European History Notes (1)

BY RODNEY MABIKA. (FACT FINDER) C0NTACT DETAILS O779052006/ 0718697794.
EMAIL:
rodmcooks@gmail.com
WORLD WAR I
Background
1900 most countries in Europe had industrialised and factories were wide spread
specially in America and Germany. Steel production had expanded greatly so most
countries began to acquire colonies in Asia and Africa for raw materials, market, labour
and investment. Competition emerged against great powers and tension was brewing,
one stepping on each other’s feet inevitably. This coupled with number of reasons and
led to the outbreak of the war. It is called world war because it affected almost all
countries in the world and almost every country participated either actively or passively.
It was fought over four continents; all previous wars had been limited to small areas
within a single continent like the Franco- Prussian war. Every able-bodied individual was
involved in one way or another, before then soldiers were the only ones that fought in
wars, so almost everyone was involved. It was fought everywhere sea, land, in the air
and under water then it was largely a land affair. It introduced new deadly weapons
which killed people on a large scale e.g. poisonous gas, tanks, submarines etc. it
involved children and women, first time women were involved in armament factories.
Entire industrial resources were used to produce death and destruction e.g. iron and
steel were required to build vehicles and weapons for war. It was also the first to kill
millions of people and left thousands alive blind, crippled, mad and hungry.
Why Britain abandoned splendid isolation

 Insecurity since other countries were forming alliances.
 The need to control Russian expansion to the east.
 Germany looked for colonies next to British ones.
 Germany gunboat diplomacy (Germany built a lot of warships).
 British naval superiority began being threatened by Japan and USA.
 British rivalry with France was not a good one due to rivalry in Africa and Southeast Asia.
Background of European countries

Britain
She controlled the sea and had an extensive empire; as such her economy was strong
and vibrant. A well industrialised country and advanced in technology. She followed the
policy of splendid isolation which she however abandoned toward the end of the 19 th
century.
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BY RODNEY MABIKA. (FACT FINDER) C0NTACT DETAILS O779052006/ 0718697794. EMAIL:
rodmcooks@gmail.com
Germany
After the Franco-Prussian war of 1871 Germany became powerful, leading
militarily and economically. She overtook Britain in production of iron and steel required
mostly in Industries. She pursued the welt politic policy of dividing the world into
colonies. She was Britain’s nearest rival and she was an aggressive young nation and was
becoming a great threat to its neighbours. She built an army to match Frances and a
navy to challenge Britain’s.
France
She had her own problems. She had a deep wound resulting from the Franco-Prussian
war of 1870-71. Prussia was the leading state in Germany so it was actually Franco-
German war.
Italy
A young nation starting to industrialise. Its leaders were concerned about making Italy a
great power though its resources were hardly adequate to justify such a status. It lacked
the economic strength and a strong army to compete with other powers on equal basis.
Russia
It was a backward nation but was still hoping to expand.
Austria-Hungary
Had been divided in two i.e. Austria and Hungary. Hungary was dominated by Magyar
people and Austria being dominated by Germans. These two enjoyed privileges and
were hated by other groups. It had about 11 nationalities of different racial origins,
backgrounds, customs and language e.g. Germans, Magyars, Czechs, Croats, Slovaks,
Romanians and Serbs. The main task was to keep this fragmented empire together.
There was unrest of nationalism.
Balkans
It was a Peninsula of mixed states and races. Most of the Balkans was once part of the
Turkish empire. Most of the Balkan people belonged to the Slav race. Some Balkan
states were under Austria whilst others were under the Turkish rule. Their guiding
principle was, “the Balkans for the Balkan nations”. States included Serbia, Montenegro,
Albania, Herzegovina, Bosnia, Greece, Bulgaria etc. The national feeling was nationalism.
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Causes of World War I

 Franco-German hostility
The hostility steamed from the Franco-Prussia war of 1870-71 in which France was
defeated and had to sign a treaty of Frankfurt by which it had to surrender the rich
province of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany and in addition to payment of a war
indemnity of £200 million over 3 years. During the 3 years, Germany troops had to
occupy French soil until the indemnity was paid in full. Between 1905-1911 the hostility
continued due to the Moroccan crisis. The hostility played a crucial role in the outbreak
of the war.
 Alliance system
It was introduced by Prince Otto Van Bismarck, Prime minister of Germany from 1862-
92. Having defeated France so that she would be unable to wage war against Germany
and recover the rich coal fields of Alsace and Lorraine. He wanted to promote peace in
Europe through diplomatic means. He wanted to maintain existing territorial
agreements in Europe. He also wanted to resist the spread of revolutionary movement
like communism. He wanted to avoid colonial conquests as well. To achieve all this
Bismarck introduced the alliance system.
 Dreikaiserbund (1873)
Drei means 3, Kaiser means King and bund means meeting. It was also referred to as 3
Emperors league. This was created by Bismarck because he feared a war of revenge and
thus avoiding France to seek for allies. This was signed between Germany, Russia and
Austria-Hungary. They agreed to give each other common assistance whenever
necessary. They were to suppress socialist revolution, attempt to settle the Eastern
question (problems in the Balkans) and consult one another if other powers threatened
world peace. It was to be renewed every 3 years.
 The Congress of Berlin

The Dreikaiserbund was renewed in 1874 and 1877 but friendship between Austria-
Hungary and Russia was almost impossible after 1877 because there were quarrels
between Austria-Hungary and Russia over the Balkans. In order to resolve this issue,
Bismarck called for a Congress in Berlin 1878. Austria-Hungary was supported by
Germany to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina.
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 The Dual Alliance (1879)

It was signed between Germany and Austria-Hungary. Enmity between Austria-Hungary
worsened between 1875 and 1878 so Russia was not included. The two agreed that if
Germany was attacked by two countries Austria-Hungary would come on Germany’s
side and if Austria-Hungary went to war with Russia, Germany would support Austria.
 Dreikaiserbund (1881)
It was a renewal of the 1873 one, it was agreed that Germany would be neutral if Russia
fought Britain. It was also agreed that Russia was to control Bulgaria and Austria-
Hungary to control Bosnia and Herzegovina. They also agreed to consult each other on
matters concerning the Balkan states.
 The Triple alliance (1882)

It was signed between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Britain. The dual alliance was to
include Italy who also wanted to be protected from France who had ambitions in North
Africa where interests were clashing in Tunisia. Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed to
help Italy if she were attacked by France and Italy agreed to help Germany if she were
attacked by France. Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed to help each other against a
Russian attack on either one of them. It was therefore a military agreement which gave
the three powers great strength because together they possessed many of the raw
materials and processes that would be needed in times of war. Once again Bismarck
managed to Isolate France.
 The Reinsurance Treaty (1887)

It was signed between Germany and Russia. The Russians had to turn to France for
financial assistance because the Germans had denied them a loan. This promoted
Bismarck to sign this treaty with Russia. They pledged to remain neutral if the other
were to be involved in a war with a third power. When Bismarck fell from power in
1890, the new Germany Chancellor refused to renew this alliance and pursued a more
expansionist policy.
 The Dual Entente (1894)

It was signed between France and Russia after Germany had refused to give financial
assistance to Russia. They agreed to work together and assist each other when attacked
by a third power. The alliance was to last as long as the triple alliance lasted.
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 The Entente Cordiale (1904)

After signing the Dual Entente Britain realised that her policy of splendid isolation was
dangerous. She had a large empire, a lot of raw materials and markets for finished
goods, she also had the strongest navy in the world and so she thought she could she
could do it alone. She started looking for a friend in Europe, at first she thought
friendship would be possible with Germany as the royal families were related, however,
in 1895 when the British were nearly coming to terms with the Germans; Kaiser William
II sent a congratulatory telegram to Paul Kruger of the Boars in South Africa
congratulating him for overthrowing the British. The Kaiser’s attitude did not please the
British and friendship became impossible. It then happened that in 1904 France needed
support from Britain to occupy Morocco in North Africa and Britain was prepared to
support her. When Britain offered France that support, an agreement was reached
known as the Entente cordiale. The two agreed to assist each other if attacked by a third
power. This was a less formal agreement than a full scale-alliance.
 The Triple Entente (1907)

It was signed Russia, Britain and France. The Entente cordial was transformed into the
Triple Entente when Russia joined in 1907. It was an anti-German alliance.
NB: By 1907 Europe was divided into two camps i.e. Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-
Hungary and Italy.) and the Triple Entente (Britain, France and Russia). The fact
that Europe was divided into two hostile camps each with formidable and
devastating power made war more likely.
 Colonial rivalry
These were clashes over control of territories.
 Russo-Japanese war (1904-05)

Russia and Japan were fighting over the control of China. Japan was an ally of Britain
due to Anglo-Japanese treaty of 1902; the agreement was that if Japan/Britain found
herself at war with any other they had to help each other. According to the Dual
Entente, Russia was an ally of France so if they were to be attacked by 2 or more powers
they would assist each other. Japan and Russia were not the only ones interested in
China so more powers were going to intervene if ever Japan and Russia went to war.
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 1st Moroccan Crisis (1905-06)

When France and Britain signed the Entente Cordiale in 1904, French claims on Morocco
where recognised by Britain while France accepted British control over Egypt. Morocco
had been regarded by Europe independent and under the supervision of all powers
since 1900. The Agreement between Britain and France meant that France would ignore
the independence of Morocco. In 1905 France proposed to proclaim morocco as her
protectorate, Germany had economic and trading interests in Morocco so could in so
now accept takeover of Morocco by France. The German Kaiser then sailed into
Moroccan port of Tangier and made speeches against France and assured the Sultan of
Morocco that Germany would support Morocco in their struggle against the French. He
also helped that the country would remain open to peaceful competitions of all nations
without monopoly and annexation. He then demanded that Morocco’s affairs be
submitted to an international conference in Algeciras (Spain)
The Algeciras Conference (1906)

To settle the first Moroccan crisis, the European powers met at Algeciras in Spain in
1906, at the conference they agreed on the following:
1. The policing of Morocco should be done by France and Spain.
2. The state bank of Morocco was to be jointly controlled by France, Britain, Spain and
Germany.
3. Germany got trading rights in Morocco.
4. The principle of open doors to all countries was recognised.
5. France was left free to proceed with peaceful penetration.
6. The independence of the Sultan was recognised.
NB: The dominance of France is however to be noted. The Germans had gone to the
conference thinking they would dictate the peace but to their surprise and displeasure
Spain, Italy, Russia, Britain and even America supported French rights in Morocco. This
led to growth of international tension between the Triple Entente and the Triple
Alliance. The German were dissatisfied and became convinced that international
conferences were useless as means of settling disputes. So in other words the crisis was
not wholly solved since there was discontent amongst countries involved although a war
was avoided at this time.
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 Bosnian Crisis(1908)
Austria-Hungary took advantage of a revolution in Turkey to annex the Turkish province
of Bosnia. This was a blow to Serbia as she was also hoping to acquire Bosnia (Bosnia
had 3 million Serbs). Therefore Serbia appealed for help from Russia as father of Slave
people. Russia called for a conference expecting French and British support. Germany
then highlighted that she would assist Austria-Hungary if war broke out. The French
withdrew as they did not want to be involved in the Balkans. Britain also withdrew as
she did not want a war with Germany. Russia could not risk as she had been involved in
a war with Japan and could not join the war with support of her allies. Due to such
clashes no conference was held so Austria-Hungary kept Bosnia and resulted in Serbia
remaining bitter and hostile to Austria-Hungary. Russia began to embark on massive
military build up to avoid further humiliation as she intended to help if ever Serbia was
to appeal for help.
 2nd Moroccan crisis

It was also known as the Agadir crisis. There was an uprising in Morocco against the new
sultan. The French then sent an army to occupy Fez to maintain law and order this was
the Sultan’s request but not in line with the Algeciras agreement. The movement of
France was interpreted by Germany as a sign that France was about to colonise
Morocco. Germany sent a gunboat known as the Panther to the Moroccan port of
Agadir to protect Germany’s interests there. Germany also threatened the country with
heavy guns; the Kaiser’s attitude was extremely war like. This threatened Britain’s trade
route so Britain supported France. Preparation for war ware made but Germany gave in
and recognised French protectorate over Morocco, Germany also withdrew the panther.
The two crises in Morocco seriously short the peace of Europe. Britain stood firm and
showed that prepared to fight Germany and Germany was not yet prepared for such a
war. France and Britain were now convinced that Germany wanted to dominate the
world. They then decided to work more closely by adding military connections to their
alliances. Overall it can be argued colonial rivalry bas a cause of the war as it was
inconveniencing, although there were disputes over colonies , they were solved without
war although relations were stained.
 1st Balkan war (1912)

For centuries, the Balkan states were under Turkish / Ottoman rule. The 20 th century
saw much of Balkan states demanding independence from Turkey. The Balkan States
then formed the Balkan league in attempt to join hands against foreign rule and
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Christian prosecution. Members of the league were Greece, Serbia, Montenegro,

Bulgaria and Albania. In October 1912 the Balkan league declared war on Turkey, Turkey
was already decaying and was easily defeated in the war. They shared the territory still
under the Turkish rule. Serbia got Albania (an outlet to the sea), Bulgaria got Macedonia
and Greece got Thrace and Salonika. Germany and Austria-Hungary viewed the victory
of the Balkans as a victory of Russia. Austria-Hungary also feared future attacks as she
had a big slave population in her empire. However Serbia was not satisfied with what
she got.
 2nd Balkan war

Serbia and Greece won small portions of Macedonia in the 1st Balkan war. Bulgaria
refused to share to share Macedonia with others. The second Balkan league comprised
of Serbia, Greece and Montenegro was formed, Romania and Turkey also joined. Turkey
joined so that she would regain what she had lost in the 1st Balkan war. Fighting lasted
from 29 June to 31 July 1913 and was ended by the treaty of Bucharest; here Bulgaria
lost most of what she had gained. Turkey got Adrianople, Serbia and Greece shared
Macedonia and Romania got the territory on the black sea.
 Arms race/ Militarism

After 1871, the war atmosphere caused secret alliances led to an armament race among
the powers. Many nations expanded their armies allegedly for the purpose of security.
The race was particularly serious between 1900 and 1914 and international relations
worsened. Russia had 1 300 000 soldiers, France and Germany each had 900 000
soldiers and Britain, Austria-Hungary and Italy had between 250 000 and 500 000
soldiers.
 Naval race
It was a competition to control the sea. The period from 1900 saw the rapid expansion
in navies by Britain and Germany. Germany began a naval programme where she
constructed warships. This programme was said to be against Britain and this was
threatening British existing naval power. Britain then designed a warship known as
dreadnoughts in 1906 and Germany copied. By 1914 Britain had 32 and Germany had
20. Types of ships involved were dreadnoughts, battles cruisers, cruisers, destroyers,
submarines and light cruisers.
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 Imperialism
This was the highest stage of capitalism whereby countries in Europe had influence to
occupy African countries and capitalise in them and thereby making profits. These
included Russo-Japanese conflict over China, Franco-German clash over Morocco and
Austria-Hungary imperialism in the Balkans and annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
from Turkey. There was also Russia’s imperialism in Turkey which brought problems in
the Balkans.
 Nationalism
It is the desire of people of the same nation to gain independence. Turkey was the sick
man of Europe due to nationalism. 1829 Greece broke away from Turkey. Bulgarian and
Serbian land was recognised by great powers at the Berlin Congress in 1878. All this
meant some big parts of the Ottoman Empire were being taken away from Austria-
Hungary. After the Austro-Prussian war the Magyars of Hungary fought for land from
Austria. Serbia also wanted to in cooperate all slav people in Austria-Hungary and form a
large slav kingdom called Yugoslavia.
Sarajevo incident
Sarajevo was the capital of Bosnia which had been annexed by Austria-Hungary from
Ottoman Empire. In June 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand heir to the Austria-Hungary
throne made a visit to Sarajevo. On 28 June he was murdered together with his wife
Sophia by Bosnian nationalists, Archduke was hated for his arrogance and hot temper.
Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia and due to the assurance of support from Germany she
sent an ultimatum to Serbia. The terms were too harsh that Serbia rejected those that
made her to be under Austria-Hungary’s control. On 28 July Austria-Hungary declared
war on Serbia, Russia declared to help Serbia as she did not want to disappoint her like
in Bosnia. Germany responded by declaring an ultimatum to Russia on 31 July to
withdraw her forces within 12 hours and when 12 hours expired and Russia did not
comply, Germany declared war on Russia on 1 August.
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Reasons for Participation

Russia
She was hoping to preserve the free passage of straits on which its economic life
depended. There was also hope to maintain status as a major power. Russia was also
eager to gain Constantinople.
France
She wanted to regain Alsace and Lorraine. She was obliged to support the triple entente
which she believed guaranteed her survival as a great power. She also wanted to move
out of isolation.
Austria-Hungary
She wanted to maintain her major power status. She fought to end the challenge of
South Slav nationalism engineered by Serbia.
Germany
War was an escape of encirclement by jealousy and hostile neighbours. Germany’s aim
was to achieve everlasting security in the east and west. She participated for conquest
reasons and not defence as said by most German historians.
Britain
She fought for the independence of sovereign states. She wanted to prevent Germany
from dominating the continent. She wanted to protect Belgium’s neutrality and destroy
German navy and colonial empire.
Allied powers: Russia (1914 left in 1917); France (1914); Serbia (1914); Belgium
(1914);Britain (1914); Italy (1915); U.S.A. (1917).
Central powers: Germany (1914); Hungary (1914); Austria (1914); Bulgaria (1914);
Turkey (1914).
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Course of war
The western front refers to areas were the war was fought situated to the west of
Germany.
The Schlieffen plan 1905

It was a war plan designed by General Alfred Von Schlieffen in 1894. It was further
developed in 1906 and implemented in 1914. The main aspect was to avoid Germany a
war with Russia and France at the same time. It was designed in such a way that
Germany would attack France and defeats her within 6 weeks and then she would turn
to Russia.
Aims of the Schlieffen plan:

 To fight war against France and Russia one front at a time.
 To capture France before returning to Russia within 39 days.
 To allocate the bulk of Germany’s army on the western front.
 To transfer the majority of her forces across Germany by rail in time to meet the Russian
advance after the defeat of France.
 To march through Belgium within 12 days.
 To occupy Brussels within 19 days.
 To occupy channel ports to prevent landing of British reinforcements.
NB: The plan was however never implemented effectively and therefore it failed.
Reasons why the Schlieffen plan failed

 Belgian resistance was much tougher than anticipated (resisted for 12 days).
 The French mobilised quickly and put more stubborn resistance.
 The British came to strengthen French defences earlier than anticipated.
 Russia mobilised faster than expected forcing Germans to divert some of their troops to
the eastern front earlier than expected.
 In the south, German Generals did not strictly adhere to the plan.
 Von Schlieffen had insisted that the right flank be kept strong but Moltke reinforced the
left flank and as a result the Germans were not able to penetrate into Paris and therefor
became stuck in trenches.
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 Battle of Marne (1914)

The Schlieffen plan was put into action by the new German chief of army general Von
Moltke. The advancing Germany met stiff resistance from Belgians who denied them
free entry into Paris. The Germans were pinned down for 3 weeks in Belgium and French
quickly dispatched their troops to the Belgian border. In September the weak German
were attacked by the French under Joffrey. The German forces were repulsed and
driven back to river Aisne. German’s advance into Paris was blocked and instead, the
Germans were forced to retreat. The French were assisted by the British expositional
force under General Sir John French. Both sides lost many soldiers during this battle. To
avoid further retreat at river Aisne, the Germans dug trenches to live and fight in.
 The Trench warfare

One of the German armies was defeated at the Marne and forced to retreat beyond the
river Aisne. The Germans could have surrendered at Marne and the war could have
ended in two months. Instead of surrendering, the Germans retreated some 38km to
the river Aisne where they began to dig trenches. Trenches were first dug by the
German to avoid further retreat and the French copied. The trenches were from Belgian
coast to border of Switzerland. The trenches were 3m deep and barbed wired. The
barbed wire was rolled in moulds of the soil that protected the trenches. The trenches
were parallel to each other. The land between the trenches was known as no man’s.
People lived and fought in trenches. The trenches protected them from machine guns,
fire and the explosion of artillery shells. Soon, the trenches were extended into
elaborated systems of defence and communication. From December 1914 to November
1918, the western front was a scene of stalemate. Only a few hundred metres separated
the soldiers of each side. Anyone who dared appear on the no man’s land was sure to
die a cruel death. It became a war of attrition with thousands dying trying to gain a few
metres over the no man’s land. Such a pattern remained for the next four years.
Problems experienced in trenches

 Lice.
 Shell holes.
 Mud.
 Cold.
 Diseases.
 Injured and dying men.
 Soldier lived with persistent presence of death.
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 Stench of decomposing bodies.

 Swarms of rats.
 Flies which grew fat eating decomposing bodies.
 Artillery shells exploding.
Results of trench warfare

 10 million men were killed or wounded in the dividing wilderness of blood stained mud.
 In the past wars had been fought won or lost by advancing soldiers but this time the war
was fought with stationary soldiers.
 The war created a stalemate, armies were now locked together immovably like two
frozen masses pressing against each other.
 New weapons were introduced to meet this kind of warfare and these were:
 Tanks.
 Bombers.
 Aeroplanes (Zeppelins).
 Submarines (U-boats).
 Poisonous gas.
 Riffles.
 Machine guns.
 Artillery shells.
 Dreadnought (warships).
 Bombs.
 Torpedoes.
 Battle of Verdun (1916)

In February 1916, the Germans led by Falkenlayr began massive bombardment of
French fortress of Verdun hoping to destroy the French. However, the French under
General Henry Philippine Petain defended the fortress. The Germans were forced to
abandon the attack in June. The French lost 315 000 men and the Germans lost 280 000
men as well.
 Battle of Somme (1916)

On I July the British launched an offensive at Somme. The British forces led by Haig
wanted to keep Germans fully occupied so as to relieve pressure on the French and
ensure they would not be able to send reinforcements to the eastern front against
Russia. Here, the British introduced tanks. The allies made limited advances as Haig was
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under severe criticism for persisting with suicidal frontal attacks. A lot of people from
both sides were killed and or wounded.
 Battle of Jutland (1916)

Before the Battle of Jutland, Britain and Germany had fought in the pacific in the
Falkland Islands in 1914 and off the dodger banks in 1915, because of the deadlock in
the western front, Germans had an attempt to break it in 1916 by means of their navy.
Allied forced on the continent were depended on the supplies from Britain. They could
then be easily defeated if their supplies were cut off. This could only be done by denying
the use of the sea to Britain merchant ships. The most obvious way was denying the
royal navy and seizing control of the seas. This was attempted in May 1916 so the
German high seas fleet sailed out to try and trap the British Grant fleet. They met at the
battle of Jutland but there was no full scale fighting. The British in the end managed to
force the Germans to retreat back to the port where they remained bottled up until the
end of the war. Even so, the German fleet inflicted considerable damage on the British
at Jutland. The British lost 14 ships and 6 000 sailors. Germans also lost 11 ships and 2
500 sailors.
 The war at sea

The allied powers aimed at blocking the central power and this prevented goods from
entering and leaving countries. Neutral ships of countries carrying out regular trade
were affected and people starved. Britain had to make sure her routes remained open
as she had to maintain trade between her empire and the rest of the world. Britain
therefore attacked Germany’s ships abroad such that by 1914 nearly all German armed
surface ships had been destroyed. Britain began to prevent Germany from using Neutral
Dutch ports to get the blockade by searching all neutral ships for weapons / goods. They
responded by submarine (naval vessels that can operate underwater and as well as on
the surface) attacks and mines, this was the second alternative for Germany as her
surface vehicles were either destroyed or blocked. The u boat blockade was in effective
as the U-boats were few and could be easily identified. Identification of British ships was
difficult as Britain fooled Germany by flying neutral flags and using passenger liners to
transport arms and ammunition. In 1915 the Lusitania (British liner) was sunk by
Germany, a lot of people died including Americans (of the 1000, 118 were Americans).
America protested and responded by breaking off diplomatic relation with Germany.
Therefore America joined the war but on the allied side. 31 May saw the battle of
Jutland in which Germany tried to lure part of British fleet from its base so that part
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section would be destroyed by Germany. However, there were a lot of ships than
anticipated by Germany so Germans began to fire torpedoes. Germany lost 11 ships and
Britain lost 14 ships but Germany did not defeat Britain she failed to destroy the naval
sea power. Germany high seas fleet stayed away from war for the rest of the First World
War leaving Britain in control of the surface completely. In 1917 Britain was about to
win as this method was proving to be successful because 430 ships were lost and Britain
was left with corn to last her 6 weeks. Britain was saved by Lloyd George who suggested
that Merchant ships were to sail protected by escorting warships. This reduced losses
and Germany had proved a failure
Why America joined the war

 U-boat campaign.
 Germany persuading Mexico to attack USA and in return to get Texas, New Mexico and
Arizona.
 Overthrowing of Tsar (Russia) autocrat in the march Revolution made USA to join in
support if Russia and Britain
 Her trade was being greatly affected by World War I.
Why Central powers lost

 The Schlieffen plan failed, this stained Germany as she had to face war on two fronts.
 Allied sea powers which enforced deadly blockade which led to food shortages and at
the same time kept allied armies fully supplied.
 Germany submarine campaign failed and USA joined the war.
 USA brought some resources to the allied side.
 Germany had continuous heavy losses (lost best troops in) lost best troops in 1918, new
troops were young and inexperienced.
 Germany was continuously disappointed by her allies; instead she was helping Bulgaria,
Austria-Hungary.
 The Germans were slowed down by Belgium which gave France enough time to prepare
faster than anticipated by the Germans.
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Results of the war

 Economic
 The war gave great advantages to industrialised nations outside Europe as other
countries were focused on war materials and neglecting their former customers. Japan
and America took the advantage to excel.
 Textiles, cheap toys and metal goods from Japan and machinery, cars and chemicals
from America poured into Africa and Asia replacing European goods.
 Countries like India began to build their own industries instead of importing European
goods.
 America became greatest creditor.
 Europe became relatively poor as nations had to pay huge war debts.
 Unemployment.
 High taxation and inflation, as governments battled to pay the debts. They resulted in
printing more money which to galloping inflation. The cost of living became too high and
the standard of living was at its lowest.
 Trade unions were formed.
 Advancement in medicine and surgery were noticed.
 New methods of communication began.
 Political
 Creation of new states as a result of new boundaries created at treaties signed after
World War 1.
 No damages to America.
 There was a tilt in the balance of power as old imperial powers were defeated in the
war; America became the strongest as she gained many trading partners.
 Rise of brigandage as demobilised soldiers failed to adjust to civil life.
 Rise of new ideologies and political doctrines e.g. Rise of extremist parties.
 Social
 Mass production of goods.
 Millions became homeless.
 Vast increase in motor vehicles.
 Mass starvation.
 Broadcasting of BBC and beginning of air travel.
 Most people became orphans, widows and refugees.
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 Women were now given professions once done by men only.

 Loosening of class barriers.
Results of the First World War

The First World War lasted for four years and three months. It began on August 4, 1914 and
ended on November 11, 1918. It involved sixty sovereign states, overthrew four Empires
(German Empire, Hapsburg Empire, Turkish Empire, Russian Empire), gave birth to seven new
nations, took ten million combatant lives (another 30 million were wounded), and cost about £
35,000 million.
 Paris Peace Conference 1919

 The Peace Treaties
 Criticism of the Versailles Settlement
 General Effects of the First World War
Paris Peace Conference 1919
Although representatives of thirty-two states attended the Peace Conference at Paris in January
1919 to write the peace treaties, three men stood out above others: Woodrow Wilson,
President of the United States, Clemenceau, the Prime Minister of France, and Lloyd George,
Prime Minister of Britain. These came to be known as the Big Three, for they eventually made
all the decisions of the Conference.
The decisions of the Big Three were influenced by five factors:
(1) Secret Treaties: While the war was being fought, there were a series of agreements made
among the Allies for dividing up the spoils. In March 1915, France was promised Alsace-
Lorraine, control of the left bank of the Rhine and German colonies in Africa while Britain was
allowed to take over German colonies in Africa and the Pacific. In April of the same year, Italy
was tempted to join the war on the side of the Allies by promises of Austrian and Turkish
territory. In August 1916, Rumania was promised territories in Transylvania and Bukovina. The
Big Three had to respect these treaties when they were making the territorial settlement after
the war.
(1) New States: Before the Conference opened in January 1919, the Russian and the Austro-
Hungarian Empires had collapsed. Within these empires, there arose many new states—
Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland. The Big Three had to accept
the existence of these new states when they were making the territorial settlement after the
war.
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(2) Communist Russia: Since November 1917, there was a communist government in Russia.
The Big Three wanted to strengthen the neighbouring states of Russia so that they could form a
"cordon sanitaire" to protect Europe against the spread of Communism.
(3) After-war bitterness: During the war, the Allied governments had done their best to arouse
the patriotism of their own people. Immediately after the war, the people of the Allied
countries still had a fierce hatred against the enemy nations. Because they had suffered so
much during the war, they brought pressure on their governments to exact heavy
compensation from the losers.
(4) Conflict between the objectives of the Big Three. Woodrow Wilson was an idealist, a
theorist and a pacifist. As a pacifist (the horrors of the American Civil War had made him a
pacifist), he hoped that there would be no war for mankind. As a theorist (he was an ex-
professor of history and political economy), he liked to apply his academic theory and
knowledge to solve the problem of war. As an idealist (he was a man of good intentions), he
was able to produce his blueprint for peace in the future in his Fourteen Points in January 1918.
>> Back to Top
(i) Wilson
(ii) Clemenceau
(iii) Lloyd George
Wilson's Fourteen Points
(1) The first main theme of Wilson's Fourteen Points was the granting of national
independence to all the 'oppressed peoples!'. In practice this involved the following points.
(a) Impartial adjustment of colonial claims: the settlement of colonial problems with reference
to the interests of colonial peoples (point five);
(b) Germany's surrender of her past conquests:
Evacuation by the Germans of all Russian territory (point six).
Evacuation by the Germans of all Belgian territory (point seven).
Evacuation by the Germans of Alsace-Lorraine (the French territory) (point eight).
(c) The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Turkish Empire and the granting of
independence to all the oppressed nationalities:
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Italian frontier to extend northward to recover some land from Austria-Hungary (point nine).
Autonomous development for the people of Austria-Hungary (point ten).
Rumania, Serbia and Montenegro to be independent (point eleven).
Peoples under Turkish rule to be autonomous (point twelve).
An independent Poland (point thirteen).
In short, Wilson hoped to remove one of the fundamental causes of the First World War,
namely the attempt of the big powers to rule over alien races.
(2) The second main theme was that there should be 'Open Diplomacy' (according to point one
- all diplomacy and negotiation between states should be carried on openly), 'Open Sea'
(according to point two - there should be absolute freedom of navigation of the seas both in
peace and war, except in territorial waters), 'Open Trade' (according to point three - trade
conditions for nations should be fair and equal and there should not be any tariff barriers
between them), and 'Disarmament' (according to point four - armaments should be reduced to
the lowest point consistent with domestic safety only). In other words, Wilson wanted to
remove 3 root causes of the First World War, namely alliance systems, economic conflict and
armaments race.
(3) The third theme was that an international association of nations should be established
(point fourteen). This association would not only guarantee the independence of all nations but
would also do its very best to further their prosperity by promoting international cooperation in
economic and social spheres. In other words, Wilson wanted to replace national rivalries by
international cooperation.
To sum up, Wilson's ideals of a peaceful world consisted of a removal of all the basic causes of
the First World War (namely armaments race, secret diplomacy, economic rivalry and the
struggle of the oppressed nationalities to get independence) and the formation of an
international organization to promote the political, economic and social progress of the whole
world.
Clemenceau
Clemenceau, Prime Minister of France, was a man of completely different character and aim as
Wilson. Clemenceau was known as 'Tiger'. He was no idealist and pacifist. He did not pay any
high regard to the wishes of the oppressed nationalities to gain independence. His basic aims
when he came to the Conference were to give to France first of all, her two lost provinces—
Alsace and Lorraine; secondly, security against any possible German aggression in the years to
come. To realize his second aim, he wanted to weaken Germany permanently by confiscating
all her colonies and her past conquests, by depriving her of armed forces, by exacting heavy
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reparations from her and by creating a buffer state between Germany and France. This might
be regarded as a policy of 'realism'. French hatred of Germany was excusable. France had been
defeated by Germany in 1871 and nearly defeated in the First World War. As France was next
to Germany, she always feared another German aggression.
Lloyd George
Lloyd George, the Prime Minister of Britain, stood midway between these two extreme
personalities. He was being pressured by the anti-German public opinion in Great Britain that
Germany must pay for the war and "Hang the Kaiser". In the meantime, he also understood
that if excessively heavy reparations and exceedingly harsh political terms were imposed on
Germany, Germany might think of a war of revenge in the future. Moreover, a poor and
impoverished Germany would also render herself to be a poor customer of British goods. A
settlement with moderate, terms on Germany suited Britain's long-term interests. As a result,
this tactful politician tried his best to smooth over the differences between the extreme
viewpoints of Wilson and Clemenceau.
The outcome of the efforts of Lloyd George was that the Versailles settlement, taken as a
whole, appeared to be a compromise between Wilson's pacifist ideals and Clemenceau's
revengeful attitude. >> Back to Top
The Peace Treaties
The Big Three, first of all, drew up the Covenant of the League of The Nations. They decided
that the Covenant should be included in each of the peace treaties. The peace treaties they
drew up were as follows:
( I ) Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919. (2) Austria signed the Treaty of St.
Germain (September 1919) (3) Bulgaria signed the Treaty of Neuilly (November 1919). (4)
Hungary signed the Treaty of Trianon (June 1920) (5) Turkey signed the Treaty of Sevres
(8/1920) & Lausanne (7/1923).
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Treaty of Versailles (1919)
The Treaty reflected chiefly two basic ideas: punishment of the defeated and the maintenance
of the principle of self-determination. These two basic ideas were also reflected in the other
treaties.
(i) Territories:
Germany was to lose all her past conquests. These were to be returned to their own national
units.
In the south-west, Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France. The Saar, the coal-producing
area of Germany, was brought under the control of the League of Nations for 15 years. After
this time, there would be a plebiscite in the Saar to decide its future. In the meantime, France
was to operate its coal mines so as to compensate the damage done to the French mines during
the war.
In the west, Eupen and Malmedy (after plebiscite) were given to Belgium. In the north, North
Schleswig (after plebiscite) was returned to Denmark.
In the east, Poland was recreated as a state. Poland, in view of the communist threat from the
north, was to be strengthened by: (a) the cession of a large part of East Prussia, (b) the cession
of Posen so that she might have access to the sea (In Posen, there was a strip of territory which
runs from River Vistula to the sea. This was termed as the Polish Corridor. To safeguard Polish
control of the corridor, Danzig was made a free international city under the League even
though the port was predominantly German in population.), (c) the acquisition of two-fifths of
Upper Silesia even though Germans outnumbered the Poles by about five to three in the area.
Memel was given first to the League of Nations, which ultimately passed the place of Lithuania.
Germany also lost all her colonies in Africa and the Pacific. Most of them were transferred to
the League of Nations which allowed the victorious powers such as Britain, France, Belgium,
South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Japan to rule over them as Mandates.
Germany's territorial losses were severe (about 13% of her land and 7 million of her former
population had to be given up) although these losses constituted chiefly her past conquests.
Moreover, she was forbidden to enter into any union with Austria.
(ii) Disarmament:
Germany was almost totally disarmed. She was allowed an army of 100,000 men to be
recruited by voluntary enlistment and six small battleships of less than 10,000 tons. Submarines
and aeroplanes were strictly forbidden. The Rhineland would be occupied by the Allied forces
for 15 years, during which it would remain permanently demilitarized.
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(iii) War-guilt and Reparations:
According to Article 231 of the Treaty "the Allied and Associated Governments affirm, and
Germany accepts, the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the losses and
damages to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been
subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and
her allies." In other words, the whole blame of provoking the First World War was put on
Germany. This is historically incorrect and so constituted a great hurt to the German national
pride.
This 'war-guilt clause' provided the Allied justification for war trials and reparations. At Leipzig,
12 Germans were tried, of whom six were convicted of war-crimes. (The Kaiser was not given a
trial, because the Dutch Government refused to pass him to the Allied powers.) In 1921 the
Reparations Commission decided that Germany had to pay £6,600 million in reparations. This
figure was considered too large, for the reparations covered not only direct loss and damage as
a result of the war but also indirect war expenditure such as allowances paid to families of
soldiers, the cost of maintaining Allied occupation in the Rhine and the war loans of the Belgian
government. Part of the reparations was to be paid in annual instalments, part in ships, coal
and other kinds of goods.
Germany clearly paid a heavy price for her defeat. The war-guilt clause and the accompanying
clause concerning reparations were clearly made in a spirit of revenge. The German resentment
of the Treaty helped the rise of Hitler in the 1930's. >> Back to Top
Treaty of St. Germain (September 1919)

Like the treaty-settlement with Germany, Austria was punished for provoking World War I and
much of her territory was given up to the newly-created states which were formed as a result
of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the end of the War.
Her territorial losses included: Trieste, Istria, and part of Tyrol were given to Italy, Bohemia
including the Sudetenland, Moravia and part of Silesia to Czechoslovakia, Bukovina to Rumania,
Bosnia, Herzegovina and Dalmatia to Yugoslavia, and Galicia to Poland. In most of the cases, the
subject peoples of the Hapsburg Empire were now returned to land of the same nationality.
The principle of self-determination was asserted once more.
The principle of severe punishment was at the same time meted out to Austria. Firstly, in the
vast territories lost by the Austrians, there lived millions of Austrian Germans. There were 3
million Germans in the Sudetenland and 250,000 in Tryol. Secondly, the much reduced Austria
was forbidden to unite with Germany. This was a severe blow to the survival of Austria because
Austrian goods had always depended upon the German market. Thirdly, Austria had to pay
reparations and had to be disarmed to the lowest limit. All in all, the Austrian portion of the
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Dual Monarchy was deprived of 3/4 of her former area and 3/4 of her people. She became a
land-locked state with little economic resources. Thus the Austrians had ill-feeling towards the
Treaty of St. German.
Treaty of Trianon (June 1920)

Hungary was similarly treated. Under the principle of national independence and freedom,
Hungary lost 3/4 of her territory and 2/3 of her people. Croatia was given to Yugoslavia,
Transylvania to Rumania, and Ruthenia and Slovakia to Czechoslovakia.
Punishment was also a bit too much for Hungary. Firstly, much of the land ceded by Hungary
contained many Hungarians. About 3 million Hungarians (Magyars) lived in the neighboring
states as a result of the Treaty. In Transylvania and in some other places, more than half of the
population were Hungarians. Secondly, a severe blow was dealt to her economic progress
because most of her industrial areas were lost and her concessions to Yugoslavia deprived her
of access to the Adriatic and the Mediterranean Sea. Like Austria, she became a landlocked
state. Thirdly, she had to pay her reparations and limit her armed forces.
Treaty of Neuilly (November 1919)

Bulgaria had to give up western Macedonia to Yugoslavia, western Some Thrace to Greece, and
Dobruja to Rumania. These territorial losses were by no means severe. But the Bulgarians were
not satisfied with the Treaty. Firstly, the reparations and loss of western Thrace to Greece not
only deprived Bulgaria of her only access to the Mediterranean Sea but placed many Bulgarians
under the rule of the Greeks (because western Thrace was inhabited by many Bulgarians).
Secondly, like the other defeated powers, Bulgaria needed to pay her reparations and limit her
armed forces.
Treaty of Sevres (8/1920) & Lausanne (7/1923)
The Treaty of Sevres met with immediate failure because the Big Three had almost completely
discarded the principle of nationalism in making this treaty. They partitioned Turkey as a
colony. Besides granting independence to Saudi Arabia and Armenia, the victors almost divided
up Turkey among themselves as spoils. Syria and Lebannon were mandated to France, while
Palestine, Trans Jordan and Iraq were mandated to Britain. Rhodes and the Dodecanese were
given to Italy. Eastern Thrace, Adrianople and Smyrna were obtained by Greece. Even the
Straits of Dardanelles and Bosporous were put under international control.
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All that remained of the former Ottoman Empire consisted of the city of Constantinople and the
northern and central portions of Asia Minor.
Soon after the Sultan had signed the treaty, a nationalist military leader, Mustapha Kemal
immediately led a nationalist movement to overthrow the Sultan's government. In November
1922 the Sultan was deposed. Kemal demanded a new treaty. He also began a war to
reconquer the land occupied by the powers. The powers were tired of war, and only Greece
was intent on holding her territorial acquisitions. Greece fought with the Turks but after a short
while she was defeated.
The resulting new Treaty of Lausanne was signed on July 24, 1923. Unlike all the above-
mentioned treaties, it was decided not by the Big Three. Russia, Italy, Greece, Rumania,
Yugoslavia and, most important of all, Turkey also participated in the drafting of the treaties.
By the new treaty, Turkey gave up her claims to non-Turkish territories. They became mandates
according to the Treaty of Sevres. But Turkey recovered purely Turkish territories (i.e., eastern
Thrace). She retained Constaintinople, Adrianople and the land lying between them. Moreover,
she had no need to pay reparations and limit her armed forces.
The Treaty of Lausanne turned out to be the most successful treaty because it was the only
negotiated peace treaty and Turkey was treated as a nation but not as a defeated enemy.
>> Back to Top
Criticism of the Versailles Settlement
The makers of the Versailles Settlement had contradictory viewpoints in making the peace
treaties but, in general, they did agree to reconstruct Europe on the principles of democracy
and nationalism. Before the war, there had been 19 monarchies and 3 republics. After the war,
15 out of 27 states were republics with an elected president. The number of independent states
in Europe also increased from 20 in 1914 to 27 in 1919. The Serbs, Poles, Croats, Czechs, Letts
and Finns had all formed their national states.
Some of the criticism which has been made against the Versailles Settlement deserves
mentioning. First of all, the peace settlement was made by the Big Three and the defeated
states were never allowed to discuss the terms. Secondly, the punishment on Germany was
somewhat excessive, since a democratic government had come to power. Thirdly, there was
the existence of many national minorities in the new states of Europe—about 17 millions.
Fourthly, the victorious powers did not disarm, even though the defeated powers had been
disarmed to the lowest level. Fifth, there were many cases in which the Big Three abandoned
the principle of nationality when they were making the territorial settlement — for example,
Italy obtained South Tyrol which contained 250,000 Austrian Germans and Rumania obtained
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Transylvania where more than half of the population were Hungarians. Thus the defeated
powers were suspicious of the intentions of the victorious powers and had deep resentment
against the Versailles Settlement. >> Back to Top
General Effects of the First World War
The First World War had far-reaching repercussions on the political and economic
developments of Europe.
After the First World War, there was little political stability in Europe. In eastern Europe, the
new states, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania and Finland were
always threatened by the rapid increase in national strength of communist Russia. In central
Europe, the Germans always longed for a revision of the Treaty of Versailles. They would give
full support to a government which advocated a strong foreign policy. In southern Europe, the
Italians also harboured ill-feeling towards the Versailles Settlement because the Big Three failed
to realize the territorial ambitions of Italy as were promised in the Treaty of London of 1915.
There were only two states in Europe which hoped to preserve the Versailles Settlement. They
were Britain and France. As both Britain and France were gravely weakened by the war, it is
doubtfu1 that they would be willing to make a costly war against any aggressors who were
determined to revise the Versailles Settlement.
The First World War left crushing economic burdens on all the European countries. It has been
estimated that the European victors owed an aggregate of $10 billion to the U.S. The economic
burdens of the European governments were multiplied when they had to rehabilitate
devastated areas, to pay pensions to the wounded and to the relatives of the dead and to pay
the interest due on the public and foreign debts. To add to the economic burdens of the
European governments, trade and industry did not revive after the war. There was mass
unemployment in Italy, Germany, Britain and France shortly after the war. The immediate
result was that in Italy the people were so discontented with their government that they
overthrew it. The long term result was that in order to solve their economic problems, most of
the European nations tried to become economically self-sufficient and to keep out the products
of other countries by building high tariff walls. Economic nationalism was a bad omen for the
peace of Europe.
There was one hopeful sign for the peace in the future—the League of Nations was born in
1920. The League had a noble ideal. It advocated open diplomacy, economic co-operation and
peaceful solution of international disputes.
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THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

It originated from Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points.
Aims
 To maintain peace and security in the world through collective action.
 To protect member states from aggression.
 To reduce national armaments to a minimum level.
 To prevent secret diplomacy.
 To mediate between conflicting Parties and settle disputes.
 To promote international cooperation in social and economic matters.
 To ensure all members respects the independence and borders of others.
Organs of the league

 General assembly
Met annually and had representatives from all member states. Each member was
allowed a maximum of 3 delegates to the annual meetings but among them only one
would vote. Decisions were made unanimously.
Duties:
 Deciding on polies of the league.
 Controlling finances and budget.
 Admitted new member states of the league.
 Dealt with matters affecting peace and security.
 Appointed temporary members of the council.
 The council
It was a smaller body which met 3 times a year. Permanent members were Britain,
France, Italy and Japan. U.S.A. was to be a permanent member but it refused to join the
league. Four other members had to be elected by the General assembly and served for 3
years. Decisions were also to be unanimous.
Duties:
 They discussed specific issues affecting world peace.
 They submitted recommendations to the assembly.
 They promoted disarmament failed by the 1919 treaty.
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 The secretariat
It dealt with the day to day running of the business and was stationed in Geneva,
Switzerland. It was headed by a Secretary General who was also the spoke person of the
league. The first General secretary was a British official Sir Erick Drummond.
Duties:
 To send reports to different agents of the league.
 To arrange league meetings.
 To keep written records of the league’s proceedings.
 To carryout decisions made in the council and assembly.
 The International Labour Organisation

Its headquarters was also in Geneva. It was independent of the league but was funded
by the league and therefore closely linked to the league. It met once a year and each
member state sent 4 representatives. The delegation included two government officials,
one employer and one employee because of the general feeling of economic problems
and social injustice affecting world peace.
Duties:
 To frame and apply international rules that governs conditions of labour.
 To disseminate information related to labour to all member states.
 They were also involved in issues to do with child and women labour.
 They also looked into issues to do with labourers and general labour conditions in
member states.
 They looked at:
 Workers compensation.
 Hours of work.
 Forced labour in colonies.
 Conditions of service.
 Functions of trade unions.
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 Permanent International Court Of Justice.

It was formed in 1922 and constituted of 15 Judges of different nations.
Duties:
 To interpret treaties.
 To settle international disputes.
 To advise Council and General Assembly on matters those were brought before it.
Achievements of the League

 ILO – Published a lot of information of which many government took to consideration.
 Health organisation – Managed to investigate causes of epidemics and was successful in
curing a Typhus epidemic in Russia and thus preventing it from spreading in Europe.
 Refugee organisation - Solved the problem of thousands of former prisoners in Russia at
the end of world war 1, about 1 million were returned home.
 Mandate commission – Supervised with great success of government territories taken
away from Germany and Turkey.
 1920 – Arguments between Finland and Sweden about Aaland Islands were resolved.
 1921 – Resolved border conflict between Germany and Poland over Upper Silesia.
 1924 – Germany joined the league.
 1925 – The Greeks invaded Bulgaria, the league withdrew the Greek troops and
damages were paid to Bulgaria.
 1925 – T he league rescued Austria from a financial crisis.
Failures of the league

 The Corfu incident
There was a border dispute between Albania and Greece after the war. On 27 August
1923, General Tellin of Italy and four other soldiers were killed while investigating the
matter. Italy blamed Greece for the murder and on 29 August they demanded
compensation and punishment of the murders. The Greeks took no action and on 31
August Italy bombarded and seized the Greek island of Corfu. Greece appealed to the
League which condemned Italy but Italy refused to move until the league forced the
Greeks to pay a compensation of 5o billion lira. Italy actually defied the league’s
authority.
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 The Manchuria incident

In the late 1920’s, Japan was in a financial crisis following loss of markets in USA and
China after they had introduced high tariffs to protect their home industries. Japan then
resorted to aggression so as to expand her empire and then invaded the Chinese
province of Manchuria. The Japanese army controlled the south Manchurian railway. In
September 1931, they claimed that Chinese soldiers had sabotaged the railway. In
retaliation, they overran Manchuria and threw out all Chinese forces. In 1932, they set
up a puppet government in Manchuria which was renamed Manchukuo. This
government did exactly what the Chinese army told it to do. Later in 1932 Japanese
aeroplanes and gunboats bombed Shanghai. The civilian government in Japan told the
Japanese army to withdraw but its instructions were ignored. It was therefore the army
and not the government that was in control of Japanese foreign policy. China appealed
to the league but Japan claimed it was not invading as an aggressor but simply settling a
local difficulty. The Japanese argued that China was in such a state of anarchy and they
had to invade to keep peace in the area. The league’s chief officials assessed the
situation and came up with a report after a year. Japan was condemned and was to
return Manchuria to China. Instead of withdrawing, the Japanese announced that they
intended to invade more of China again in self-defence. On 24 February 1933, the report
from the league was approved by 42 votes to 1 in the General Assembly, only japan was
opposing. Japan then withdrew from the league and continued with its war imperialism
against China. The league was powerless and did not take any more action against Japan
due to the following reasons:
 Countries were not prepared to apply sanctions to a strong naval power like Japan
because Europe had serious economic problems due to the Great depression.
 America being Japan’s major trading partner could not support an economic embargo
against Japan. sheron
 Russia and Germany did not support the idea. zj
 Britain was more interested in keeping good relations with Japan.
 Countries could not agree to ban arms sales to Japan, they were warned that Japan
would retaliate and war could escalate.
 The absence of America and Russia contributed greatly to the failure of the league to
check Japanese aggression, only these two powers would have had the resources to
remove the Japanese from Manchuria by force.
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 Italian invasion of Abyssinia

Italy wanted to control Abyssinia in order to avenge their defeat at Adowa in Ethiopia
during the scramble and partition in1896, to gain prestige and a new colony. In 1934
there was a border dispute at Walwal between Italy and Ethiopia. In October 1935; Italy
invaded Abyssinia using tanks, airplanes and poisonous gases. The league condemned
Italy but only applied limited sanctions. In May 1936, Italy defeated Abyssinia and in July
ended the sanctions. In 1937, Italy quit the league.
 The league failed to solve the Spanish civil war in 1936 – 39.
 The league did not address Germany’s aggressive foreign policy, when she was not
punished for one act of aggression; she was encouraged to make another.
 In 1936 Germany remilitarised the Rhineland and the league did nothing about it.
 The league looked in on in march 1938 as German troops marched into Austria and
announced the union of the two countries; this was a breach of the Versailles treaty.
 The league could not stop Germany’s invasion of Poland which led to the second world
war.
 The league failed to stop conflict in the city of Vilna in 1920. The city was assigned to
Lithuania but Poland also claimed it, Poland seized Vilna and the league accepted it.
 It failed to disarm the victorious powers such that those who were not armed like
Germany felt threatened.
 The league failed to raise a standing army to enforce its decisions.
 It failed to keep great powers within the organisation.
Reasons for the failure of the league

 It did not have a standing army and therefore failed to enforce its decisions.
 Absence of great powers like America demoralised other states and weakened the
league.
 Failure of the victorious powers to disarm e.g. France.
 Failure to stop the aggressions of dictators like Mussolini and Hitler.
 It had limited time e.g. the assembly met once a year giving it less time to look into
issues.
 The desire for unanimous agreement limited its operation and also its efforts.
 The outset of the Great depression in 1929 further weakened the league as countries
were more concerned with national economic survival than internationalism.
 Countries were selfish as they only served their own interests.
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 The league had no power to enforce a country to cooperate.

 Everything was done on a voluntary base.
 It work was biased towards interest of the victorious powers and their allies. The
defeated powers were therefore not obliged to respect the league. Its association with
the Versailles made defeated powers see it as an instrument to destroy them and could
not respect its existence.
 Sanctions were not effective.
 Favouritism.
 The idea of one nation one vote was not welcomed by other nations like China with a
high population and Britain had enormous industrial strength and was not happy to
have same vote as under developed Ethiopia.
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RISE OF DICTATORSHIP
Features of Dictatorship
 One party rule.
 One leader.
 National glorification.
 Totalisation.
 Racism.
ITALY
Rise of Fascism in Italy
Characteristics of fascism
 It was anti-democratic.
 It was anti-communism.
 It was anti-Semitism.
 Suppression of independent trade unions.
 Believed in propaganda and censorship.
 Believed in self-sufficiency.
 It was extremely nationalistic i.e. Fascists loved their country so much.
 Believed in military strength and violence.
 Totalitarianism (Controlled all aspects of people’s lives).
 Close cooperation between the government and businesses.
 Only Fascist party was allowed
Why fascism started in Italy (1919)

There were political, economic and social problems in Italy.
 Political factors
 Italians were disappointed by the treaty of Versailles; it gained very little land so there
was anger among the Italians. 600 000 died in world war 1 and it appeared they had
died for nothing.
 Fear of communism among businesspeople and those who were educated.
 There were assassinations.
 There was an ineffective and corrupt civil service.
 There was a weak government led by King Victor Emmanuel III.
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 There were too many political parties which led to political violence e.g.
 National Fascist Party.
 Socialists.
 Communists.
 Nationalists.
 Liberals.
 Catholic Centre Party.
 There was a conflict between the Roman Catholic church and the state; the church did
not want to recognise the state.
 Lack of democratic tradition in Italy.
 Economic Factors
 Italy’s economy was badly affected after world war 1.
 There was unemployment because of destruction of industries and factories.
 There was inflation; prices of goods were rising on a daily basis.
 There were strikes by workers because of law wages.
 There were food shortages.
 Low agricultural and industrial produce.
 There were lockouts by employers because workers wanted higher wages.
 There were sit ins by workers.
 There was landlessness.
 There were aging factory machines.
 Social Factors
 There were strikes, lawlessness, starvation and suffering.
 Low wages.
 There were demonstration and street fights.
Rise of Mussolini
Benito Mussolini was born in 1883. He became many things in life he was a teacher,
editor, soldier, politician and revolutionary. He founded the National Fascist party in
1919 in the city of Milan. He became a socialist in his teens. He grew up as a bully. He
founded the newspaper called class struggle. In 1912 he was made editor of Avanti
meaning forward. During world war 1 Mussolini advocated for Italy’s entry into the side
of the allied powers. He was expelled from the Socialist party and founded his own
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newspaper called People of Italy. In 1916 joined world war 1 as a Sargent but was
wounded. In 1917 he returned to his newspaper.
Factors that enabled Mussolini to rise to power

 Arcebo law 1923, it stated that the party that received more votes in an election would
automatically have 2/3of the sits in parliament and were able to pass any law in
parliament.
 Violence.
 Atmosphere of disillusionment and frustration.
 Lawlessness.
 Mussolini and his party offered attractive policies.
 Anti-fascist parties failed to cooperate with each other.
 The attempted strike played right into the hands of the fascists who were able to
supress the strike.
 All thugs and unemployed people were recruited into fascism.
 The fascists wore distinctive black shirts and believed in actions against strikes and
hooligans.
 The fascists had to demonstrate their strong hand and ability to restore order in Italy so
that people would vote for them.
 Mussolini had a military wing of the fascists to beat up opponents.
 Meetings of opponents especially communists were disrupted.
 Used of propaganda to win support, promising businesspeople to and strikes and
demands of trade unions.
 He organised demobilised soldiers promising to make Italy great again.
 Mussolini was backed financially by industrialists in their fight against communism.
 Mussolini got support from the Monarchy and the Roman Catholic church.
 Mussolini promised workers shorter working hours, higher wages and more schools for
children.
 March on Rome.
March on Rome
In 1921 the Liberals joined together with the Fascist, they gained 32 seats. There was no
strong government in Italy. There was a general strike in August which was only broken
by the Fascist who drove the Socialists away. Mussolini was supported by war veterans,
the unemployed and students. Mussolini used force, violence, propaganda threats and
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intimidation to gain power. Mussolini said “If power is not given to us we will take it by
force” to the king. Mussolini and his supporters took part in the March on Rome. The
Fascist claimed that they had travelled by foot and yet they had travelled by train. They
marched from Milan to Rome to the King’s palace in four columns. King Victor
Emmanuel III did not take any action, either he was afraid of the Fascist or admired
them. The man who was the Prime Minister resigned Luigy Facta asked the king to
declare Marshall law and ban Mussolini but the King refused and Facta resigned. On the
30th of October 1922, the king appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister.
Domestic Policy
 Arcebo law 1923, it stated that a party that received more votes in an election would
automatically have 2/3 of the sits in Parliament and would be able to pass any law.
 There was censorship of the press and media.
 Opposition leaders were assassinated.
 Mussolini became a dictator.
 Italy became a one party state.
 Trade unions were banned.
 Mussolini had a secret police called the Ovra; it hunted down opponents of the Fascist
and where found everywhere beer halls, cinemas, weddings and funerals.
 Italians lost right to vote members of parliament as they were now chosen by the Fascist
grand council led by Mussolini himself.
 There was totalitarianism.
 Education was controlled by the fascist.
 Solved unemployment by public works program of building roads, bridges and railway.
 Battle of wheat - Mussolini encouraged farmers to concentrate on wheat production so
as to have self-sufficiency.
 Battle of Lira – The lira was revalued.
 Hydroelectric power doubled.
 Battle of births – Mussolini encouraged Italians to have many children so he can create a
large army.
 He gave workers health, unemployment and accident insurance.
Benefits
 Stability in prices through lowering of wages.
 Government fixed rents.
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 Government controlled food prices making up for low wages.

 Creation of employment through public works program.
 Electrification of railways.
 Mussolini introduced health, unemployment and accident insurance.
 Through fascism peace returned to Italy.
 The Lateran treaty ended conflict between church and state.
 Unity in Italy because 99% were Catholics.
 Ovra brought peace.
Non-benefits
 Shortage of basic goods.
 Some people we still unemployed.
 There was corruption and inefficiency.
 There was poverty in Italy.
 Italian workers were poor as compared to their counterpart in Britain and France.
 Wheat produced was very expensive.
 Living standards worsened.
 Other political parties were banned.
 Italian lost freedom of speech.
 Italians lived in fear.
 Workers were not allowed to strike.
Foreign policy
Aims:
 Waned Italy to be a great nation again.
 Wanted to follow in the footsteps of Hitler.
 Wanted to create an Italia African empire.
 Wanted to obtain raw materials.
 Wanted a market for Italian goods.
 Invaded Greek island of Corfu.

 Stopped Hitler from uniting with Austria.
 Locarno pact with Britain, France, Britain and Belgium.
 The Stressa conference with France and Britain, they were opposing rearmament of
Germany.
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 Invaded Abyssinia.
 Supported General Franco in the Spanish civil war.
 Signed the Rome – Berlin axis with Germany, Mussolini and Hitler became friends.
 Signed the Rome – Berlin – Tokyo axis, it was an alliance between Italy, Germany and
Japan. It was anti-Russia.
 Mussolini withdrew Italy from the League of Nations.
 Signed the Pact of steel with Hitler, it was a military agreement, they agreed in anyone of
them was attacked they would assist each other.
Benefits
 Italian trade prospered and her credit stood high.
 Mussolini prestige was strengthened back home.
 Creation of employment i.e. in the army.
 Italians obtained cheap booty in Abyssinia and Albania.
Non-benefits
 Mussolini created more enemies than friends.
 Many Italians lost their lives during battle.
 Children were orphaned and women lost their husbands because of war.
 Mussolini concentrated on foreign affairs and ignored domestic problems.
 There was misuse of resources.
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GERMANY
Weimer Republic (1919-33)
It was the government formed soon after World War 1. German politicians met in the
town of Weimer and drew up a new constitution. There was a political vacuum in
Germany since the king Kaiser II had fled to Holland/Netherlands. Germany became a
republic, a country led by a president who was head of state and commander and chief
of the army. He was elected for a 7 year period. There was also a chancellor (Prime
Minister) who was head of government; he was leader of the party that won the
elections. He was elected for a 5 year period.
Problems faced by Weimar republic

 Political
 Violence which was caused by communists and socialists.
 There were too many political parties in Germany.
 Communists
 Socialists.
 NAZI.
 Nationalists.
 Liberals.
 Catholic centre party.
 There was an unstable coalition government; government was made up of too many
political parties.
 An attempt by communists to seize power and also by the NAZI.
 Political assassinations.
 NAZI violence.
 Unpopularity of Weimer government because it had agreed to sign the Versailles treaty.
 Inexperience of democracy, Germans were not used to the ideas of democracy as they
were used to the rule of Kaiser William II.
 Economic
 Payment of reparations, the amount was too high and unreasonable.
 Inflation, in 1923 prices of goods increased.’
 Unemployment.
 There was the great depression in 1923; there was an economic slump through the world.
 Factories and industries were closed.
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 Food shortages.
 Strikes.
 Low wages.
 Bankruptcy.
 Social
 Poverty.
 Suffering.
 Hunger.
 Diseases.
 Post war distress.
Rise of Hitler
 In August 1934 President Hindenburg died, Hitler became president and chancellor at the
same time.
 He also became commander and chief of the army.
 He gave himself the title Duke (leader).
 Separate Parliament for various states was abolished in 1934.
 The Enabling Act 1934, the law gave Hitler dictatorial powers for 4 years, he could rule
without consulting the Reichstag (Parliament).
 All other political parties were banned except the NAZI party; Germany became a one
party state.
 Trade unions were made illegal.
 In 1933 Hitler signed a Concordat treaty with the Pope; it allowed the Catholic Church to
run schools to maintain peace.
 He censored the media and the press.
 Teachers taught NAZI ideas and books were rewritten to favour Hitler.
 Hitler youth children were recruited into little fellows at 6 years and they joined the
Hitler youth at 14 years, they were taught to spy on parents.
 Hitler had a secret police called the Gestapo, they put on black uniforms and it killed and
arrested opponents on the NAZI.
 Strikes were forbidden.
The Nuremburg law

 Germans of Jewish blood were denied their citizenship.
 Marriage between Aryans and Jews was forbidden.
 Jews were to wear the yellow Star of David on their shirts to show they were Jews.
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 Jews were sent to concentration camps were they were killed in gas chambers, many also
died through hard work.
Reichstag fire 1933

The Reichstag building in Berlin was found burned one night. Hitler accused communists
and socialists for causing the fire and were arrested.
Domestic policy
 Hitler became a dictator.
 He also became commander and chief of the army.
 He gave himself the title Duke (leader).
 Separate Parliament for various states was abolished in 1934.
 The Enabling Act 1934, the law gave Hitler dictatorial powers for 4 years, he could rule
without consulting the Reichstag (Parliament).
 All other political parties were banned except the NAZI party; Germany became a one
party state.
 Trade unions were made illegal.
 In 1933 Hitler signed a Concordat treaty with the Pope; it allowed the Catholic Church
to run schools to maintain peace.
 He censored the media and the press.
 Teachers taught NAZI ideas and books were rewritten to favour Hitler.
 Hitler youth children were recruited into little fellows at 6 years and they joined the
Hitler youth at 14 years, they were taught to spy on parents.
 Hitler had a secret police called the Gestapo, they put on black uniforms and it killed
and arrested opponents on the NAZI.
 Strikes were forbidden.
 Public works programme where there was building of roads, bridges and railways.
 Private industries were assisted by the state.
 There was rapid expansion of armaments industry.
 There was production of synthetic fuel, rubber and textiles.
 Hitler wanted to make Germany self-sufficient.
 Introduction of conscription (training of soldiers) in 1935, the aim was to reduce
unemployment.
Foreign policy
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Aims:
 To make Germany most powerful country in the world.
 To create a greater Germany.
 Hitler wanted to create an extra living space in Europe.
 To kill all the Jews in Europe.
 He wanted to tear apart the treaty of Versailles.
 To restore German pride and prosperity.
 Germany left the League of Nations.

 Hitler walked out of the disarmament conference in Geneva.
 In 1935 Hitler signed the Anglo-German Naval agreement, it allowed Germany to have
2/3 the number of the British army.
 In 1936 Germany invaded Rhineland.
 In 1936 Hitler signed the Rome-Berlin axis with Mussolini.
 In 1937 Hitler signed the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo with Mussolini and General Tojo of Japan.
 Hitler supported General Franco in the Spanish civil war.
 Hitler signed the pact of steel with Italy, it was a military alliance.
 Signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact with Russia it was a non-aggression pact where they shared
Poland between themselves.
 In 1939 Germany invaded Poland.
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European History Notes (1)

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BY RODNEY MABIKA. (FACT FINDER) C0NTACT DETAILS O779052006/ 0718697794.

Why Britain abandoned splendid isolation

Background of European countries

Causes of World War I

 The Congress of Berlin

 The Dual Alliance (1879)

 The Triple alliance (1882)

 The Reinsurance Treaty (1887)

 The Dual Entente (1894)

 The Entente Cordiale (1904)

 The Triple Entente (1907)

 Russo-Japanese war (1904-05)

 1st Moroccan Crisis (1905-06)

The Algeciras Conference (1906)

 2nd Moroccan crisis

 1st Balkan war (1912)

Christian prosecution. Members of the league were Greece, Serbia, Montenegro,

 2nd Balkan war

 Arms race/ Militarism

Reasons for Participation

The Schlieffen plan 1905

Aims of the Schlieffen plan:

Reasons why the Schlieffen plan failed

 Battle of Marne (1914)

 The Trench warfare

Problems experienced in trenches

 Stench of decomposing bodies.

Results of trench warfare

 Battle of Verdun (1916)

 Battle of Somme (1916)

 Battle of Jutland (1916)

 The war at sea

Why America joined the war

Why Central powers lost

Results of the war

 Women were now given professions once done by men only.

Results of the First World War

 Paris Peace Conference 1919

Paris Peace Conference 1919

The decisions of the Big Three were influenced by five factors:

(iii) Lloyd George

Wilson's Fourteen Points

(b) Germany's surrender of her past conquests:

Evacuation by the Germans of all Russian territory (point six).

Evacuation by the Germans of all Belgian territory (point seven).

Evacuation by the Germans of Alsace-Lorraine (the French territory) (point eight).

Autonomous development for the people of Austria-Hungary (point ten).

Rumania, Serbia and Montenegro to be independent (point eleven).

Peoples under Turkish rule to be autonomous (point twelve).

An independent Poland (point thirteen).

The Peace Treaties

Treaty of Versailles (1919)

(iii) War-guilt and Reparations:

Treaty of St. Germain (September 1919)

Treaty of Trianon (June 1920)

Treaty of Neuilly (November 1919)

Treaty of Sevres (8/1920) & Lausanne (7/1923)

>> Back to Top

Criticism of the Versailles Settlement

General Effects of the First World War

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Organs of the league

 The International Labour Organisation