THE SPIRITUAL SELF

“Quiet the mind, and the soul will speak.”

―Ma Jaya Sati Bhagavati

Activity 4
“ME AND MY FAITH”

“NAME GAME”
Mechanics:
1. The class is divided into five groups to enact the different practices of Filipinos
with regard to religious beliefs.
2. Let each group make a guess of the particular belief the other groups will act out.

Objective :
To give the students the chance to familiarize themselves with how and why
Filipinos practice those religious beliefs

Philosophy started the moment humans started to wonder (with just about
anything). For the longest time, humans have pondered on questions, like “Why do we
die? Why bad things happen to good people? Do we really have free will? Is the future
determined? Does God exist?”
As a college student, it is vital that you develop a healthy sense of wonder. Part of
this curiosity should be about the range of human beliefs. It is important, too, that you
keep an open mind as you seek to understand belief systems that may not be the same
as yours.

Spiritual Versus Religious

Spiritual is defined as “relating to or affecting the human spirit or soul as opposed

to material or physical things.” Religion and spirituality are both paths to God; however,
they are different in their approaches. A religious person is someone who believes in a
god or group of gods and consciously adheres to the beliefs of his/her religion. A spiritual
person, on the other hand, places little importance on beliefs and traditions and is more
concerned with growing and experiencing the Divine.
Quite often, religion takes the approach of fear. It emphasizes sin, guilt, and the
concept of a punishing God. The spiritual approach to God is through the path of love.
This is a love where there is no condemnation and judgment, but where there is mercy
and acceptance.

98 A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self

 Often, religion talks of God who is high up in the heavens. At times, God is depicted
as separate from humanity, who is impartial but impersonal. Spirituality believes in God
who is omnipresent and omniscient, someone who is a living presence in our hearts.
Many religions feel their path is the only way to salvation and that other religions
are wrong. Religious people strongly feel the need to convert others to their faith. On
the other hand, like the analogy, “different paths that lead to the same destination,”
spirituality feels all faiths are valid. Spirituality embraces all the world’s religions, but
at the same time it is not constrained by any religious dogmas or forms.

Why is spirituality important?

Sense of meaninglessness and lack of purpose in life can be significant factors in
causing anxiety, depression, and phobias; however, there is a growing body of evidence
indicating that spiritual practices are associated with better health and well-being.
Many spiritual traditions encourage participation in a community. Spiritual
fellowship (such as attending church or a meditation group) can be a source of social
support that may provide a sense of belonging, security, and community. Strong
relationships have been proven to increase well-being and bolster life expectancy, which
is perhaps why one study found a strong association between church attendance and
improved health, mood, and well-being.
Contemplative practice is good for students like you. Contemplative practice can be
broadly understood as a method to develop concentration, deepen understanding and
insight, and cultivate awareness and compassion. These practices can have a profound
impact on students’ experiences both in college and beyond.
Examples of contemplative practices:
1. Meditation – mental exercise (such as focusing on one’s breathing or repeating
a mantra) for the purpose of reaching a heightened level of spiritual awareness.
It can induce feelings of calm and clear-headedness, as well as improved
concentration and attention.
2. Prayer – a spiritual communion with God (or an object of worship) as in
supplication, thanksgiving, adoration, or confession. Prayers may elicit a
relaxation response, along with feelings of hope, gratitude, and compassion —
all of which have a positive effect on overall well-being. There are several types of
prayers. Many of which are rooted in the belief that there is a higher power that
has some level of influence over life. This belief can provide a sense of comfort
and support in difficult times. A recent study found out that clinically depressed
adults who believed their prayers were heard by God (or a concerned presence)
responded much better to treatment than those who did not believe.

A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self 99

 3. Yoga – a Hindu spiritual and ascetic discipline. In Hindu theistic philosophy, it
teaches the suppression of all mind and body activity so that the self may realize
its distinction from the material world and attain liberation. In western culture,
yoga is a system of physical postures, breathing techniques, and sometimes
meditation to promote physical and emotional well-being.
4. Journaling is another (but often overlooked) contemplative practice that can
help you become more aware of your inner life and feel more connected to your
experience and the world around you. Studies show that writing during difficult
times may help you find meaning in life’s challenges and help you become more
resilient in the face of obstacles.
(Lin, Oxford, & Brantmeier, 2013)

The Practice of Religion: Belief in Supernatural Being and Power

The vast majority of the earth’s more than 7 billion people practice some form of
religion. The number of religions and spiritual traditions that the human population
practices is estimated at a little over 4,000. The reasons and theories of humans’ having
religion are just as many (if not more).
Religion is defined as
TRIVIA “the belief in and worship of a
superhuman controlling power,
especially a personal God or
gods” (Oxford University Press,
2017). It is also a “particular
system of faith and worship.”
(University of Minnesota
Human Rights Center, 2003,
2016). More than its belief
and practices, religion is an
experience. Religion, however,
may best be understood as a
systematic “attribution of human
characteristics or behavior to
a god, animal, or object” (read:
Figure 2. Pope Francis was named Time magazine’s
“Person of the Year” in 2013, where he was identified as Anthropomorphism). One
“poised to transform a place [i.e., the Vatican] that mea- reason humans attribute human
sures change by the century” (Chua-Eoan & Dias 2013). characteristics to some other
Photo courtesy of Edgar Jiménez/Flickr.
“entities” is that the world is
huge, ambiguous, and we need to
interpret it the best possible way
we can.

100 A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self

The psychology behind religious belief
A 1990 research conducted by Steven Reiss, professor emeritus of psychology at the
Ohio State University, posited a theory on why people are attracted to religion. Religion,
he said, attracts so many followers because it satisfies all 16 basic desires that humans
share (The 16 Strivings for God, 2016).
According to Reiss, the 16 basic desires that humans share are:
1. Acceptance 7. Independence 13. Social contact
2. Curiosity 8. Order 14. Status
3. Eating 9. Physical activity 15. Tranquility
4. Family 10. Power 16. Vengeance
5. Honor 11. Romance
6. Idealism 12. Saving

Reiss claimed that we all share the same 16 goals, but what makes us different
is how much we value each one. For example, in social contact, religion attracts both
the introvert and extrovert. For extroverts, religion offers fellowship with others. For
introverts, religion encourages meditation, private retreats, and solitude.
Another example is that religion also finds ways to deal with vengeance. According
to Reiss, while some other religions preach a God of peace, there are also religions that
preach holy wars.
Reiss added that all religious beliefs and practices are designed to meet these 16
desires. Religious beliefs provide people with certain ways of thinking to help them cope
with ultimate questions that cannot be explained in any other way.

The four dimensions of religion

The incredible amount of variation between different religions makes it challenging
to decide upon a concrete definition of religion that applies to all of them. Sociologists
noted four dimensions that seem to be present in varying forms and intensities in all
types of religion (Dawson & Thiessen, 2014). These are:
1. Belief ;
2. Ritual;
3. Spiritual experience; and
4. Unique social forms of community.

Religious beliefs are a generalized system of ideas and values that shape how
members of a religious group come to understand the world around them. These beliefs
are taught to followers by religious authorities, such as priests, imams, or shamen,
through formal creeds and doctrines, as well as more informal lessons learned through
stories, songs, and myths.

A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self 101

 Rituals are the repeated physical gestures or activities, such as prayers and mantras,
used to reinforce religious teachings, elicit spiritual feelings, and connect worshippers
with a higher power (Little, 2016). A common type of ritual is a rite of passage, which
marks a person’s transition from one stage of life to another. Examples of rites of
passage include baptisms and weddings. From a psychological perspective, rituals play
an important role in providing practitioners with access to spiritual “powers” of various
sorts. In relieving anxieties, religious rituals provide a basis of psychological stability
when people face uncertainty or chance.
A third common dimension of various religions is the promise of access to some
form of unique spiritual experience or feeling of immediate connection with a higher
power. From this point of view, religion is not so much about thinking a certain way (i.e.,
a formal belief system) as about feeling a certain way. Saint Thomas Aquinas is often
quoted to have said, ‘To one who has faith, no explanation is necessary. To one without
faith, no explanation is possible”—summing up the experiential dimension of religion.
The fourth common dimension of religion is creating unique social forms of
community. Emile Durkheim (1915-1964) emphasized that religious beliefs and
practices “unite in one single community called a Church, all those who adhere to them.”
Social dimensions that religions share according to Dawson and Thiessen (2014):
• Religion gains credibility when agreed and shared by a group. It is easier to be-
lieve in something if others around you (whom you respect) believe it as well.
• Religion provides an authority that deals specifically with social or moral is-
sues, such as determining the best way to live life. It provides a basis for ethics
and proper behaviors, which establishes the normative basis of the community.
• Religion acts as a form of social control, and it supports the development of
self-control, which are vital elements of a functional society.
• Places of religious worship function as social hubs within communities, provid-
ing a source of entertainment, socialization, and support.

TABLE 15.1
One way scholars have categorized religions is by classifying what or who they hold to be divine.

RELIGIOUS
WHAT/WHO IS DIVINE EXAMPLE
CLASSIFICATION
Polytheism Mutiple gods Hinduism, Ancient Greeks and Romans
Monotheism Single god Judaism, Islam, Christianity
Antheism No deities Atheism, Buddhism, Taoism
Animism Nonhuman beings Indigenous nature worship, Shinto
(animals, plants, natural world)

Source: https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology2ndedition/chapter/chapter-15-religion/

102 A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self

The Major Religions
1. Judaism 3. Islam 5. Buddhism
2. Christianity 4. Hinduism

Judaism encompasses the religion,

TRIVIA
philosophy, and culture of the Jewish
Judaism is the oldest of the Abrahamic
people. It is characterized by belief in religions and the predecessor of
one transcendent God who has revealed Christianity and Islam.
Jews remain faithful to the writings of
himself to Abraham, Moses, and the Hebrew
the Torah, which was believed to have
prophets and by a religious life in accordance been handed to Moses on Mt. Sinai, and
with the scriptures and rabbinic traditions. the Tanakh, the books of the prophets, the
kings, and some other religious writings.
Their sacred text is the Torah.
Christianity is an Abrahamic
TRIVIA
monotheistic religion based on the life and
The world’s largest religion is Christianity.
teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as
To date, it has 2.1 billion followers
the focal point of the Christian faith. For
worldwide.
Christians, the word of God is written in the
Bible.

Interesting Islam Facts:

• The word “Islam” means submission or surrender.
• The root word of Islam is “Salam,” which means “peace.”
• The word “Islam” in religious terms means “surrender one’s will to the true will of
God to achieve peace.”
• A Muslim is one who surrenders himself to God’s true will.

Islam is the religious faith of Muslims who worship Allah as the sole deity and
believes Muhammad is His prophet. The holy scriptures of Islam is the Koran.
http://www.softschools.com/facts/religion/islam_facts/996/

A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self 103

 Interesting Hinduism Facts:
• The word Hindu originates from the Indian Indus River.
• There are more than one billion followers of Hinduism in the world today.
• Hinduism is not a single religion; rather, it is practiced by many different religious
groups from India.
• Most of Hinduism’s sacred texts were written in Sanskrit in ancient times.
• The oldest ancient sacred texts of Hinduism are called the Vedas. Vedah means
knowledge.
• The Vedas include Rigveda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda, and Atharva-Veda.

Hinduism, considered the world’s oldest religion, is still commonly practiced.

Hinduism combines the beliefs, philosophy, and cultural practices of India. Hindu
practitioners are guided by Vedic scriptures and believe in righteousness, the laws of
cause and effect, and the cycle of birth and death. Central to the faith is a belief in
reincarnation and one supreme god called Brahman who has multiple manifestations
as either a god or goddess. Gods and goddesses can be spirits, trees, animals, and even
planets.

Interesting Buddhism Facts:

• Buddha is also known as “the enlightened one” or “the awakened one.”
• When Buddha was 35 he meditated under a fig tree, the Bodhi tree, for several days
until he attained enlightenment.
• Buddha spent the rest of his life teaching his followers (in the northeastern Indian
subcontinent) the path of awakening.
Buddha lived to the age of 80. He died in Kushinagar, India in 483 BC.

Buddhism refers to the teachings of Gautama Buddha. Buddha, (originally a follower

of the Hindu faith) experienced enlightenment, or Bohdi, while sitting under a tree. It
was in this moment that Buddha was said to be awakened to the truth of the world,
or the Dharma. Buddha, an ordinary man, taught his followers how to follow the path
to Enlightenment. Thus, Buddhism does not believe in a divine realm or God as a
supernatural being, but instead follows the wisdom of their founder.
http://www.softschools.com/facts/religion/buddhism_facts/992/

104 A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self

The concept of “Dungan,” Spirit, and Soul
In pre-colonial Philippines, our ancestors looked up to a “babaylan.” Described as
a priestess or shaman, a babaylan acted as healer, spiritual leader, and medium. The
babaylan perform rituals through chants or prayers for spiritual intervention to drive
spirits that cause illness or misfortune.
A babaylan is usually a woman, but there were some men who were babaylans, too.
Male babaylans, however, were said to have feminine traits.
The babaylans explore the world of animism. Animism is the attribution of a soul
to plants, inanimate objects, and natural phenomena. Our ancestors believed that souls
are quasi-physical and can exist outside the body (such as in dreams and in visions) and
that they can transfer from one body to another. They also believed that souls persist
after death and become ghosts, in the same way that modern Filipinos believe in “multo.”
Prior to being converted to a religion (Islam or Catholicism), our ancestors already
believed in spirit beings that dwell in the environment, our deceased ancestral souls,
and forces in nature (wind, moon, stars). Central to the traditions of our ancestors was
the belief that animate and inanimate creatures have a “life force.”

How do “dungan” and “ginhawa” differ?

Alicia P. Magos, an anthropologist and a professor emerita of University of the
Philippines Visayas made a pioneering study on the primeval Visayan concept of
“dungan.” According to Magos, “dungan” was “a life force, an energy, as well as an ethereal
entity, a spirit with a will of its own that resides in the human body and provides the
essence of life.” (Magos, 1992, pp. 47-50). Under this concept, everyone has a “dungan.”
This is similar to the western concept of “soul,” however, unlike the soul, the “dungan”
can temporarily leave the body when the person is asleep. Once “dungan” returns to the
person’s body, he or she becomes fully conscious again. If any other spirits harm the
“dungan” while it is outside the body and cannot return, the person dies.
Meanwhile, our pre-colonial ancestors also believed that aside from a “dungan,”
a vital force also occupies the body. This vital force was called “ginhawa” (translation:
breath of life). “Ginhawa” was said to be responsible for the heart’s ability to beat. It was
believed that if “ginhawa” left the body, the person also dies.
“Ginhawa” and “dungan” both exist in every person. Ginhawa was the breath of life
while dungan was the conscious intellectual and emotional aspects.

What is the difference between the soul and the spirit of man?
The soul and the spirit are the two primary immaterial aspects ascribed to humanity.
There are different shades of meaning between the idea of the soul and the idea of the
spirit from culture to culture and religion to religion.

A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self 105

 Here is a brief and general overview of the difference between a soul and a spirit:
Etymology
Old English for “soul” was “sawol” that meant the “spiritual and emotional part
of a person’s, animate existence.” Spirit is directly from Latin spiritus “a breathing
(respiration, and of the wind), breath, breath of a god,” hence, “inspiration, breath
of life.”
Biblical beliefs
Soul refers to the conscious, the moral, and thinking part of a person. The soul is
immortal; it will go to hell, purgatory, or heaven after the person dies.
Spirit refers to the Holy Spirit, the third part of the Trinity. It is the force of God
through which blessings are bestowed upon His people. As one develops in the faith,
he or she is said to be growing spiritually.
In Western Culture
Soul can often be taken to mean someone’s moral consciousness. For example, a
cruel killer could be said to have no soul.
Spirit may also refer to ghosts or any other supernatural beings. It is believed
that the souls of people who died with unfinished business wander the earth until
their task is fulfilled.
In Eastern Culture
Soul is the part of the person that has dharma. In Hinduism dharma is one’s
obligation with respect to caste, social custom, civil law, and sacred law. Dharma
incurs karma. In Hinduism and Buddhism, karma is the sum of a person’s actions in
this and previous states of existence. The fate of one’s future existences depends on
one’s karma.
Nature and ancestor spirits are common in Taoism. Shinto, an animistic folk
religion from Japan, places an emphasis on shamanism, particularly divination,
spirit possession, and faith healing. Confucianism tolerates the Chinese folk
recognition of the existence of animistic spirits, ghosts, and deities.

The Soul According to some Ethnolinguistic Groups of the Philippines

• Linnawa or “soul of the dead” by the Ifugao.
• Kaduwa of the Isneg (an Igorot tribe native to Apayao Province in the Philippines’
Cordillera Administrative Region). The Isneg believes that the dead exists in a realm
called the aglalanawan. The kaduwa (soul) is believed to cross a pond in a ferry piloted by
a kutaw (spirit).

106 A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self

• The Kankanaey (another member of the Igorot people) believes that the human person is
composed of the physical body and the ab-abiik (soul). When spirits summon a person’s
ab-abiik he or she becomes sick. A ritual will be performed to appease the spirit who
summoned the ab-abiik so that it will allow the ab-abiik to return to its body, and the
person recovers from the illness.
• Kaluluwa is the Tagalog people’s concept of soul. However, it refers more to the soul of
the deceased. The soul of a living person is called a “kakambal.” The “kakambal” leaves the
physical body at night to roam, and any bad encounter causes bangungot (nightmare).
• The Ilokano has a four-soul system.
o The kararua, or the soul proper. It is the equivalent of a soul in the Christian concept.
o Karkarma stands for natural vigor, mind, and reason. It can leave the physical body
when one is frightened. A kakarma can also be stolen. If this soul fails to return to
the body, the person becomes insane. Sacrificial ceremonies may be performed to
lure back a lost karkarma.
o Aniwaas can leave the body during sleep and visits places familiar to the body. If one
wakes up while the aniwaas is visiting these places, he or she may lose the aniwaas
and become insane.
o Araria is the liberated soul of the dead. It visits relatives and friends in the physical
world to ask for prayers. It can also perform a duty it failed to do in life. The howling
of dogs means araria is present. This soul can make sounds and manipulate physical
objects usually relating to what it did in life.
• The Ibanag/Ybanag (who inhabits the provinces of Cagayan, Isabela and Nueva Vizcaya)
has a distinction between baggi (body) and ikaruruwa (soul). The Ibanag believes that the
soul has physical characteristics. The soul may have color, and the souls of dead babies
can reach adulthood in the spirit realm. The role of the soul is to give direction and
wholeness to the man, but the body can survive without the soul, and even without the
body the soul experiences material wants and needs.
• The Hanunoo Mangyan (of Mindoro) believes in the plurality of souls. For instance, they
have karaduwa tawu/tawo (human soul), karaduwa manok (chicken soul), karaduwa baboy
(pig soul) karaduwa kuti (cat soul) and karaduwa hipon (shrimp soul). A soul can also
separate itself from the physical body. When a person sleeps, the karaduwa roams the
world. What the person dreams of are actually the experiences of the karudawa while
roaming around.
• The Tagbanwa of central and northern Palawan believes that people have one ‘true
soul’ or kiyaraluwa and five secondary souls. The kiyaraluwa is given at birth by the god
Magindusa. The secondary souls are located in both hands and feet, while there is also
one in the head just below the air whorl (alimpuyo).
• The ethnic tribes of Bukidnon believe in the gimukod. According to their custom, there
are two types of gimukod: the one in the right hand and the one in the left hand. The
gimukod in the right hand is the good soul, and the one in the left hand is the bad soul.
The right hand soul is associated with life, health, activity, and joy. The left-hand soul is
the cause of lethargy, pain, and illness.
A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self 107
Rituals and Ceremonies
A ritual is a ceremony or action performed in a customary way. Rituals may be
prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals
include not only the worship rites and sacraments of organized religions and cults, but
also rites of passage, atonement and purification rites, oaths of allegiance, dedication
ceremonies, coronations, presidential inaugurations, marriages, funerals—perhaps all
kinds of human activity.
A ceremony is a formal act or ritual (often set by custom or tradition) performed in
observation of an event or anniversary, i.e., a Japanese tea ceremony.

Where does ritual originate?

The general approaches to theories about the nature and origin of rituals are:
1. Origin approach;
2. Functional approach; and
3. History of religions approach.
The origin approach was the earliest form to explain ritual. The basic premise of this
approach is that ritual behavior was part of the human evolution. Scholars believed that
locating the oldest cultures and cults could explain the universal nature of rituals; that
if they could discover the origin, then contemporary human rituals can be explained.
Some other scholars turned away from the origin approach claiming such approach
cannot adequately explain human behavior because no one can verify these ideas. Instead,
these scholars focused on empirical evidence gathered through actual observation. The
nature of rituals was believed to be defined by its function in society. The aim of the
functional approach was to explain ritual behavior in terms of individual and social
needs.
The history of religions approach holds the view that ritual behavior is an expression
of the sacred; it is how the material human connects with the transcendent realm or the
ultimate reality. The basic problem with this approach, however, is that scholars need
to agree first that such a transcendent realm really exists before the theories can be
confirmed (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Classification of Rituals
1. Imitative 3. Sacrificial
2. Positive and Negative 4. Life crisis

108 A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self

 The meaning of every ritual is based on some belief system. These are called
imitative rituals because these are patterned after myths, and the ritual repeats the
myths or aspects of the myth. For example, Filipinos make noises at the strike of twelve
every New Year. This practice is actually based on a Chinese myth. As the story goes,
there was once a monster called nián. Every spring, at midnight on New Year’s Day, nián
would arrive to eat villagers and destroy homes and farms. One new year, nián came while
the villagers were burning bamboo to keep themselves warm. The monster, frightened
by the cracking noise of the burning bamboo, fled. The villagers realized this was how
they could defeat the monster. As time passed by, firecrackers replaced bamboo burning.
Avoidance is the best description for a negative ritual. The word taboo has
been applied to those rituals that concern something should be avoided because it is
forbidden. Thus, negative rituals focus on rules of prohibition, which cover an almost
infinite variety of rites and behavior. One characteristic they all share, however, is that
if the person breaks the ritual , it will result in a dramatic change that usually brings
some misfortune. On the other hand, positive rituals are mostly concerned with giving
blessings to an object or to an individual.
Sacrificial rituals are seen as the earliest form of religion. The significance of
sacrifice in the history of religion is well documented. The distinct feature of this type
of ritual is the total destruction of the sacrifice as an offering to a “higher being.” The
sacrifice can be a human being, an animal, food crops, or objects. The destruction could
be by burning, dismembering, cutting the sacrifice into small pieces, eating, or burying
it.
The basic characteristic of a life crisis ritual is the transition of one mode or stage
of life into another. This ritual usually defines the life of an individual. For example,
it is a Filipino tradition to bury the placenta right after birth, and it is the father who
is tasked to do this. Moreover, for the succeeding children, it is important to bury the
placenta of the siblings together so that they will always love and care for one another
the rest of their lives (Encyclopædia Britannica).

A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self 109

 TRIVIA
YAKAN HONEYMOON RITUALS
The Yakans of Basilan Island observe interesting rituals during the honeymoon period.
In the afternoon, just before the first night the new couple spend together, each of them will be
given a separate bath so that children will not only be born clean but also stay clean throughout
life.
In their first sexual intercourse, the girl makes sure that she is accepted as a wife and not as
harlot by asking questions about her status. The groom has to answer adequately that she is his
wife.
Just before the sexual act, the boy should first step on the right foot as heavily as he can. This
symbolizes strength. The first hand to touch his wife should be the right one, for strength and long
life. The first kiss should be planted on the forehead for oneness of mind, with eyes opened so that
his children will not be born blind. He should breathe lightly so that later in life he will have fewer
problems.
The girl wants to be assured that her marriage is accepted spiritually and that she will be his
wife even after life. For this reason, the bedding items have to be sanctified and be named in a
liturgical language. Permission is also granted to the groom to own the body of his wife and also
name her anatomical parts in liturgical speech.
Any sexual intercourse that is not done according to the natural way is considered abominable
in the eyes of the Yakan and will bring punishment from God on the culprit and his family.

Source: Sherfan, Andrew D. The Yakans of Basilan Island:

Another Unknown and Exotic Tribe of the Philippines. P. 76, 82

110 A Holistic Approach In Understanding The Self