imports, taxes were also placed on distilled
liquors, namely whiskey. Farmers who used excess grains to
make the alcohol rebelled against the government, attacking
collectors and resisting payment. The government quickly
created a militia of 13,000 soldiers to squash the Whiskey
Rebellion. This displayed the strength of the new government to
the American citizens.
When Washington finally stepped out of his role as President he
gave his farewell address. In this famous speech he warned
against the division of political parties among American leaders.
Foreign Policy
For all George Washington accomplished on American soil, he
also managed many affairs overseas. Before he became the first
President, the United states had already created a treaty with
France. By the time Washington was president, a French
Revolutionary War had broken out. French Rebels used the
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United States’ freedom as an inspiration for their own. This
rebellion caused concern in other countries. Their leaders, ever
eager to keep control, began retaliating on the French rebels.
Low on funds and still recovering from the Revolutionary War,
Washington knew the U.S. needed to stay removed from the
war. So he wrote the Neutrality Proclamation, Despite this,
British (and later France) began using impressment to steal
American merchant ships’ cargo and force sailors into their
navy. Washington left office just as this problem began, and
warned his new government to not make permanent alliances
with other countries in the world in his farewell address.
 Key Concept: Early America often struggled as it developed both politically and socially.

deport or arrest any aliens during times of war. The

Sedition Acts made it illegal for anyone to speak or print
propaganda against the government. Trials under these
laws only detained editors of Republican publications, and
disheartened newly arriving aliens intent on becoming
citizens. These laws were the first that tested restraint of
the first amendments freedoms of speech and press. As a
result of these laws being passed and enforced, aliens
passionately backed Jefferson and the Republican party,
greatly contributing to the Federalists loss in the election of
1800. The Alien and Sedition Acts were soon after repealed
(canceled) or allowed to expire.

“Our Constitution was made only for a

moral and religious people. It is wholly
Who He Was inadequate to the government of any
other.”
John Adams served under Washington as the first U.S.
Vice President for two terms (8 years), and proceeded -John Adams
as President in 1797. A lawyer by trade, he advocated
for independence from British rule, helped forge the
Constitution as a Founding Father, and promoted
Federalist ideas of a strong Central Government. Foreign Policy
Early in Adams career, he attempted to make peace abroad
Domestic Policy while still keeping the U.S. neutral in the French Revolution.
In 1797, he sent three diplomatic representatives Charles
As the French Revelation raged across the seas,
Cotesworth Pinckney, John Marshall, and Elbridge Gerry to
impressment of American merchants and
France to speak with French Foreign Minister, Talleyrand.
commandeering of goods continued. Though war
Talleyrand refused to see the men unless the U.S. first
wasn’t declared, the hostility of France was evident,
offered a $250,000 gift. He further requested a 12 million
especially after the XYZ Affair (see Foreign Policy). John
dollar loan. The preposterous requests were rejected and
Federalist John Adams worked tirelessly to protect his
Pinckney and Marshall returned home offended. (Gerry
country and deter his political opponents (Thomas
chose to stay for several years and continued negotiating
Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans). Fear that
for peace.) When Adams informed Congress of the Foreign
aliens living in the newly formed U.S. would sympathize
Minsters requests, he referred to them as “requests X-Y-Z”,
with the French rebels caused Federalists to write the
so the situation was dubbed the XYZ Affair. Shortly
Alien and Sedation Acts and Adams signed them into
following the XYZ Affair, an undeclared war seemed to
law in 1798. These acts consisted of four laws. Firstly,
breakout and the French also began to impose
the Alien Acts raised the residency requirement to
impressment on merchant ships. This ongoing undeclared
become a citizen from five years to fourteen years.
war between French and American citizens became known
Secondly, the Alien Act allowed the government to
as the Quasi-War.
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Key Concept: Early America often struggled as it expanded geographically and developed politically and economically.
Who He Was
Thomas Jefferson was the first Democratic-Republican
as president who proceeded Adams as the third U.S.
president. Originally from Virginia, he wrote the
Declaration of Independence as one of the Founding
Fathers. Jefferson and his friend James Madison wrote
the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions to nullify Adams’
Alien and Sedition Acts, which they thought were
unconstitutional.
Domestic Policy
Jefferson believed in an economy untouched by the
government (free market). He coined the term “Laissez
Faire” which is French for “let alone.” It is with this
outlook that he conducted his presidential duties, and
attempted to reduce the size and interference of the
government in citizens’ financial matters.
In 1800, Spain gave the Louisiana Territory to France.
Though Napoleon, France’s leader at that time, had
plans for the land, they were upset by over spending to
defend French territory in Haiti. The Haitian slaves
rebelled, gaining their independence and devastating
Napoleon's hope to maintain land in the Western
Hemisphere. Since France was in the midst financial
downturn, in 1803 Jefferson seized the opportunity to
send James Monroe and Robert Livingston to offer to
purchase New Orleans. He knew that New Orleans, a key
port city at the end of the Mississippi, would be a valuable
asset for transporting and trading U.S. goods. Napoleon
drafted and signed a treaty offering the entire Louisiana
Territory for $15 million dollars, as he needed the funds for
his continued war in Europe. This purchase more than
doubled the size of the United States and opened the west
up for further exploration. Jefferson encouraged this
exploration by commissioning Meriwether Lewis and
William Clark to explore the newly purchased land, north
up the Mississippi River, the Rocky Mountains and beyond
to the Pacific.
“We hold these truths to be self-evident:
that all men are created equal; that they
are endowed by their Creator with
certain unalienable rights; that among
these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of
happiness.”
-Thomas Jefferson
Foreign Policy
As the wars in Europe raged, France and Britain continued to
impress American merchants and steal cargo. Britain
especially became ruthless. In order to protect the U.S. and
maintain neutrality, Jefferson drafted and pushed the
Embargo Act through Congress in 1807. This law forbid any
and all trade with the world’s countries. While it’s intentions
were good, the embargo crippled the U.S. economy, and
especially hurt merchants in the northern states. Many
merchants openly defied the law, so much so that Congress
had to use militia to enforce it. After two years of economic
depression and failed enforcement, Jefferson replaced the
Embargo act with the Non-intercourse act of 1809. This law
restricted trade with Britain and France rather then all
countries. It’s effects were no better then the first. Even
though these acts had adverse effects on the economy, they
did encourage industrialization because United States
citizens had to domestically make or grow the goods they
normally traded for.
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 Key Concept: Early America often struggled as it expanded geographically and developed politically and economically.
Who He Was
James Madison served two terms (8 years) as the
fourth President of the United States starting in 1809.
Instrumental in the drafting of the Constitution and
especially the Bill of Rights, he’s been named “the
Father of the Bill of Rights.”
Domestic Policy
When Madison was chosen as the fourth president, his
intention was to continue Jefferson’s plans to disband a
largely Federalist government. One part of this plan
spoke against the Bank of the United States and its
centralized power. The Bank Charter was set to expire
1812 and congress let it lapse. As war with Britain
commenced (see Foreign Policy), congress grew
concerned about how they would finance their
involvement. In 1814, they passed a bill to start a
second bank and Madison vetoed it. As war raged on,
Madison realized his error and the desperate need for
the security of a central bank to finance the U.S.
efforts. In 1816, Congress approved another bill and
this time Madison signed, creating the Second Bank of
the United States.
Copyright © 2015 Instructomania Pavlovich
Foreign Policy
Madison’s presidency was largely absorbed in war. It
followed shortly after Jefferson’s embargos, and political
tension was rising in the United States. Britain was still
impressing American merchants and had enacted no-trade
policies in response to the U.S. claims of neutrality in the
war. Britain further spawned problems by encouraging
native Americans to attack American settlers, especially in
the great lake regions of the country. Young congressmen
mostly from the southern and western states demanded
retaliation on Britain, wanted more land in the northwest
region and wanted to expel other European powers from
Florida and British Colombia. They’re message gave them
the nickname War Hawks. The primary War Hawk leaders
were Henry Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South
Carolina. The northern states resisted the War Hawks
suggestions; they felt they’d suffered enough economically
and urged congress to restore British trade.
“In framing a government which is to be
administered by men over men you must
first enable the government to control the
governed; and in the next place oblige it
to control itself.”
-James Madison
Madison soon rallied Congress to declare war on Britain in
1812, starting the War of 1812. Sometimes called the
Second War of Independence, the War of 1812 lasted for
almost three years. The crescendo of the war was the
Battle of New Orleans, where Major General Andrew
Jackson lead the U.S. militia to victory against Britain.
Though some fighting continued into the new year, the
Treaty of Ghent was signed Christmas Eve (December
24th) 1814, and ratified (approved) by the U.S.
Government in February 1815.
Madison’s indifference to the north states’ concern for
trade and federalist-like reinstatement of a centralized
bank cost him a third term as president in the election of
1817.
 Key Concept: Early America often struggled as it expanded geographically and developed politically.

Foreign Policy
The combative actions of Andrew Jackson in the Florida
territory had Monroe backpedaling any involvement. To
smooth things over, Monroe sent John Quincy Adams to
negotiate the purchase of Florida from Spain. The 1819
treaty cost the U.S. $5 million dollars, and included Spain
giving up any claim to Texas as well.

“The American continents ... are

henceforth not to be considered as
subjects for future colonization by any
Who He Was European powers."
James Monroe served two terms (8 years) as the fifth
-James Madison
President of the United States starting in 1817. He was
the last Founding Father elected to this position. A
Virginian farmer by trade, he later studied law under
Jefferson. During the War of 1812, he manned the Shortly after the end of the Napoleon wars in 1815, the
critical roles of Secretary of State and Secretary of War, South American nations under Spanish rule began to revolt.
and assisted Jefferson in the purchase of the Louisiana Simon Bolivar of Peru was inspired by the American
Territory. Declaration of Independence and lead the South American
Revolutions. By 1822, Peru, Argentina, Chili, Colombia, and
Domestic Policy Mexico had all set up permanent, stable governments. The
U.S. and especially Monroe were supportive of the new
Several domestic issues arose during Monroe’s
republics (nations that allow citizens to have a voice in
presidency despite his popularity and the increasing
government) and were eager to establish trade treaties
stability of the nation. These problems included the
with the countries. He also worried about how defenseless
economy depression of 1819, the struggle to maintain
the newly free countries were, should European powers
balance between slave and non-slave states that lead
decide to reinvade. On December 2, 1823 Monroe gave an
to the Missouri Compromise, and various internal state
speech aimed at European countries which became known
versus central government situations that needed
as the Monroe Doctrine. His words warned against
resolved. At one point, Seminole Natives began raiding
interfering with the newly formed governments of their
along the Florida border and into Southern states. They
southern neighbors, as well as stated that the Western
seemed to be encouraged and aided in their
Hemisphere was off limits for any and all colonization. As a
ferociousness by the Spanish. Andrew Jackson lead an
compromise, he emphasized that the U.S. would not
aggressive military move to pursue the Native
engage in any European affairs or wars. The speech was
American tribe members and punish the Spanish for
also laced with a threat: any hostile acts on the newly
aiding their attacks. This was called the Seminole Wars
formed countries was an act against the U.S. and they
and made relations strained when Congress began
would respond accordingly.
negotiating the purchase of the Florida territory from
Spain. (See Foreign Policy.)
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