There are two classes of colloids, the lyophobic (hydrophobic) which are water repellent and

lyophilic (hydrophilic) which have a strong affinity for water. Examples of hydrophobic colloids
are silver halogens and non-hydrated metal oxides while hydrophilic colloids are starch and bio
colloids such as viruses and bacteria. Colloidal particles are in the size range between dissolved
substances and suspended particles. They are in a solid state and can be removed from the liquid
by physical means such as very high-force centrifugation or by passage of the liquid through
filters with very small pore spaces. Colloidal particles are too small to be removed by
sedimentation and by sand filtration processes [ CITATION Mac10 \l 1033 ].The purpose of
coagulation is to turn the small particles into flocs, either as precipitates or suspended particles.
The flocs are readily removed in subsequent processes such as settling, dissolved air flotation
(DAF), or filtration .The formation of precipitates is another removal mechanism for dissolved
substances from water during coagulation and it’s highly significant during the destabilizing of
hydrophilic colloid suspensions. The destablising process is brought about principally by
dehydration and coordinative chemical reactions between the applied coagulant and functional
groups on the colloid surface. The predominant mechanism depends on the nature of colloidal
dispersion which is whether they are hydrophilic or hydrophobic, surface nature of the colloid,
functional groups present and intensity of surface charge carried by the colloid. [ CITATION Ste05 \l
1033 ]. Coagulation and flocculation are designed to remove infectious agents, remove toxic
compounds that have adsorbed to the surface of particles, remove precursors to the formation of
disinfection byproducts, and make the water palatable.

The type of coagulant used that is whether it is uncharged or charged, the intensity of charge,
adsorptive capacity and capacity of bridge formation between adjacent colloids. They are two
general names of coagulants, the metals coagulants which are either based on aluminum or iron
and polymers. The aluminum coagulants include aluminum sulfate, aluminum chloride and
sodium aluminate while the iron coagulants include ferric sulfate, ferric chloride and ferric salts
with organic polymers. The popularity of aluminum and iron coagulants arises from their
effectiveness which comes from the ability to form multi charged complexes, availability and
relatively low cost.[ CITATION Cri12 \l 1033 ] .The predominant choice of coagulant is alum,
followed by ferric chloride and ferric sulfate, respectively. While cost may be the overriding
factor, the operating region plays a significant role in coagulant selection although ferric chloride
is effective over a broader range. Aluminum sulfate (alum) is the mostly used coagulant which is
manufactured from the digestion of bauxite ores with sulfuric acid and it has no residual color in
the treated water. It can be in liquid form and solid form stored in lead, plastic and stainless steel
tanks due to their corrosiveness. Ferric coagulants are used over a wide range of pH from 4 to 11
and it is useful for color removal at low and high pH values in cases where iron and manganese
is present also in the softening process. The reactions of polymerized coagulants with alum or
ferric coagulants produce precipitates which makes thorough cleaning of tanks, lines and pumps
necessary before applying the coagulants. Typical dosages of alum range from 10 to 150 mg/L.
Ferric chloride and ferric sulfate dosages range from 5 to 150 mg/L and from 10 to 250 mg/L
respectively [ CITATION MWH05 \l 1033 ].

Coagulant aids are used in waters that have low concentrations of particles and, thus, have few
nucleating sites to form larger floc .Since their density is higher than most floc particles, floc
settling velocity is increased by the addition of coagulant aids. The dosage must be carefully
controlled to avoid lowering the water quality. Examples include insoluble particulate materials
such as clay, sodium silicate, pure precipitated calcium carbonate, diatomite, and activated
carbon. Flocculant aids are uncharged and negatively charged polymers whose purpose is to
build a stronger floc. They are added after the coagulants are added and the particles are already
destabilized. Activated silica and sodium silicate are common flocculant aids also micro-sand is
added after chemical coagulation but before flocculation to act as a nucleus for floc formation.
The sand has a higher density than the floc and increases its settling velocity

If pre- polymerized coagulants is to be used in conjunction with alum or ferric coagulants, they
should be fed through different lines to avoid precipitation and reduced effectiveness of the
coagulants. In general, polymerized coagulant liquid products should be fed directly to the flash
mixer without prior dilution and lump or ground dry coagulant process products may be
dissolved in batch fashion where the preweighed quantity is dissolved in a tank with a
mechanical mixer then metered directly or after dilution and the continuous method, the dry
granular chemical is fed by means of a screw or vibrating feeder from a hopper to a dissolving
tank.[ CITATION Bra16 \l 1033 ].
Metal coagulants hydrolyze to form acid products that affect pH that in turn affects the solubility
of the coagulant, as shown below

6CaCO3 + Al2 (SO4 )3 ↔ 2Al (OH)3 + 6 Ca S O 4 + 6 CO 2

Calcium + Aluminum sulfate ↔ Aluminum hydroxide + Calcium Sulfate + Carbon

dioxide
Bicarbonate
(Soluble) (Soluble) (Insoluble) (Soluble)
(Soluble)
Calcium Sulfate causes permanent hardness in water while carbon dioxide causes it to be
corrosive. Coagulation and flocculation processes are used to enhance the effectiveness of
solid/liquid separation processes. Usually iron or aluminum coagulants are added in a highly
stirred tank and the pH is corrected to a point where floc formation occurs which manifests by
the formation of precipitates. The coagulant demand will come from color, dissolved organic
matter, turbidity and the quality of the treated water which is desired. Controlling the coagulation
dose and the coagulation pH is important since under dosing or failure to maintain pH will result
in elevated dissolved iron /aluminum and incomplete removal of color turbidity while overdosing
will lead to high concentrations of residual salts [ CITATION Bre12 \l 1033 ] . Two important
factors in coagulation are optimum pH which is the range 5.5 to 7.7 for alum and dose but due to
the number and complexity of coagulant reactions, the actual dose and pH for a given water on a
given day is generally determined empirically from a laboratory test, the jar test.

The efficiency of the coagulation is dependent on the efficiency of mixing the coagulant with
the raw water and efficient flocculation requires mixing to bring the particles into contact with
one another. Mixing can be done through the flash mixing during which the coagulant is
dispersed into the raw water, in-line mechanical mixing, in-line static mixing, mechanical mixing
in stirred tanks, diffusion by pipe grid and hydraulic mixing.[ CITATION Wil05 \l 1033 ].