1.

Pre-WWI balance of power (Saba)

Creation of Unified Germany in 1871 disturbed the whole balance of power in Europe. Bismarck’s
Germany was so well built that it was destined to dominate the whole European continent. Germany
was becoming increasingly strong both economically and militarily. Wilhelm II had but one goal to
cement German positions in the region. However, he made some tactless mistakes. He alienated himself
from Great Powers by massive military build-up and bold claims about colonies.

Austria Hungary and Germany were closely allied since 1879. Italy was also looking for allies after it lost
its colonial ambitions to the French. Each member promised mutual support in the event of an attack by
any other great power.

Austria-Hungary and Russia themselves had long standing disagreements in regards to Balkans. One of
the beginning points of the World War I was the collapse of Reinsurance Treaty signed. It was a secret
agreement between Germany and Russia arranged by Bismarck. The treaty provided that each party
would remain neutral if the other became involved in a war with a third great power and that this would
not apply if Germany attacked France or if Russia attacked Austria. Leo Von Caprivi, Bismarck’s successor
allowed it to expire believing it would provoke ottoman interests and Britain.

In the event of war, France wanted support against Germany; and Russia, against Austria-Hungary. The
two powers slowly came closer together, upsetting the system of alliances that had been established by
Otto von Bismarck to protect Germany against such a potential “two-front” threat. In August 1891 they
made a preliminary agreement to consult in case of aggression against either of them. This agreement
was strengthened by a military convention in August 1892.

Britain's policy was to maintain a balance of power in Europe. Germany's growing strength and manifest
pursuit of 'world power' status persuaded Britain to align with its traditional rivals: France in 1904 and
Russia in 1907. This connected Britain, France and Russia in the 'Triple Entente' and stoked German
fears of 'encirclement'. German nationalists viewed Britain as a barrier to their global ambitions and
German generals increasingly feared the growing military threat of Russia.

Britain alongside most major powers had also signed Treaty of London in 1839 which ensured neutrality
of Belgium.

France took leadership in establishing alliances. In 1907 Treaty was signed between japan and France.
Showcasing change of policy in Paris from total Russian support to the recognition of Japanese
dominance in east Asia. Two sides shared spheres of influence in Asia. France also negotiated key issues
with Britain during that time.

One thing has to be noted. Despite the spirit of Triple Entente, none of the treaties signed stipulated
that Britain would be obliged to join the side of Russia and France in the event of war. Britain’s main
reason for joining war was German Schlieffen plan which involved invading Belgium and violating treaty
of London.

2. The reasons behind WWI (me)

World War I, known as the "war to end all wars," occurred between 1914 and 1918. World War I began
after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire) in Bosnia by
the Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip. During the conflict, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the
Ottoman Empire (the Central Powers) fought against Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Romania, Japan
and the United States (the Allied Powers). But it was just catalyst of events, behind which there were
many other reasons:
  The struggle between superpowers for spheres of influence
 Unequal distribution of colonial possessions between superpowers (Germany's claims to
redefine the colonial world)
 The presence of "disputed" territories (for example, the Balkans, Alsace and Lorraine)
 Imperialist ambitions of the world's leading powers
 Widespread strengthening of nationalist sentiments
 Great Britain was afraid of German naval strength
 France wanted revenge against Germany
 Russia and Austria-Hungary wanted to strengthen their positions in the Balkans
 Militarism (Arms race, Military-political blocs)

3. Pre-WWI US – Europe relations (Nino)

Though actual battle never touched her shores, America’s participation in World War I marked the
nation’s first departure from its historic isolationist policy. The United States prior to World War I was
an economic superpower, its wealth and industrial output rivalling those of the much older imperialist
powers of Europe. While engaging in undeclared imperialism elsewhere, America maintained an
isolationist policy with regard to Europe, preferring to keep clear of European tensions or politics.

This approach was dubbed the Washington Doctrine. Its core premise was to avoid signing “entangling
alliances” that would draw the United States or its foreign policy into European rivalries.

In summary, the United States engaged in expansion and imperialism in its own spheres but avoided
imperial competition with the major European powers, Spain notwithstanding. Washington also
remained aloof from the European network of military alliances that evolved between 1880 and 1914.

While European powers, and Japan, engaged in an intense scramble for colonial possessions in Africa
and Asia, the United States stood aloof. This began to change in 1893. By the early 1880s, the United
States had a small army stationed at scattered Western forts, and an old fashioned wooden navy. By
1890 the U.S. began investment in new naval technology. At the outbreak of fighting in 1914, the United
States remained on the sidelines of World War I, adopting the policy of neutrality favored by President
Woodrow Wilson while continuing to engage in commerce and shipping with European countries on
both sides of the conflict.

Neutrality, however, was increasing difficult to maintain in the face of Germany’s unchecked submarine
aggression against neutral ships, including those carrying passengers. In 1915, Germany declared the
waters surrounding the British Isles to be a war zone, and German U-boats sunk several commercial and
passenger vessels, including some U.S. ships.

Widespread protest over the sinking by U-boat of the British ocean liner Lusitania—traveling from New
York to Liverpool, England with hundreds of American passengers onboard—in May 1915 helped turn
the tide of American public opinion against Germany. In February 1917, Congress passed a $250 million
arms appropriations bill intended to make the United States ready for war. Germany sunk four more
U.S. merchant ships the following month, and on April 2 Woodrow Wilson appeared before Congress
and called for a declaration of war against Germany.

4. The role of France in WWI and its aftermath (me)

France's participation in world war I, briefly, began on August 3, 1914, when it was declared war by the
German Empire. The German government explained its move by saying that the French troops violated
the neutrality of Belgium, and were also guilty of aerial bombing of German territories. From the very
first days of France's participation in world war I, one of the main fronts of this conflict was formed,
which was called the Western one. About 480 km long and 500 km wide, it stretches from the Scheldt to
the Swiss border and from the Rhine to Calais. France was the major allied power in WW1 and had the
biggest army in War on the Western Front. The Battle of Verdun, which happened to be the longest
battle in WW1, was won by the French on February 21, 1916. French diplomacy seized the opportunity
to sign the Franco-Russian alliance in 1892, followed by the “Entente Cordiale” with the British in 1904.
This group formed the Triple Entente (1907) to counter the Triple Alliance (1891) of Germany, Austria-
Hungary and Italy.

While Wilson sought a softer peace for Germany, Clemenceau and the French wished to permanently
weaken their neighbor economically and militarily. In addition to the return of Alsace-Lorraine, which
had been taken by Germany following the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871), Clemenceau argued in
favor of heavy war reparations and the separation of the Rhineland to create buffer state between
France and Germany. Furthermore, Clemenceau sought British and American assurances of aid should
Germany ever attack France.

According to the peace Treaty signed at Versailles at the end of the war, France received back Alsace
and Lorraine. She was also granted the right to use Samara coal. In addition, part of the colonial
possessions of Germany was transferred to it.

At the same time, France, like most European countries, suffered huge losses. Destroyed homes,
factories and factories, almost unprofitable economy, huge external debt and incomparable human
losses. In that war, about 5 million soldiers and officers were injured, almost 1.3 million were killed, 2.8
million were injured, and the rest were captured. In addition, almost 200,000 French civilians were
affected by the

conflict.

5. The role of Austro-Hungary in WWI (Nino)

Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I, it was a part of Triple Alliance. World
War I began after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire)
in Bosnia by the Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip. So, that event became a catalyst for the beginning of
the war. And Austria-Hungary played the role of the beginner of the already inevitable war. Because of a
tangle of alliances and treaties, other European powers declared war in a chain reaction, plunging the
entire continent into war within a week. Austria-Hungarian government sought assurances from their
ally, Germany, and that they would come to Austria-Hungary's aid should Russia declared war on
Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary's reaction to the death of their heir was three weeks later. Saying that
the Serbian government was involved in the plots of the Black Hand, the Austronesian-Hungarians chose
to take the opportunity to blame fault upon the Serbians, crushing the nationalist movement in Serbia
and cementing Austria-Hungary's influence in the Balkans. With this purpose Austro-Hungary quickly
sent Serbia an ultimatum, which in fact, nullified Serbia's sovereignty. Germany readily agreed, and even
encouraged Austria-Hungary's warlike stance. Austria, egged on by their German allies, and declared
war on the 28th July 1914.

7. Treaty of Versailles (Nino)

The Versailles Treaty, signed on June 28, 1919 in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles in Paris,
was the peace settlement between Germany and the Allied Powers that officially ended World War I.
However, the conditions in the treaty were so punitive upon Germany that many believe the Versailles
Treaty laid the groundwork for the eventual rise of Nazis in Germany and the eruption of World War II.
President Woodrow Wilson of the United States, Prime Minister David Lloyd George of Britain, Prime
Minister Georges Clemenceau of France, and Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando of Italy who came to
dominate the talks. As defeated nations, Germany, Austria, and Hungary were prohibited from
attending, as was Bolshevik Russia which was in the midst of a civil war. Germany, Austria-Hungary,
Turkey and Bulgaria - were not invited to participate. Discussions confirmed to be challenging. The
treaty was drawn up during a peace conference in Paris on 18 January; Germany had no say, while the
Allies discussed the issue on their own, unable to agree between themselves: France wanted to
eliminate the German threat definitively and to paralyze the nation, Britain wanted to retain its status,
the United States fantasized of a peaceful future by creating League of Nations. The treaty was finally
presented to German and it signed the "diktat" on June 28, 1919. There can be no doubt that the
conditions were quite harsh. Lost 68,000 square kilometers of land including Alsace and Lorraine,
annexed in 1870, and 8 million residents. Poland, which gained access to the sea via the famed "Polish
Corridor," was granted part of western Prussia and Germany agreed to pay the crushing amount of 20
billion gold marks in reparations demanded by France. Huge economic destruction that basically caused
Hyperinflation and 42 billion German marks were worth 1 American penny. Moreover, it lost much of its
agricultural and mineral production. The most humiliating blame was War guilt Cause that only blamed
Germany for starting the WW1, even though AustriaHungary was also responsible.

The first part of the Versailles Treaty established the League of Nations. Other parts included the terms
of military limitations, prisoners of war, finances, access to ports and waterways, and reparations. The
most controversial aspect of the Versailles Treaty was that Germany was to take full responsibility for
the damage caused during World War I.

Also enraging was Article 227 in Part VII, which stated the Allies intention of charging German Emperor
Wilhelm II with "supreme offence against international morality and the sanctity of treaties." Wilhelm II
was to be tried in front of a tribunal made up of five judges.

The terms of the Versailles Treaty were so seemingly hostile to Germany that German Chancellor Philipp
Scheidemann resigned rather than sign it. However, Germany realized they had to sign it for they had no
military power left to resist.

8. Rise of Nazi party in Germany and its reasons (Nino)

The Nazi Party was a political party in Germany, led by Adolf Hitler from 1921 to 1945. In the immediate
post-World War I period, Germany was the scene of widespread political infighting between groups
representing the far left and far right. After his service in the German Army (Reichswehr) during World
War I, Adolf Hitler had difficulty reintegrating into civilian society. He eagerly accepted a job serving the
Army as a civilian spy and informant, a task that required him to attend meetings of German political
parties identified as subversive by the newly formed Weimar government. This job appealed to Hitler,
particularly because it allowed him to feel that was still serving a purpose to the military for which he
would have eagerly given his life. On September 12, 1919, this position took him to a meeting of the
German Worker’s Party (DAP).

Hitler’s influence on the Nazi Party continued to draw members. As the party grew, Hitler also began to
shift his focus more strongly towards antisemitic views and German expansionism. To conclude, the
economic turmoil in Germany witnessed the emergence of Adolph Hitler. And yes, radical right-wingers
gained support in the 1920s and 30s by pledging to restore the humiliation of the Treaty of Versailles.

Since the Great Depression began in 1929 the already fragile Weimar Regime was weakened and the
disastrous emergence of Adolf Hitler to power in 1933 layed the foundations for Nazis. For many
Germans the reconstruction and weakening of the German military was devastating, largely because the
German military and the press lied to the public about the war. Hitler pledged himself not only to
compensate, but to reverse the whole Treaty. During Hitler’s rule Germany made no payments.
Vengeance about the fantasized betrayal, contributed to fuel the rise of populism and nationalism to
Hitler who violated the Treaty with the rearmament of Germany, he also disobeyed certain rules,
including militarizing Rhineland and entering an Austrian union. Since the British and French were
tormented by their 1938 territorial requests for Czechoslovakia to offer up one another part under the
Versailles Treaty, the Nazi dictator felt sufficiently energetic to conquer Poland to begin the WW2 in
1939.

9. The reasons behind WWII (Nino)

Many of the seeds of World War II in Europe were sown by the Treaty of Versailles that ended World
War I. In its final form, the treaty placed full blame for the war on Germany and Austria-Hungary, as well
as exacted harsh financial reparations and led to territorial dismemberment. The instability created in
Europe by the First World War (1914-18) set the stage for another international conflict–World War II–
which broke out two decades later and would prove even more devastating. Rising to power in an
economically and politically unstable Germany, Adolf Hitler and his National Socialist (Nazi Party)
rearmed the nation and signed strategic treaties with Italy and Japan to further his ambitions of world
domination. But here are some really important pre-ww2 reasons:

 The Nazis Assume Power- on March 23, 1933, the Nazis essentially took control of the
government by passing the Enabling Acts. Meant to be an emergency measure, the acts gave
the cabinet (and Hitler) the power to pass legislation without the approval of the Reichstag.
Hitler next moved to consolidate his power and executed a purge of the party (The Night of the
Long Knives) to eliminate those who could threaten his position.
 Germany Remilitarizes - On March 16, 1935, in clear violation of the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler
ordered the remilitarization of Germany, including the reactivation of the Luftwaffe (air force).
Hitler further violated the treaty by ordering the reoccupation of the Rhineland by the German
Army. Proceeding cautiously, Hitler issued orders that the German troops should withdrawal if
the French intervened. Not wanting to become involved in another major war, Britain and
France avoided intervening and sought a resolution, with little success, through the League of
Nations.
 The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact - Stalin entered into talks with Britain and France regarding a
potential alliance. In the summer of 1939, with the talks stalling, the Soviets began discussions
with Nazi Germany regarding the creation of a non-aggression pact. Also included in the pact
were secret clauses dividing Eastern Europe into spheres of influence as well as plans for the
partition of Poland, but that didn’t work out because the WW2 started with exactly, German
invading Poland.

11. WWII aftermath (Nino)

World War II left the world a different place. It had taken an estimated 40 to 70 million lives and
destroyed much of Europe. It brought about the splitting of Germany into East and West and created
two major superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. Hoping to prevent a total war from
ever happening again, representatives from 50 countries met together in San Francisco and founded the
United Nations, officially created on October 24, 1945.

the final meeting of the Big Three took place at Potsdam, Germany between July 17 and August 2, 1945.
Representing the United States was new president Harry S. Truman, who had succeeded to the office
following Roosevelt's death in April. Britain was initially represented by Churchill, however, he was
replaced by new Prime Minister Clement Attlee following Labor's victory in the 1945 general election. As
before, Stalin represented the Soviet Union. The principal goals of the conference were to begin
designing the postwar world, negotiating treaties, and dealing with other issues raised by the defeat of
Germany. The conference largely ratified many of the decisions agreed to at Yalta and stated that the
goals of the occupation of Germany would be demilitarization, denazification, democratization, and
decartelization. In regards to Poland, the conference confirmed the territorial changes and gave
recognition to the Soviet-backed provisional government.

With the end to the war, the Allied powers began occupations of both Japan and Germany. In the Far
East, US troops took possession of Japan and were aided by British Commonwealth forces in the
reconstruction and demilitarization of the country.

As the politics of postwar Europe were taking shape, efforts were made to rebuild the continent's
shattered economy. US (Marshal’s Plan) to aid democratic governments.

On June 24, 1948, the Soviets initiated the first action of the Cold War by shutting down all access to
Western-occupied West Berlin. To combat the "Berlin Blockade," the Western Allies began the Berlin
Airlift, which transported desperately needed food and fuel to the beleaguered city.

as tensions rose and the Cold War began, the issue of Germany remained unresolved. Though two
nations had been created from pre-war Germany, Berlin technically remained occupied and no final
settlement had been concluded. For the next 45 years, Germany was on the front lines of the Cold War.

12. The role of nuclear weapons in the cold war diplomacy (Sandro)

Nuclear technology played a huge role in the Cold War. It was one of the main factors why the Cold War
even started. At that time, many countries that could afford to do so, started a nuclear weapons
program. But before cold war, After the first successful test of the atomic bomb in 1945, U.S. officials
immediately considered the potential non-military benefits that could be derived from the American
nuclear monopoly. that exact monopoly, allowed U.S to consider Atomic diplomacy, an attempts to use
the threat of nuclear warfare to achieve diplomatic goals and in the years that followed, there were
several occasions in which government officials used or considered atomic diplomacy, however
Eventually USSR also created Nuclear weapon, which restored the Balance of power in the world as U.S
had no way to pressure on USSR and sustain power hegemony, however it caused another problem, The
Cold War, the ideological and political tension between those 2 existing super-nations. The rivalry
between those countries also caused the Nuclear Arms Race, during this very period, in addition to the
American and Soviet nuclear stockpiles, other countries developed nuclear weapons, though none
engaged in warhead production on nearly the same scale as the two superpowers. The tensest situation
Because of Nuclear weapons became the Cuban Missile Crisis, which often considered the closest the
Cold War came to escalating into a full-scale nuclear war, however 3rd world war never happened.
Some would argue that The existence of such deadly weapon as Atomic bomb guaranteed the peace
among whole world, as Using them against one another would be considered as suicide.

13. Division of Germany (Saba)

The big three—Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (replaced on July 26
by Prime Minister Clement Attlee), and US President Harry Truman-met in Potsdam, Germany, from July
17 to August 2, 1945, to discuss the terms of the end of world war II.

The conference had an extensive agenda that included reparations, the future of Germany, and the
status of the German allies. The Potsdam conference soon descended into a dialogue of the deaf. All
sides insisted on their own plans. Thus, Potsdam achieved little. But all three agreed on certain issues,
such as the German division. The Soviet army took control of East Germany. The Americans assumed
responsibility for southern and Central Germany. The British sector included the North of Germany.
France also received a portion of territory in the South in recognition of its contribution to the allied
cause. Berlin, the capital of Germany, was also divided into 4 zones. The Nazi annexations that had taken
place since 1936 were also completely abolished (Sudetenland, Alsace-Lorraine). Austria also had to
become independent in order to weaken Germany's future position in the region. The Soviets shifted
Germany's Eastern border to the West, extending the Polish border to compensate for the land they
themselves occupied in Eastern Poland. As a result, more than 10 million Germans ended up outside
Germany, on the other side of the Oder-Neisse line. As a result of expulsions and mass migrations, about
half a million people died.

14. Berlin Crisis (me)

The Berlin crisis is considered one of the most tense moments of the Cold war. It is believed that the
beginning of it was laid back in 1958, when Nikita Khrushchev on November 27 declared the “Berlin
ultimatum”. But the peak was in 1961 – the period from June to November.

After the war, the defeated Germany was divided between the winning countries into 4 parts. The
capital of the state also consisted of several occupation zones. Each district of Germany was
characterized by a different political ideology. In the Eastern part, socialism was being built, and in the
Western zones, capitalism was being built.

The contradictions between the Eastern and Western parts became more acute after the monetary
reform. The old REICHSMARK was devalued, and the state needed a new currency. Stalin called for a
unified reform for all areas of the state, but the United States decided to do it on its own. Fearing
inflation and economic collapse, the Soviet government banned the import of the new currency to the
Eastern part of Germany.

In 1948, the Soviet authorities isolated West Berlin from other areas. Thus began the First Berlin crisis.
The conflict of the Eastern and Western part of Germany was used as a pretext for the annexation of
West Berlin to the Soviet zone.

In response to the aggressive policy of the USSR, the West banned trade with the Soviet zone. Some us
politicians have openly called for declaring war on Russia. The Soviet Union and America moved their
troops to Germany. In May 1949, the blockade of West Berlin was lifted, but diplomatic relations
between Russia and the United States were hopelessly damaged. In Germany, 2 republics are formed
with different ideologies: Germany and the GDR.

The USSR did not give up trying to Annex West Berlin. In November 1958, Khrushchev briefly expressed
his opinion to the government of the United States, France, and England. The essence of his ultimatum
was that the Western part of Berlin should be granted sovereignty. This would allow the capital to be
included in the GDR. America and France refused to comply. The Second Berlin crisis began.

There was no clear border between the GDR and the FRG. Citizens of the republics could move freely
from one part of the state to another. Special checkpoints were set up for this purpose, and there were
several dozen illegal crossings. The lack of a border created many problems.

The problem was exacerbated by the production race between the German zones. The GDR government
sought to overtake the enemy in production. To achieve this goal, many citizens were forced to work in
enterprises, but the salary was several times less than in Germany. The discontented population
hastened to move to the Western part of the state. In 1953, a political workers ' strike took place in the
GDR. We decided to get rid of the accumulated problems by building a concrete wall. This led to a sharp
escalation of the conflict. Troops began to converge on the borders of the GDR and Germany.

The US reaction to the construction of the wall was sharply negative. The American government feared
a repeat of the blockade of West Berlin. At the end of August 1961, President Kennedy put the troops on
full alert. Officers were developing a plan to destroy a concrete fence in Germany. On October 27, 1961,
American troops were drawn to the wall. This date in history is known as the tank standoff at the
checkpoint "Charlie". The army units stopped just a few meters from the border, waiting for orders from
the command. The GDR government immediately responded by sending armored personnel carriers and
Soviet tanks to the checkpoint. The conflict was psychological in nature. But just one shot could lead not
only to fighting in Germany, but also to the beginning of a nuclear war between the USSR and the United
States. After lengthy negotiations between Khrushchev and Kennedy, the combat units of both sides
dispersed.

The tank confrontation did not involve an armed clash. But relations between the US and America have
become even more heated. Within a few years, the Caribbean crisis and a new phase of the cold war will
begin.

15. Early Cold War Diplomacy (Saba)

All three members of the victorious Grand Alliance – Britain, the US and the USSR – wished to continue
their alliance, yet for this alliance to survive there needed to be either a common danger or agreement
between its members on key principles. In post-war Europe this was no longer the case. Publically,
Roosevelt had stressed the importance of the Declaration on Liberated Europe but had privately
recognized that Britain and the US had little option but to accept Soviet predominance in eastern
Europe. When, only two weeks after the Yalta Agreement, the Soviets imposed a puppet government on
Romania, Roosevelt made no complaint to Stalin.

Roosevelt was replaced by Truman, as his health deteriorated. He was both more aggressive and
decisive, but less experienced than Roosevelt. He became President at a point when the government of
the US was becoming increasingly concerned about Soviet policies in Poland, and was considering
curtailing lend–lease shipments to the USSR, except for material to be used for the war on Japan. The US
hoped that this might persuade Stalin to become more co-operative in carrying out the Yalta
Agreement. In fact, the policy had the opposite effect and, unsurprisingly, merely succeeded in giving
Stalin the impression that the US was trying to extract political concessions through crude economic
pressure.

Allies then agreed on the establishment of the General Assembly of the United Nations in which all
member nations would be represented, and on the Security Council. Britain, the US, the USSR and the
China would be permanent members of this, with the right to veto any decision decided upon by the
Assembly. The Soviets attempted to increase their influence by demanding that the sixteen member
republics of the USSR should also become members of the UN but they were rejected and only two
soviet states alongside Soviet Union was allowed in Assembly

Thus, Stalin was back to his old way of conducting foreign policy, and demanded large amounts of lands
for his victories. His demands got harsher and harsher. He never really understood why West was so
obsessed with domestic structures of eastern Europe. He was a realist to the core. He believed west was
scheming something in the eastern Europe when they expressed their concerns for Soviet policy in
Poland.

He deployed same policy towards US as he did towards Hitler. Both times, facing a terrifying opponent,
instead of making concessions, Stalin chose to consolidating his positions and tried to bluff his potential
adversaries into believing that he was much more likely to march farther west than retreat. And in each
case, he miscalculated his opponent’s reactions.

The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan marked the real beginning of the Cold War and of US military
and economic engagement in western Europe. Together they helped ensure capitalism and democratic
governments in much of western and southern Europe while limiting the political and economic
influence of the Soviet Union and its satellite states.

On 12 March, Truman appealed to Congress by outlining his views on the state of international politics,
highlighting the increasing divide between the US and the Soviets Union. He outlined plans for
financially assisting states which were perceived to be threatened by communism.

Initially Stalin dismissed this speech as an exercise in propaganda. It was soon clear, however, that this
was the beginning of a new US policy which was rapidly supplemented by substantial economic aid
through the Marshall Plan.

In June 1947, US Secretary of State George Marshall made his historic offer of aid for Europe. The key to
it was that the Europeans must help themselves while the US would provide the money. Soviets
pressured eastern European states such as Czechoslovakia to not attend the Paris talks as well. In spring
1948, the US Congress approved a programme for $5 billion as the first instalment of Marshall Plan aid.

As an answer to New US policies and in order to prevent the spread of US economic and political
influence, communist governments were to be fully supported where possible. Communist information
Bureau was formed in 1947 to co-ordinate policies and tactics of communist parties in both the satellite
states and in western Europe. Countering US influence also meant that co-operating with moderate
socialists and liberals in the governments of Hungary, Czechoslovakia and other eastern European states
would now end, and local communist parties, following the Soviet model, would work to take over all
political power in the region.

By the end of 1947, eastern Europe, with the exception of Finland, had fallen under Soviet control. The
US and Britain, despite Truman’s declaration to Congress, were not ready to risk the outbreak of war
with the USSR by intervening directly in the affairs of eastern Europe. Their priority was to prevent the
spread of communism to western Europe.

16. Korean War and its aftermath (me)

The Korean war was a local war between North and South Korea (June 25, 1950-July 27, 1953). South
Korea was supported by the capitalist countries of the United States, Great Britain, and Australia. North
Korea was supported by the USSR and China.

Reasons:

After the Russian-Japanese war (1904 – 1905), Korea became a colony of Japan. At the end of the
Second world war, the allies came to an agreement on the disarmament of forces of the USSR North
Korea and US forces the South. They divided Korea along the 38th parallel (where the border of these
two States still runs). At first, this division was planned as a temporary measure, but the situation
changed when the cold war began.

South Korea became a capitalist state, and North Korea became a Communist state.

The leaders of these two countries, Kim Il-Sung and Lee Seung-Man, were not satisfied with this state of
Affairs. According to the Constitution of the DPRK, their capital was considered to be Seoul, which was
located on the territory of South Korea. Pyongyang was considered the temporary capital.
On the side of North Korea, the USSR and China fought. Peng Dehuai was appointed commander-in-
chief of the" volunteer detachments", which included the Chinese military. On the side of South Korea,
was a number of countries, besides the US and some European countries were still, Turkey, Philippines,
South Africa, Australia, New Zealand.

War:

The war started suddenly, on June 25, 1950, North Korean troops crossed the border into South Korea.
North Korea's military forces were strong and well equipped. The South Korean army was less prepared,
small in number, and had virtually no tanks or planes. Three days later, the North Korean army captured
Seoul. Despite the fact that it controlled almost 90% of the territory of South Korea, a lightning victory
did not happen. Meanwhile, the UN security Council was urgently convened in New York, and a
significant military force was sent to help South Korea. Initially the UN troops failed, but then the North
Korean army became significantly smaller than the international troops. A long war began, each side of
which operated with varying success. In July 1951, the opponents began talking about a truce. Although
negotiations began, the fighting did not stop. In the spring of 1953, Stalin died and the USSR decided
that it was time to stop the war. Without the help of the Soviet Union, North Korea did not dare to
continue fighting. Therefore, on July 27, 1953, an agreement on the cessation of hostilities was signed in
the village of Panmunjom on the border of North and South Korea. According to this agreement, a four-
kilometer neutral zone was established between the two States, as well as rules for the return of
prisoners of war.

Results:

The Korean war is the first serious conflict in the history of the cold war.it was after this conflict that the
confrontation between the two world blocs took a more acute form. The territory of Korea remained
divided into two Koreas: The North "Pro-Communist" and the South "Pro-capitalist".

Both countries suffered huge economic losses, infrastructure, large enterprises, and government
buildings were severely destroyed. Human losses amounted to about 15 million, from the DPRK, almost
900 thousand of them were Chinese. On the part of South Korea, about 1 million, about 150 thousand,
American troops.

23. Cuban missile crisis (Nino)

The Cuban Missile Crisis was a tense 13-day-long (October 16-28, 1962) confrontation between the
United States and the Soviet Union triggered by America’s discovery of nuclear-capable Soviet ballistic
missile deployment in Cuba. the crisis pushed the limits of atomic diplomacy and is generally considered
the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full-scale nuclear war.

In April 1961, the U.S. government backed a group of Cuban exiles in an armed attempt to overthrow
communist Cuban dictator Fidel Castro. The infamous assault, known as the Bay of Pigs invasion, failed
miserably.

In July 1962, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, in response to the Bay of Pigs and the presence of
American Jupiter ballistic missiles Turkey, secretly agreed with Fidel Castro to avoid surprises from US.

On October 26th the EXCOMM recieved a letter from Russian leader Nikita Kruschev stating that he
would agree to remove the weapons if America would guarantee not to invade Cuba.

On Sunday 28th October Kruschev called a meeting of his advisors. The Russians were aware that
President Kennedy was scheduled to address the American people at 5pm that day. Fearing that it could
be an announcement of war Kruschev decided to agree to the terms and rushed a response to reach the
President before 5pm. The crisis was over. The Russians duly removed their bases from Cuba and as
agreed US missiles were quietly removed from Turkey some months later.

Results?

Finally, Nikita Krushchev, who created the crisis, brought it to an end by backing down and agreeing to
remove the weapons. In an effort to help him save face, Kennedy made it clear to everyone around him
that there would be no gloating over this victory. Castro, on the other hand was quite different in his
response. When he learned that the missiles were being packed up, Castro let loose with a tirade of
cursing at Krushchev’s betrayal. The Soviets had a long track record of breaking most of their previous
agreements. LeMay considered the final negotiated settlement the greatest appeasement since Munich.
By breaking his word to Kennedy and placing missiles in the western hemisphere, Krushchev secured the
ceremonial removal of the United States’ antiquated medium range missiles from Turkey in exchange
for retrieving the missiles in Cuba.

24. Afghan war 1979-1989 (me)

The Afghan war is a military conflict on the territory of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA). A
limited contingent of Soviet troops took part in this conflict. The conflict took place between the
government forces of Afghanistan and the armed formations of the Afghan Mujahideen, which were
supported by NATO, and primarily by the United States, which actively armed the enemies of the Afghan
regime.

In 1978, the Saurian (April) revolution took place, and the new government was the People's Democratic
Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), which proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Afghanistan
began to build socialism, but all construction took place in an extremely unstable internal environment.
The leader of the PDPA was Nur Mohammad Taraki. His reforms were extremely unpopular in a country
where the traditional majority was rural. Any dissent was severely suppressed. During his reign, he
arrested thousands of people, some of whom were executed. The main opponent of the socialist
government were radical Islamists who declared a Holy war (Jihad) against it. Mujahideen detachments
were organized, which later became the main opposing force – the Soviet army fought against it. It must
be remembered that, apart from strained relations with the Mujahideen, there was no unity in the
government itself. The majority of the population of Afghanistan was illiterate, and it was not difficult
for Islamist agitators to turn the population against the new government.

Entry of Soviet troops:

Immediately after coming to power, the government was faced with the beginning of armed
insurgencies organized by Islamists. The Afghan leadership could not cope with the situation and turned
to Moscow for help. The issue of assistance to Afghanistan was discussed in the Kremlin on March 19,
1979. Leonid Brezhnev and other Politburo members opposed armed intervention. But over time, the
situation at the borders of the USSR worsened, and the opinion changed dramatically. On December 12,
1979, a resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU on the introduction of Soviet troops into
Afghanistan was adopted.

The entire war can be divided into several stages:

1st stage: December 1979-February 1980. Introduction of the 40th Soviet army of General Boris Gromov
to Afghanistan, placement in garrisons, organization of protection of strategic objects and places of
deployment.
2nd stage: March 1980-April 1985. Conducting active large-scale military operations. Reorganization and
strengthening of the DRA armed forces.

Stage 3: May 1985-December 1986. Reduction of active hostilities and transition to support for the
actions of the Afghan government troops. Assistance was provided by the air force and sapper units.
Organization of counteraction to the delivery of weapons and ammunition from abroad. Six regiments
were brought Home.

Stage 4: January 1987-February 1989. Assistance to the Afghan leadership in implementing a policy of
national reconciliation. Continued support for the fighting conducted by government forces. Preparation
for the withdrawal of Soviet troops.

The United States of America provided great assistance in supporting the counter-revolution in
Afghanistan. They were the initiators and organizers of many international protests against the Soviet
Union. During the entire period of hostilities, the United States supplied the Mujahideen with a variety
of modern weapons.

Results:

In April 1988, an agreement was signed in Switzerland between Afghanistan and Pakistan to resolve the
situation around the DRA. The Soviet Union pledged to withdraw its troops within nine months, and the
United States and Pakistan had to stop supporting the Mujahideen. In April 1988, in accordance with the
Treaty, Soviet troops were completely withdrawn from Afghanistan. The Mujahideen did not participate
in the Geneva talks and did not support these decisions. As a result, after the withdrawal of Soviet
troops, the fighting did not stop, but even intensified. The new leader of Afghanistan, Najibullah, could
barely contain the Mujahideen onslaught without Soviet help. There was a split in his government, and
many of his associates joined the opposition. In March 1992, General Dostum and his Uzbek militia
withdrew from Najibullah. In April, the Mujahideen captured Kabul. Najibullah hid for a long time in the
building of the UN mission, but was captured by the Taliban and hanged.

25. Anti-Soviet protests in the Eastern Europe (Sandro)

In the Eastern European countries of USSR in 1950s were the place of massive apprising’s and protests.
The most popular and important of those Protests Are Hungarian Revolution and Poznań protests of
1956. A spontaneous national uprising that began 12 days before in Hungary is viciously crushed by
Soviet tanks and troops on November 4, 1956. Thousands were killed and wounded and nearly a
quarter-million Hungarians fled the country.

The problems in Hungary began in October 1956, when thousands of protesters took to the streets
demanding a more democratic political system and freedom from Soviet oppression. In response,
Communist Party officials appointed Imre Nagy, a former premier who had been dismissed from the
party for his criticisms of Stalinist policies, as the new premier. Nagy tried to restore peace and asked
the Soviets to withdraw their troops. The Soviets did so, but Nagy then tried to push the Hungarian
revolt forward by abolishing one-party rule. He also announced that Hungary was withdrawing from the
Warsaw Pact (the Soviet bloc’s equivalent of NATO). On November 4, 1956, Soviet tanks rolled into
Budapest to crush, once and for all, the national uprising. Vicious street fighting broke out, but the
Soviets’ great power ensured victory. At 5:20 a.m., Hungarian Prime Minister Imre Nagy announced the
invasion to the nation in a grim, 35-second broadcast, declaring: “Our troops are fighting. The
Government is in place.” Within hours, though, Nagy sought asylum at the Yugoslav Embassy in
Budapest. He was captured shortly thereafter and executed two years later. Nagy’s former colleague
and imminent replacement, János Kádár, who had been flown secretly from Moscow to the city of
Szolnok, 60 miles southeast of the capital, prepared to take power with Moscow’s backing. The Soviet
action stunned many people in the West. Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev had pledged a retreat from
the Stalinist policies and repression of the past, but the violent actions in Budapest suggested otherwise.
An estimated 2,500 Hungarians died and 200,000 more fled as refugees. Sporadic armed resistance,
strikes and mass arrests continued for months thereafter, causing substantial economic disruption.
Inaction on the part of the United States angered and frustrated many Hungarians. Voice of America
radio broadcasts and speeches by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Secretary of State John Foster
Dulles had recently suggested that the United States supported the “liberation” of “captive peoples” in
communist nations. Yet, as Soviet tanks bore down on the protesters, the United States did nothing
beyond issuing public statements of sympathy for their plight.The Poznań Riots, or the '1956 Uprising',
was the first recognized strike and street demonstration in Communist Poland. The death of Joseph
Stalin in 1953 provoked a certain degree of optimism among Poles, promising an end to the social and
political terror associated with the Soviet Union’s hegemony of Central and Eastern Europe. Hopes were
short-lived, however, as Nikita Khruschev’s address to the 20th Convention of the USSR’s Communist
Party in 1956 spoke of strengthening socialism’s grip on the East, and of the dangers of individualism.
Simmering with discontent the Polish media helped stir local discord and on June 28th strikes broke out
in Poznań’s factories – first in the Stalin brick factory (later the ‘Hipolita Cegielskiego Factory’), before
spreading to the city’s other major industrial plants. An estimated 100,000 workers descended on the
Municipal National Council (now the Zamek building), chanting slogans like ‘Bread and Freedom’ and
‘Out with Bolshevism,’ while demanding lower prices, higher wages and a reduction in work quotas.
Initially peaceful, the protests took a violent turn when it was revealed that the team negotiating on
behalf of the strikers in Warsaw had been arrested and detained by the authorities. Infuriated, the
demonstrators stormed Poznań prison, liberating 257 inmates, destroying records and seizing
armaments. Armed with assorted small arms and petrol bombs, the insurgents marched back to the city
centre to continue their protests. With a volatile atmosphere threatening to run out of control, the
communist authorities reacted by deploying 10,300 soldiers, 400 tanks and 30 armoured personnel
carriers to Poznań. Fierce street battles followed, but with the city cut off from the outside world, order
was quickly restored by June 30th. The clashes officially left 76 civilians and eight soldiers dead, with
over 600 strikers injured.

There were also not so famous Protests during that time in whole eastern europe, for example 1956
Georgian demonstrations, where spontaneous rallies to mark the third anniversary of Stalin's death and
to protest Khrushchev's denunciation of Stalin quickly evolved into an uncontrollable mass
demonstration and rioting which paralyzed the city. Soon, political demands such as the change of the
central government in Moscow and calls for the independence of Georgia from the Soviet Union
appeared, however just like other protests Soviet army forces stopped the uprising killing dozens to
hundreds of peaceful protesters.

26. Tito and the Soviet Union (Sandro)

During the Second World war, Yugoslavia could have, in some way been viewed as an ally, or at least a
strategic military partner of the Allies (including the USSR), due to its forced occupation by Axis Powers.
Among the several groups resisting the Axis forces was a group led by a man called Josip Broz Tito. Tito
was a Communist leader and led the largest resistance group against the Axis powers in Yugoslavia and
with some help from the Soviets, managed to drive out the Nazis and Fascists from Yugoslavia by 1945.
After the end of the war, Tito formed the government in Yugoslavia. This was before a number of
clashes between Yugoslavia and the Western European powers over territory and Yugoslavia openly
supporting the Communist side in the Greek War of Independence. Stalin chose to be a little timid at this
point and held back from supporting them too much due to his belief in the lack of Soviet power
compared to American-Western European power at that point of time. This didn’t help Tito trust Stalin
more. Relations soured further in 1947 during the first COMINFORM meeting, despite being set up in
Belgrade, a number of divisive issues came up between Yugoslavia and the Soviets. The most pervasive
problem emerged, however, from Tito’s refusal to let the Soviet influence dominate his own regional
aspirations. The Soviets wanted puppet states, as in Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia and so on, in the
region, and Tito refused to become that. Naturally, this was an element of contention between them.
Tito’s decision to completely abandon the Soviet bloc was fueled by his fear that Stalin’s expansionist
ambitions would swallow up Yugoslavia. It was seen in Yugoslavia not attending the second
COMINFORM meeting, accepting US aid via the Marshall Plan and being one of the five founding
members of the Non-Aligned Movement (alongside India, Egypt, Ghana and Indonesia), a group of
nations committed to not join either the US or Soviet blocs during the Cold War and remain neutral.
Needless to say, Soviet-Yugoslav relations did not improve over time and eventually both ended up
collapsing and splintering in the 1990s.

27. The end of cold war and its reasons

throughout the 1980s, the Soviet Union fought an increasingly frustrating war in Afghanistan. At the
same time, the Soviet economy faced the continuously escalating costs of the arms race. Dissent at
home grew while the stagnant economy faltered under the combined burden. Attempted reforms at
home left the Soviet Union unwilling to rebuff challenges to its control in Eastern Europe. During 1989
and 1990, the Berlin Wall came down, borders opened, and free elections ousted Communist regimes
everywhere in eastern Europe. In late 1991 the Soviet Union itself dissolved into its component
republics. With stunning speed, the Iron Curtain was lifted and the Cold War came to an end. The
biggest impulse for ending a Cold War was an ideological bankruptcy of the communist ideology. The
communist block lost whatever prestige it had left among its local society in every level of the
government and there was nobody left willing to defend this defunct system. The highest leadership of
the communist party with M. Gorbachev realized that the system in all possible aspects of the society
lagged and lacked behind the West. The West had won ideologically. Prosperous economies with full
stores were contrast with gray, empty shelved life in the East. Remember, that Cold War did not end in
the battlefield, nor was USSR defeated by military means by the West. Also, Economical strength to
maintain Cold War was gone. Through the late 70's and in the 80's, the Soviet bloc went from stagnation
to deep economic decline where problems with a centrally planned economy became evident.
Shortages were widespread, investment into industries lagged, technology became obsolete, utilities
collapsed, and infrastructure deteriorated. Energy crises was quit common through 80's and Eastern
block was willing to open up their economies to the West. The reforms in Hungary and later in Poland
and USSR laid foundation for market oriented policies.

28. The balance of power after Cold War (me)

The balance of power changed dramatically after the end of the Cold war, and its effects were felt
around the world (take, for example, Pakistan, which felt abandoned by the United States after the fall
of the Soviets). At the same time, the Collapse of the USSR, which changed the geopolitical and
geostrategic situation in the Eurasian space, was a catalyst for the formation of new sovereign States –
carriers of their own peculiar national interests and foreign policy courses. The emergence of new
participants in international relations has also caused some changes in the content of the balance of
forces of a local nature. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United States was left without its
rival, which they faced for more than 50 years. Communism left Europe and declined in China as they
learned more of the capitalist. This allowed the US to be the sole superpower for a decade or so before
China's economy grew rapidly and the war on terror introduced a new enemy similar to communism
and the cold war. So, generally speaking, after the end of the cold war and the current unique situation,
the United States was "out of competition", which allowed Washington to implement a more offensive
policy. The early stage of the post-bloc system was characterized by the geopolitical and economic
dominance of the United States on the world stage. The collapse of the bipolar system also caused
changes in Europe – the unification of Germany, the painful collapse of Yugoslavia - which became
decisive in strengthening the policy of Eurocentrism and the independent policy of a number of
European States. Unresolved conflicts in Korea, Vietnam, and Germany, complicated by the intervention
of superpowers, quickly ended. At the end of the Cold war, a new world order emerged, influenced by
multilateralism and a unilateral superpower. The end of the Cold war required a new focus in IC that
could better analyze and anticipate the realities of the new world order. The end of communism also
had economic consequences that strengthened the legitimacy of the market mechanism. Communism in
practice led to the dominance of a single political party and centralized decision - making. The
bureaucracy became the new bourgeoisie under communism in practice.

31. Terrorism in XXI century (me)

Terrorism of the twenty-first century is one of the many ways of waging war. It is no different from
"information war"," guerrilla war"," economic war " or "tank offensive". The task in any war is to win,
and if an army operation (for example, a tank offensive) ensures the capture of new territories, then
terrorism provides discredit to the authorities, fear and panic in the enemy's ranks. It should also be
noted that there are different types of terrorism, such as religious, political, social, etc. In any war, there
are two types of goals: strategic and tactical. Strategic-final goals, such as winning a war, changing
power, changing economic markets, etc. Tactical goals are local or intermediate goals. Terrorism, in its
essence, pursues only tactical goals: discredit the government, show its inaction, sow fear and panic,
etc. But the main thing is that any terrorist attack is a tactical step towards fulfilling a strategic task. The
situation is extremely simple: the goal of a terrorist attack is not the number of victims, but the
subsequent reaction of the population, and in the XXI century, the subsequent reaction is provided by
the media. The most important feature of terrorism in the twenty-first century is its integration into
other political and economic problems. Rather, it is these multidimensional problems that give rise to
terrorism. In addition, it is worth noting that terrorism has become a "professional" phenomenon in the
twenty-first century. In the XIX century, no one specially trained terrorists, just did not yet exist methods
of their training - both psychological and military (in terms of training equipment and developing
combat skills of fighters).

Examples:

 On September 11, 2001, a plane hijacked by terrorists crashed into the world's largest Shopping
center in New York. The twin towers, as they were called around the world, were considered a
symbol of the success, well-being and prosperity of the United States as a powerful economic
superpower. Al-Qaeda was recognized as the culprit of the terrible tragedy. Its head was
recognized as the international terrorist # 1 and declared a hunt for him.
 The terrorist act in the St. Petersburg metro is an explosion that occurred on Monday, April 3,
2017 in St. Petersburg on the stage between two metro stations. According to the Investigative
Committee of the Russian Federation, the explosion was carried out by a suicide bomber
Akbarjon Jalilov, a citizen of Russia since 2011, an Uzbek by nationality and a native of
Kyrgyzstan. 11 people were arrested on charges of preparing a terrorist attack. None of the
accused pleaded guilty.
 On January 7, 2015, the Charlie Hebdo editorial office was attacked in Paris, and 12 people were
killed that day. The scale of the reaction of France and the world community was huge.

32. The reasons and aftermath of the war in Iraq (me)

Reasons for the Iraq war:

 To prevent the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction

 The need to change the ruling regime
 To fight against international terrorism
 Iraq has violated numerous UN resolutions
 Iraq is a threat to the US
 The need to disarm Iraq
 To provide international security

From the point of view of today, we can say for sure that the invasion of the international coalition
forces in Iraq led to the destabilization of the state rather than to any positive changes. As a result, many
civilians were killed and injured, and millions of people lost their homes. The rise of ISIL is also largely a
consequence of this war. At the same time, the humanitarian catastrophe, the consequences of which
are not yet fully visible, continues to this day. it is safe to say that the invasion of the United States and
its allies in Iraq only opened a new, bloody and truly terrible page in the history of the Middle East,
which will not be closed for a very long time.

33. NATO intervention in Afghanistan and the consequences (me)

On September 11, 2001, a plane hijacked by terrorists crashed into the world's largest Shopping center
in New York. The twin towers, as they were called around the world, were considered a symbol of the
success, well-being and prosperity of the United States as a powerful economic superpower. Al-Qaeda
was recognized as the culprit of the terrible tragedy. Its head was recognized as the international
terrorist # 1 and declared a hunt for him. He went into hiding in Afghanistan by help of the Taliban. The
United States and its allies demanded his extradition, but were refused. The Taliban asked for evidence
of al-Qaeda's involvement in the New York Mall bombings. Only then the dialog will be possible. The
NATO war in Afghanistan has become inevitable. The Northern Alliance took advantage of the situation
and went on the offensive. After the terrorist attack, the United States declared that the goals of the war
were to fight terrorism and cultivate and protect democratic values in the country. The long-running
NATO war in Afghanistan has begun.

The conflict can be divided into several major tactical operations:

 "Invincible freedom"
 Operation Anaconda (The most famous official war against terrorism in history was this
operation. The official enemy of NATO in it is declared "Al-Qaeda".)
 Operation in Southern Afghanistan (In 2006, NATO forces were deployed to Southern
Afghanistan. The offensive itself was accompanied by a constant political struggle within the
Alliance. The fact is that the NATO operation in Afghanistan took place with diplomatic
accusations of the participating countries ' unwillingness to fight. But despite those facts
operation was conducted.)

The war in Afghanistan in 2001-2014 resulted in the following results:

 Political stabilization of the country has not been achieved.

 Head of Afghanistan Karzai announced that without a NATO military contingent, he will not be
able to hold the country.
 About 2.5 thousand people were killed during operation enduring freedom. More than half of
them are Americans.
  Increased production of opium. According to preliminary UN data, during the time of NATO's
stay in Afghanistan, poppy production has increased 40 times.
 The war has disrupted the economy, infrastructure, and unified health care system.

The US, of course, cites the positive sides of the conflict too. The power of the Taliban has been
overthrown. But to quote the head of Afghanistan, the next day after the withdrawal of coalition troops,
the Taliban will again seize power in Afghanistan. Thus, all military experts recognize the failure of the
NATO mission in Afghanistan.

34. Arab Spring (me)

The Arab Spring was a series of anti-government protests, uprisings, and armed rebellions that spread
across much of the Arab world in the early 2010s. It began in response to oppressive regimes and a low
standard of living, starting with protests in Tunisia. From Tunisia, the protests then spread to five other
countries: Libya, Egypt, Yemen, Syria and Bahrain, where either the ruler was deposed or major
uprisings and social violence occurred, including riots, civil wars or insurgencies. Sustained street
demonstrations took place in Morocco, Iraq, Algeria, Iranian Khuzestan, Lebanon, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman
and Sudan. Minor protests occurred in Djibouti, Mauritania, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, and the Moroccan-
occupied Western Sahara. A major slogan of the demonstrators in the Arab world is "the people want to
bring down the regime". Rather than a single event, it’s probably more useful to define the 2011
uprisings as a catalyst for long-term change whose final outcome is yet to be seen. The main legacy of
the Arab Spring is in smashing the myth of Arabs’ political passivity and the perceived invincibility of
arrogant ruling elites. Even in countries that avoided mass unrest, the governments take the quiescence
of the people at their own peril.