Reactions

a. neutralization – a reaction in which an acid an a base react to form water and salt with a pH of
equal to 7.
b. electrolysis – chemical decomposition produced by passing an electric current though a liquid or
solution containing ions
c. hydrolysis – is the chemical breakdown of substances by addition of water
d. combustion – a chemical process in which a substance reacts rapidly with oxygen and gives off
heat (exothermic)

Properties of Substances

a. Allotropes – one or more forms of a chemical element that occur in the same physical state
b. Isomers – ions or molecules with identical formulas but distinct structure
c. Isotopes – the same elements but with different molar masses
d. Isotones – elements with the same number of neutrons.

Le Chateliers Principles – The position of equilibrium will move/shift in such a way to counteract the
stress/change imposed upon it.

A + 3B = 2C exothermic

a. Concentration – if there is increase(decrease) of concentration of the reactants, the equilibrium

will shift towards(away) from the product. Addition(removal) of reactants will produce
more(less) products to counteract the change in concentration.
b. Pressure – for a gas system, the change in pressure greatly affects the equilibrium. If the system
is be subjected to a higher pressure or that is, a lower volume the equilibrium will shift to the
side with lesser number of molecules. If the system is subjected to a lower pressure or that is, a
higher volume the equilibrium will shift to the side with higher number of molecules. Pressure is
caused by the molecules hitting the container. The regulation of the pressure depends on the
consumption of molecules. If pressure is increased(decreased), the equilibrium will move as to
reduce(increase) the number of molecules thus reducing(increasing) the pressure of the
reaction. If the above reaction is increased in pressure, more products will be produced since it
is the direction that results lesser molecules (2 for products for every 4 of reactants).
c. Temperature – If temperature is increased(decreased), the reaction will proceed to the
endothermic(exothermic) path. When there is an increase of temperature, the reaction which
absorbed heat will be favored since this counteracts the stress and returns the temperature to
favorable condition. In the above equation, more reactants will be produced if the reaction is
subjected to high temperature

Semiconductors- subtances with electrical properties which is between good conductors and good
insulators. Semiconductors have larger band gap (energy needed to excite an electron) than that of
metals and smaller than that of insulators.

Intrinsic semiconductors – composed of only one kind of material etc. silicon, germanium. This is called
i-type semiconductors or “undoped sc”.
Extrinsic semiconductors – added with other substances to alter their properties. These are the doped
semiconductors. The n-type and p-type belong to this group. The n-type of semiconductor is doped with
phosphorus while the p-type is doped with boron.

Test for a substance in a sample

Substancee Method Procedure

Moisture Content Karl Fischer titration Iodine
Arsenic Marsh Test
Moisture content Benedicts Test
Nitrogen Kjeldahl Method
Aldehyde or ketone Fehling’s Test Blue- negative
Red – present
Aldehyde Tollens Test Aldehydes are oxidized while
ketones are not

Colloid – Particles that are dispersed in a medium that scatters light if it passes through it.

a. Coprecipitation – carrying down of substances normally soluble in a solution by a precipitate

b. Peptization – when coagulated colloid returns to its original dispersed state
c. Particle growth – the continuous growth of a solute until the maximum threshold it can
withstand given current condition
d. Nucleation – first step in the formation of new phase or structure via self assembly or
organization. This happens very fast and gradually slows down
e. Occlusion – if the precipitation occurs rapidly, it may grow around the solvent trapping some of
it such that a “bubble” is formed even though it is not part of it. This is a step of coprecipition.
f. Mechanical entrapment – when two crystals rapidly grows together trapping a portion or a
packet of solution

Magnetism – the phenomenon by which materials assert an attractive or repulsive force or influence
other materials. This is a result of fluctuating current. Lodestone are magnets. The macroscopic
magnetic properties are results of magnetic moments. This is due to two sources. First, the orbital
motion of an electron around the nucleus creates a magnetic moment along its axis of rotation. The
other is the spinning of the electron which creates a magnetic moment in an “up” direction.

Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism. (Weak magnetism)

Diamagnetism – materials with paired electrons. very weak from of magnetism that is nonpermanent
and persists only while an external field is being applied. It is induced by a change in the orbital motion
of electrons due to an applied field. The resulting magnetic moment is in direction OPPOSITE to that of
the applied field. This is observed in all materials but is to weak to be accounted. (water, fat, calciuim)

Paramagnetism – when the atoms of a material has unpaired electrons. Random magnetic moment due
to the incomplete cancellation of electron spin or orbital motion of the electrons such that it contains no
net magnetization. In the presence of an external magnet, these dipoles rotates and align with SIMILAR
direction/axis to that of the applied field. (salts, chelates, free radicals)

Permanent Magnetism

Ferromagnetism – properties of metallic materials to possess a permanent magnetic moment without

an external field thus are permanent magnets. This is the result of uncancelled net spin and orbital
motion of the electron. The direction of the magnetic moments of this magnet are parallel

Anti-ferromagnetism – when the alignment of the spins moments of the neighboring atoms is in
opposite direction. MgO is one material that displays this behavior.

Ferrimagnetism - this is when atoms have opposing moments as in anti-ferromagnetism but are
unequal that results in spontaneous magnetization. This happens for example if a sample consists of
different materials or ions such as (Fe2+ and Fe3+)