THE FIRST WORLD WAR (1914 – 1918)

INTRODUCTION

World War I was a military conflict, from August 1914 to November 1918 that involved many of
the countries of Europe as well as the United States and other nations throughout the world.
World War I was one of the most violent and destructive wars in European history. Of the 65
million men who were mobilized, more than 10 million were killed and more than 20 million
wounded. The term World War I did not come into general use until a second worldwide conflict
broke out in 1939. Before that year, the war was known as the Great War or the World War.

World War I was the first total war. Once the war began, the countries involved mobilized their
entire populations and economic resources to achieve victory on the battlefield. The term home
front, which was widely employed for the first time during World War I, perfectly symbolized
this new concept of a war in which the civilian population behind the lines was directly and
critically involved in the war effort.

The two coalitions fighting were the Allied Powers (Britain, France, Russia, Italy, and others)
and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire). After
the Central Powers were defeated in 1918, the two coalitions signed various peace treaties that
changed the shape of Europe such as the Versailles Treaty.

CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR

The war between France and Prussia (the future German Empire) that lasted from 1870 to 1871
ended with a humiliating defeat for France. It lost the regions of Alsace and Lorraine, and was
forced to pay a huge indemnity to Prussia. The Franco-Prussian War led to creation of a
powerful German Empire with a military and industrial potential to further disrupt the European
balance of power on the one hand and widespread resentment and desire for revenge among the
French (revanchism) on the other.

ACCESSION OF WILHELM II TO THE GERMAN THRONE

With the accession of Wilhelm II to the German throne in 1888, the German foreign policy
became more bellicose. The new German Emperor dismissed the skillful Otto von Bismarck as
Chancellor. He also refused to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia that maintained the
fragile peace between Russia and Austria-Hungary as well as kept France isolated. That way
Wilhelm II helped create an alliance between France and Russia (formed in 1892) that became
the basis for the future Triple Entente.
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR

Russo-Japanese rivalry over Manchuria and Korea reached its height with the Russo-Japanese
War (1904-1905). The outcome of the war against the Japanese was a major blow for the
Russians who lost almost entire Baltic and Pacific fleet. The defeat also provoked a serious
political crisis that led to the Russian Revolution of 1905. But the Russo-Japanese War also
made an end to the Russian ambitions in the Far East and as a result, the Tsarist government
focused its attention to Europe, in the first place to the Balkans. This intensified the old rivalry
with Austria-Hungary that also had a great interest in the Balkans.

ENTENTE CORDIALE/ SYSTEM OF ALLIANCES

German militarism and especially the build-up of naval power convinced Great Britain that
Germany may soon establish itself as a dominant power on the Continent. In order to create a
counterweight to the German Empire, the British decided to enter into an alliance with France
that came to be known as Entente Cordiale. In 1907, Britain also entered into an alliance with
Russia that was already in alliance with France. This formed the Triple Entente which in turn
became the core of the Allies during World War I.

MOROCCAN CRISES

The Moroccan Crises - the Tangler Crisis (1905-1906) and Agadir Crisis (1911) - brought the
European powers on the brink of war. The First Moroccan Crisis (also known as the Tangier
Crisis) was an international crisis between March 1905 and May 1906 over the status of
Morocco. Germany attempted to use the issue of Morocco's independence to increase frictions
between France and the United Kingdom, as well as to advance German commercial interests in
Morocco. They succeeded in their stated goal of assuring Moroccan independence, but failed to
attract diplomatic support for their positions at the resulting international conference. The crisis
worsened German relations with both France and the United Kingdom, and helped ensure the
success of the new Anglo-French Entente Cordiale. The Agadir Crisis, also called the Second
Moroccan Crisis, or the Panthersprung, was the international tension sparked by the deployment
of a substantial force of French troops in the interior of Morocco in April 1911. France thus
broke both with the Act of Algeciras that had ended the First Moroccan Crisis, and the Franco-
German Accord of 1909. Germany reacted by sending the gunboat Panther to the Moroccan port
of Agadir on July 1, 1911.

Both crises were provoked by the Germans with an aim to cause tensions between France and
Britain that just concluded an alliance. The result, however, was right the opposite. Instead of
‘softening’ Britain and bring it closer to the Central Powers, the Moroccan Crises further
reinforced the Entente Cordiale and increased the British hostility towards Germany.
BOSNIAN ANNEXATION CRISIS

In 1908, Austria-Hungary decided to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina that was formally an
integral part of the Ottoman Empire. The annexation of the provinces that were occupied by the
Dual Monarchy since 1878 was bitterly opposed by Serbia that was closely related to the
provinces both ethically and geographically. Serbia was supported by the Tsarist government and
the crisis persisted into 1909. Russia failed to win as firm support from France or Britain as
Vienna enjoyed from Germany and accepted the annexation of the provinces. Serbia was forced
to back down and the crisis ended. But it permanently damaged the relationship between Russia
and Serbia on the one hand and Austria-Hungary on the other. The annexation of Bosnia and
Herzegovina caused embitteredness in Serbia, while the way it was carried out humiliated the
Russian government that could not afford a similar humiliation during the 1914 July Crisis.

BALKAN WARS

In 1912, Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria formed the Balkan League, a military alliance
against the Ottoman Empire. Within a few months, the Balkan allies stripped the Ottoman
Empire of its possessions in the Balkans and divided the conquered territory among themselves.
In June, Bulgaria turned against its allies of Serbia and Greece due to a dispute over partition of
Macedonia. But the Bulgarians were defeated within a month and forced to give up their claims
in Macedonia. The success of the Balkan League shocked most European powers including the
Russian allies of France and Great Britain. But it especially disturbed Austria-Hungary that
strongly opposed a strong Serbian state. Vienna saw Serbia both as a rival in the Balkans and as
a direct threat because it feared that its small Balkan neighbour may become the core of a future
South-Slavic state. The Balkan Wars made Austro-Hungarian statesmen even more determined
to take concrete action to prevent further strengthening of Serbia.

ARMS RACE/ MILITARISM

Militarism is a policy of aggressive military preparedness. In this period of time it gave all
countries great reason to feel the heavy weight of an oncoming war. Great Britain's naval policy
(to always be twice as big as the next two largest navies put together), along with the
predominate feeling of war provided countries with a strong reason to try and create an
incredibly strong military force. This led to an arms race, which made the impending war seem
inevitable. The military planning in some countries also caused an increased fear of war. Since
military machines were being developed, each country was appointing a general staff of experts.
The greatest problem with this was that there was a fear that "some chief of staff, in order to
maintain the schedule on his 'timetable', might force an order of mobilization and thus precipitate
war." These two factors also led to the European countries having a lot of arms at their disposal.
IMPERIALISM

Imperialism is defined as the control of one people by another politically, economic exploitation,
or the imposition of culture on another group. This played a large part in the creation of the
enemies for many countries, which led to solid grounds for war. For example, Austria wanted to
dominate the Balkans in order to check the propaganda coming from Serbia. Germany supported
Austria in its Balkan policy because it wanted to exploit the rich recourses of Asia Minor, and
had to have a peaceful route through the Balkans to get there. In this way, it led to the alliance of
Germany and Austria when war was impending. Imperialism led countries to have conflicting
national interests, which also led to war, as each country thought that they were right and wanted
to convert other cultures to be more like their own.

NATIONALISM

Nationalism, the love and support of one's country, has always existed. In this era, however, it
was to take part in the creation of one of the most famous wars in history. Since so much pride
was devoted to countries, it made the possibilities of peace between past rivals less probable. It
also meant that most nations, especially the great powers, would rather fight a war than back
down from a rival's diplomatic provocation. In effect, nationalism was also a contributing factor
to the alliance system. No country feels comfortable being in a war alone, and with the growing
militaries in almost every country, allies provided much comfort

ECONOMIC RIVALRIES

There were economic conflicts between Germany and Britain from 1890 onwards. Since 1871
Germany had been experiencing a period of rapid industrialization, and by 1890 the products of
her industry were competing with British manufactures everywhere in the globe and German
merchant ships threatened Britain's carrying trade. There were also economic struggles between
Germany and France. In 1870 France had already lost two of her coal producing provinces--
Alsace and Lorraine to Germany. From 1871 onwards, France had to import coal from other
countries. Thus France had to compete with Germany in Morocco because the place was rich in
mineral resources. Germany and Austria also rivalled with Russia in the Balkans for commercial
privileges. As early as 1888 Germany began to build a railway in the area. Austria regarded the
area as a field for profitable investment and as a big market for her manufactured goods. Russia
also hoped to control the area because half of her exports passed through this area.

ASSASSINATION OF ARCHDUKE FRANZ FERDINAND OF AUSTRIA (IMMEDIATE

CAUSE)

On June 28, 1914, a group of conspirators from the revolutionary movement called Black Hand
carried out the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian heir presumptive, Archduke Franz
Ferdinand and his wife while they were visiting Sarajevo. Since the assassin, Gavrilo Princip and
his 5 accomplices were Bosnian Serbs, the Dual Monarchy accused Serbia to stand behind the
assassination. The event triggered the course of events that directly led to the outbreak of World
War I. Austria-Hungary was determined to eliminate the ‘Serbian threat’ before the assassination
of its heir presumptive and it only needed an excuse to declare war on its Balkan neighbour. On
July 23, Austria-Hungary presented an ultimatum to Serbia. Vienna, however, intentionally
imposed impossible demands to Serbia in order to be able to declare war on its neighbour for
‘orchestrating’ the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. A few days later, the
Austro-Hungarian troops invaded Serbia and started the devastating World War I. Then, on
August 1, 1914, Germany demanded that Russia's military mobilization cease, and when Russia
refused, Germany declared war. Russia then declared war on France, convinced that it would
enter anyway. Germany was then devastated when Great Britain entered the war, too. As one
country declared war on another all alliances were brought into the war, too, and the First World
War soon resulted.

COURSE OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

1914

On 28 June, in Sarajevo, Gavrilo Princip (a Slav nationalist) assassinated Archduke Franz

Ferdinand, heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia
for the killing and because Europe was linked by a series of diplomatic alliances - Austria-
Hungary/Germany/Italy (Central Powers) and Britain/France/Russia (Triple Entente/Allied
forces) - the affair escalated into full-scale war.

On 4 August, Britain declared war after Germany invaded neutral Belgium (Britain declared war
on Austria-Hungary on 12 August). The British government had previously promised to defend
Belgium and felt that German troops directly across the Channel were too close for comfort. On
7 August, four divisions making up a British Expeditionary Force crossed to France to attempt to
halt the German advance. With French forces, they were successful in achieving their objective
at the Battle of Mons (August) and the Battle of the Marne (September). As each side tried to
outflank the other, a 'race to the sea' developed and this meant that huge trench systems took
shape from the Swiss border through all of northern France. With these trench systems and
weapons such as the machine gun, defending was considerably easier than attacking, and so
within months of beginning, the war was already showing signs of stagnating.

Although the war in Europe was the main focus - as with the first battle of Ypres (October) - the
conflict soon truly became a 'world war': Japan was allied to the Entente forces and the Ottoman
Empire soon joined the Central Powers. Conflict between the imperial forces of these competing
power-blocs in Africa and South America aggravated the situation.

Like previous continental wars, confrontation was not confined to land. Prior to the outbreak of
war, there had been an arms race orientated towards the building of the most up-to-date
battleships. Although the British fleet was still by far the largest in the world, the German fleet
was new and well equipped. By December, German warships were regularly bombarding the
English coast. Only after a naval skirmish at Dogger Bank (January 1915) did further German
coastal bombardments cease.

1915

Many had assumed that 'it will all be over by Christmas', but as the year turned, competing
countries increasingly came to realise that the conflict was going to be drawn-out. They had to
prepare for such a prospect and, in Britain, this was done by an extension to the Defence of the
Realm Act in March 1915 and by the negotiation of loans from the United States. The DORA
gave the government emergency powers to censor the press, requisition property and control
workers' jobs, pay and conditions. The government was not really prepared for war and
complaints from the army that they had insufficient supplies led to the formation of a coalition
government in May (thus ending the last ever Liberal government in the UK). By October,
women were being recruited to undertake traditional 'men's work' at home, such as working on
trains and buses.

On the Western Front the stalemate continued and although innovations were introduced to
warfare - such as the use of poison gas by both sides at the second Battle of Ypres (April) - little
was achieved except the killing of more men. Throughout the year, battles such as Loos
(September) were indecisive and led to little movement in the lines of trenches. In the east,
Austria-Hungary was joined as a Central Power by Bulgaria and attacks continued on Serbia and
Russia. Italy, however, changed sides and from April 1915 fought with the Allied forces. Late in
April, French and British imperial forces attempted to open a new front in Turkey at Gallipoli.
Although the Gallipoli campaign continued for nine months, little was achieved and, in January
1916, the battered and bloody Allied forces (largely Australian and New Zealand troops, or
ANZACs) withdrew.

At sea, Britain used its superior fleet to impose a blockade on the German ports. Germany
suffered shortages and, by the end of the war, food riots had occurred in a number of German
towns. In response to the blockade, the German fleet embarked on a concentrated period of
submarine warfare. On 7 May, the Lusitania, a luxury passenger liner travelling from the United
States, was sunk off the south coast of Ireland. Almost 1,200 civilians were drowned, including
over 100 Americans. The German fleet withdrew to port, fearful that a continued campaign
might bring the neutral Americans (with their massive resources and manpower) into the war on
the side of the Allies.

World War One was truly the first 'total war' - not only was warfare conducted on land and sea
but, on 31 May, London witnessed its first attack from the air as bombs were dropped from the
great German Zeppelin airships. During the course of the war, over 2,000 civilians were killed or
injured as a result of such raids.
1916

As warfare on all fronts looked like grinding to a halt, the British decided that the solution to the
problem was to create a mass popular army. Previous appeals by the war minister, Lord
Kitchener ('Your country needs you') had raised over a million volunteers but, on 9 February,
conscription began for men aged between 18 and 41. During the course of the war, over 4.5
million Britons served in arms (in addition to over three million troops from the British Empire).

The German solution to the stalemate was to undertake a huge offensive at Verdun (February).
The German intention was a war of attrition which would 'bleed France white'. Indeed, between
the two armies, during the next ten months, over a million casualties occurred. In an attempt to
relieve the pressure on the front at Verdun, the British and French undertook a push at the
Somme and, on the first day of the battle (1 July), 20,000 Britons were killed and a further
40,000 injured. Even further innovations, such as the use of tanks (15 July) proved of little effect.

At sea, both the British and German High Seas fleet continued to strive for mastery. The one
nearly decisive sea battle took place in the North Sea at Jutland on 31 May 1916. Although
German battle cruisers initially caused considerable damage to their British counterparts, the
engagement of the British Grand Fleet under Admiral Jellicoe caught the Germans at a
disadvantage and inflicted significant damage. Although the British lost more ships and men in
the battle, the German fleet was more heavily damaged and spent most of the rest of the war in
its home ports. This allowed the British fleet to effectively control the seas, meaning imperial
troops and supplies could reach Europe with much greater ease.

As the war raged on, changes continued to take place in Britain. In February, a scheme for
National Savings was introduced to increase government access to funds and, on 21 May, a
measure to ensure daylight saving (British summertime) was introduced to allow for greater
production in the factories and munitions works of the industrial heartland. It was not all peace
and quiet within the British Isles. On 24 April, an armed uprising took place in Dublin in an
attempt to assert the need for Irish independence. An Irish Republic was proclaimed and the
General Post Office was seized, but the rising was soon crushed by British forces and its leaders
executed.

1917

The year 1917 saw great changes in the course of the war. In February, the German Army
executed a strategic retreat to pre-prepared positions, known as the Hindenburg Line. Major
German successes in the east contributed to two revolutions in Russia where Tsar Nicholas II
was forced to abdicate (February/March) and a Bolshevik regime under Lenin was established in
October/November. The October Revolution took Russia out of the war (an armistice was
declared in December 1917 and a Russo-German peace treaty was signed at Brest-Litovsk in
March 1918). This meant that German forces could concentrate more fully on the Western Front.
The impact of this development was less than might have been expected for, as a result of
German attempts to entice Mexico to invade the United States, on 6 April the USA declared war
on Germany. This meant not only the prospect of new ships, troops, supplies and weapons
assisting on the Western Front but also opened up the prospect of financial and commercial
assistance to the depleted Allied nations.

The Allied forces co-ordinated a major push from the spring and, in April, the British pushed
forward in the battle of Arras. In July, battle was again joined at Ypres (Passchendaele), where
mustard gas was used in an attempt to break the lines and British casualties were severe in
respect to the amount of territory gained. A different tactic was employed in November when, at
Cambrai, a mass use of tanks was employed for the first time. Although significant ground was
taken by the use of the tanks, a German counter-attack later in the month retook all that had been
gained earlier.

Outside Europe, Allied forces were increasingly in control. Despite major setbacks in the first
two years of the war - as the Turks attempted to gain control of the Suez Canal - by mid-1917
British forces were again in control of Baghdad and Jerusalem at the expense of the Ottoman
Empire. (On 2 November, the Balfour Declaration was issued guaranteeing the establishment of
a Jewish homeland.) Earlier in the year, Lawrence of Arabia had helped co-ordinate an Arab
attack on Akaba and, by October 1918, the Ottoman Empire had agreed to an armistice.

At sea, submarine warfare was intensified and British food reserves ran dangerously low in the
spring. Two innovations - the convoy system (where ships travelled in groups with military
escort) and rationing (of meat, butter, lard, margarine and sugar) - led to the overcoming of this
problem. Developments on the Home Front came with equal pace: on 28 March the Women's
Army Auxiliary Corps was formed, placing women into the heat of warfare in a military sense
for the first time; in April 1918, the junior service (the Royal Air Force) was founded. British
anti-German feeling had increased as the war had gone on and, on 17 June, the British royal
family changed their surname to Windsor to appear more British.

1918

German forces released from the Eastern Front launched a major offensive on the Western Front
in the spring of 1918. Despite some minor initial successes, by July the Germans had failed to
break the Allied lines and, in effect, this meant that the war was reaching its endgame. Allied
counter-offensives at the Marne and at Amiens (August) were successful and in the early autumn
a 'hundred days' of semi-mobile warfare forced the Germans back beyond the Hindenburg line
and freed much of occupied France and Belgium. On 11 November, at 11am in the Forest of
Compiègne, an armistice between the Allied forces and Germany was signed and fighting
stopped. Other Central powers sued for peace but across the world, millions of young men were
dead - 947,000 of them from the British Empire.

At home in Britain, victory was greeted with celebrations and a return to something like
normality. So many things had changed, however, and in a General Election held in December
(where the coalition government were returned with a massive majority), women over 30 were
allowed the vote for the first time. Although an armistice was agreed in November 1918, it was
not until 28 June 1919 that the Treaty of Versailles was signed between the Allied powers and
Germany, thus officially ending the war 'to end all wars'. Further treaties with the other defeated
Central powers followed through 1919 and, in the victorious countries, public celebrations
marked the end of hostilities.

RESULTS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

Decline of the Empires

The political changes effected by World War I were reflected best in the decline of the empires.
While the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary completely collapsed, the Great War also
sounded the death knell for monarchies in Germany and Russia, which became republics. World
War I was also the cause for a rise in nationalistic tendencies leading to the demand for
independence in many British colonies of outside Europe.

Changing Economies and Societies

The economic strain caused by World War I resounded through Europe and the rest of the world.
Inflation skyrocketed in many countries. The burden of reparations drastically affected the
German economy. The value of the deutsche mark dipped to an all-time low. European nations
owed their allies over $10 billion in the post-war years. Much changed on the social front too.
With the men having joined the war, the women of most countries took over businesses and
establishments. Mechanization and mass production paved the way for labour laws. The
disillusionment caused by war led to a revolution in many societies. People chose republics over
monarchies and the desire for better standards of living were openly vented.

Need for the League of Nations

World War I exposed the need for an association of nations – a body to promote international
peace and security. The necessity of an organization to prevent a global conflict of the nature of
World War I was initially pointed out by President Woodrow Wilson in his Congressional
Speech in 1918. The emergence of the League of Nations was a natural corollary to the
catastrophic consequences of the Great War.

On June 25, 1919, the plan to create the League of Nations was sanctioned at the Paris Peace
Conference. The initial council meeting of the League of Nations was held in Paris on January
16, 1920. The League of Nations headquarters was moved to Geneva in November 1920. The
League's inaugural General Assembly was attended by forty-one nations on November 15, 1920.

Despite being the brainchild of President Woodrow Wilson, the United States did not join the
League of Nations, as it was not ratified by the U.S. Congress.

Technological Growth

The one distinct positive outcome of World War I was the boost received by research and
technology. Rail and automobile transport, radio and wireless communications, research and
development of weapons and arms, including nuclear research, boomed. The years following
World War I saw unprecedented armament and chemical research. The atomic bombs used in
World War II were developed in the period following the Great War. Aviation technology, quite
literally, took off. Machines of mass production, developed during the war, revolutionized
industries in the post-war years.

Led to World War II

As Foch rightly remarked, the Treaty of Versailles was the cause of much dissent in Europe.
While Germany had based the armistice on President Wilson’s Fourteen Points, the Treaty of
Versailles had none of the idealism he had envisioned. The harsh terms of the treaty placed all
responsibility of the Great War on Germany. The financial reparations paid by the Central
Powers caused much resentment. Although, World War I was by no means the only reason for
the outbreak of World War II, the settlement of territories, responsibility, and finances only led
to more strife which eventually translated into World War II.

A New Great Power

Before their entry into World War One, the United States of America was a nation of untapped
military potential and growing economic might. But the war changed this in two important ways:
their military was turned into a large-scale fighting force with intense experience of modern war,
a force which was clearly equal to the old Great Powers, and the balance of economic power
started to switch from the drained nations of Europe to America. However, decisions taken by
US politicians caused the country to retreat from the world and return to isolationism, initially
limiting the impact.

Socialism Rises to the World Stage

The collapse of Russia under the pressure of total warfare allowed socialist revolutionaries to
seize power, and turn one of the world’s growing ideologies into a major European force. While
the global revolution that Lenin believed was coming never happened, the presence of a huge
and potentially powerful communist nation in Europe and Asia changed the balance of world
politics.

A "Lost Generation"/ Loss of lives

While it’s not strictly true that a whole generation was lost – and some historians have
complained about the term – eight million people died, which was perhaps one in eight of the
combatants. In most of the Great Powers, it was hard to find someone who had not lost someone
to the war. Many other people had been wounded or shell shocked so badly they killed
themselves, and these aren’t reflected in the figures. Facial injuries were particularly affecting.

Transformed Nationalism

Nationalism had been growing in Europe for decades before World War One, but the aftermath
saw a major rise in new nations and independence movements. Part of this was to do with
Woodrow Wilson’s commitment to ‘self-determination’, and part to the destabilization of old
empires and the chance for nationalists to take advantage and declare new countries. The key
region for European nationalism was Eastern Europe and the Balkans, where Poland, the three
Baltic States, Czechoslovakia, the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and more
emerged. But nationalism conflicted hugely with the ethnic make-up of this region of Europe,
where many different nationalities and ethnicities all lived merged with one another, and where
self-determination and national majorities created disaffected minorities who preferred the rule
of a neighbour.