Sandeep Kumar - A Complete Resource For CTET - Social Science and Pedagogy-Pearson India (2016) PDF

A Complete Resource for
CTET
(Central Teacher Eligibility Test)
Social Sciences
and
Pedagogy
For Paper II
Sandeep Kumar
Assistant Professor
Department of Education
University of Delhi
A01_CTET_SOCIAL-SCI01_SE_XXXX_FM.indd 1 12/27/2016 11:30:37 AM

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SOCIAL-SCIENCE.indd 1 12/9/2016 5:05:13 PM

Contents
Preface�� xxi
About the Author�� xxiv
Acknowledgments�� xxv
Previous Year Papers��xxvii
UNIT-I History
Chapter 01: When, Where, and How

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
How to Know our Past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Types of Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Primary Source of History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Secondary Sources of History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Archaeological Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Literary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Time and Space Concept in History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Chapter 02: Earliest Human Civilisation and Processes

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
How Do we Know about These People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Places Where People Started to Live . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Stone Tools and Their Making Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Changing Environment and Human Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Rock Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Understanding the Past through Paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Gatherers Became Cultivators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
On the Way of Settled Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
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iv | Contents
Customs and Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Earliest Cities of Indian Subcontinent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
What Makes These Cities Special . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Houses, Drains, and Streets of Harappan Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Life in These Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Availability and Accessibility of Raw Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Food for City People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Harappan Sites in Gujarat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
A Mystery of the End of a Civilisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Chapter 03: State Formation and Social Change

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Post-Vedic Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Transition to State and Social Orders (1000 BCE–500 BCE) . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Diffusion of Iron Technology and Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Relationship between Technological Development and Social Change . . . 32
Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Jainism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Diffusion of Iron Technology and Political Organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Rise of States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Magadha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Vajji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Chapter 04: Empires, Social, and Cultural Exchange

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Emergence of Magadha as Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Haryanka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Mauryan Empire: The Earliest Empire of Indian History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
How we Know about Mauryan Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Mauryan Kings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Kalinga War and Ashoka’s Dhamma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Contents | v
Administration of the Mauryan Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Army Committee of the Mauryan Empire: Their Subcommittees
and Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
New Notion of Kingship in Deccan and Further South India . . . . . . . . . . 45
Pandyas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Cheras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Satavahanas of Deccan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
The Era of Foreign Invaders: The Indo-Greeks (Yavanas), The
Parthians, The Saka, and The Kushans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Indo-Greeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Parthians (Pahlavas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Sakas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Kushans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Gupta Empire and Economic Prosperity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
After Gupta Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Social and Cultural Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Chapter 05: Change and Continuity

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Emergence of New Kings and Kingdoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Process of Emergence of New Dynasties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Kingdoms’ Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Prashastis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Cholas Analysed the Main Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Brihadeeswarar Temple and Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple:
Their Importance in Chola Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Chola Empire: Agriculture and Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Chola Empire: Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Transaction Period of North India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Chapter 06: Emergence of New Power and Social Change

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Establishment of Delhi Sultanate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

vi | Contents
Khilji Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Tughlaq Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Sayyid and Lodhi Sultans of Delhi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Source of Delhi Sultanate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Emergence of Empire: The Mughal Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Babur (1526 CE–1530 CE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Humayun (1530 CE–1540 CE, 1555 CE–1556 CE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Akbar (1556 CE–1605 CE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Jahangir (1605 CE–1627 CE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Shah Jahan (1627 CE–1658 CE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Aurangzeb (1658 CE–1707 CE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Mughal Empire Administration: According to Ain-i-Akbari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Social Changes During the New Emerged Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Chapter 07: Era of Rapid Changes

Mughal Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Bengal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Hyderabad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Awadh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Mysore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Emergence of New Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Rajput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Maratha Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Maratha Rulers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Jats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Sikhs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
European Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Portugal Entry to India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
British East India Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
French East India Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Chapter 08: Nationalist Movement and Social Reforms

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Oriental Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Contents | vii
Criticism of Orientalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Implication of British Colonisation on Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Cause of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Reasons for Emergence of Reform Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Atmiya Sabha and Brahmo Sabha/Samaj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Prarthana Samaj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Arya Samaj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Ramakrishna Mission and Swami Vivekananda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Young Bengal Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Theosophical Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Reform Movements among the Muslims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Reform Movements among Parsis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Religious Reform among Sikhs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Nationalist Movements (1870–1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
First Phase (1885–1905) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Second Phase (1906–1916) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Third Phase (1917–1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Chapter 09: India after Independence

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Oldest Civilisation in the Form of a New and Divided Nation . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Acceptance of New Form of Governance and Rule of Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
State Formation and Their Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Notion of Development and Their Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Sovereign India and Their Search of Independence Foreign Policy . . . . . . . . 132
India after 70 Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Unit-Ii Geography
Chapter 01: Solar System

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

viii | Contents
Mercury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Venus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Mars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Jupiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Saturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Uranus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Neptune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Earth in the Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Shape and Size of Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Moon (Natural Satellite) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Dwarf Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Asteroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Comets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Meteoroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Constellation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Chapter 02: Earth in Solar System

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Composition of Earth (In Percentage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Interior of Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Volcano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Types of Volcanoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Chapter 03: Globe
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Latitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Longitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Motions of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Earth’s Inclination on Its Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Solar Eclipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Contents | ix
Lunar Eclipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Heat Zones of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Time Zone and Standard Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Chapter 04: Environment

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Hydrosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Lithosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Biosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Chapter 05: Air

Structure of Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Weather and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Distribution of Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Air Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Distribution of Air Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Air Pressure and Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Forces Affecting the Direction of Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Seasonal Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Local Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Sea and Land Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Valley and Mountain Winds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Air Masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Monsoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Permanent Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186


x | Contents
Chapter 06: Water

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Distribution of Water Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Some Features of Hydrosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Waves and Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Water Resources of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Surface Water Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Groundwater Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Major River Systems in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Ganges River System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Indus River System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Famous Lakes of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

Chapter 07: Agriculture

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Agriculture System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Forms of Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Types of Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Major Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Cropping in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Cropping Patterns in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Other Important Crops of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Chapter 08: Resources

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Types of Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Natural Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Distribution of Minerals in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Energy Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Contents | xi
Conventional Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Non-Conventional Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Chapter 09: Human Environment

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Distribution of Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Density of Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Growth of Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Composition of Indian Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Settlements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Transport and Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Road Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Train Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Water Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Immigrants from Neighbouring Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Reasons for Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Consequence of Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

UNIT-III Social and Political Life
Chapter 01: Understanding Diversity

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
What Is Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Understanding Diversity in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Does Diversity Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Diversity and Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Understanding Stereotypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Dealing with Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Struggle for Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

xii | Contents

Chapter 02: Government
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Types of Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Levels of Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Central Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
The President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Lok Sabha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Rajya Sabha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
State Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

Chapter 03: Making a Living

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Livelihood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
On Being in Debt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Rural Livelihoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Urban Livelihoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Migrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Businesspersons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Factory-Workshop Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
In the Office Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Understanding Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Understanding Equality and Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

Chapter 04: Democracy

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Definition of Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
A Historical View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Types of Democracies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

Contents | xiii
Direct Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

Representative Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Parliamentary Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Presidential Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Other Kinds of Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Views Against Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Views Favouring Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Requisites for Successful Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

Chapter 05: Understanding Media

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Democracy and Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
What Is to Be Advertised and How . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Understanding Advertising Critically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Media Can Be a Tool for Political and Economic Development . . . . . . . . . . 289
Monitoring Government Action and Empowering People about Their
Exploitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Strength to Strong Economy to Work towards Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Developing Public Opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

Chapter 06: Understanding Gender Perspective

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Gender Beyond Male or Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Terms Related to Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Sex (Biological) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Gender Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Expression of Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Gender Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Orientation towards Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Fluidity in Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Issues and Challenges in Gender Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

xiv | Contents
Accountability and Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

Perceiving Women’s Contribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Policy-Level Issues and Poor Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Inappropriate and Insufficient Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Unattended or Neglected Field and Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
A Little Demand by a Person Who Gets Exploited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

Chapter 07: The Constitution

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Need for a Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Making of the Constitution of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
The Preamble of Indian Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
We, the People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Sovereign State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Socialist State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Secular State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Democratic State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Republic State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Fraternity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Procedure of Constitutional Amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Some Important Constitutional Amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

Chapter 08: Parliamentary Democracy

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Prime Minister is Appointed by the Head of the Nation but Elected
by the People of the Nation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Vote of Confidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Power of De Facto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Constitutional Ruler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

Contents | xv
No Separation of Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

Lower House Has an Important Role in the Government . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Accountability towards the Legislature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Collective Accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Prime Minister is the Leader of the Nation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Existence of Opposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Powerful Cabinet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Parliamentary Democracy in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Advantages of Parliamentary Democratic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Collectiveness and Togetherness of the Executive and the Legislature . . 318
Division of Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Permanent Upper House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Criticism of Parliamentary Democratic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

Chapter 09: Social Justice and the Marginalised

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Exploring Marginalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Analysing Marginalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Dalits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Does Marginalisation Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
What Needs to be Done for Social Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

UNIT-IV Pedagogical Perspectives and Issues
Chapter 01: What Is Pedagogy

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Teachers’ Role in Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Creating Context for Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Holistic Sense of Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Exploring Participatory Approach to Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

xvi | Contents
Use of Participatory Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

Environment for Comprehensive Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

Chapter 02: Issues and Challenges of Teaching–Learning Social Science

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Objectives of Teaching Social Science at Secondary Level (Nce 2005) . . . . . 348
Subjective Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Teaching for Main Streaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Teachers are Not Trained to Teach Social Science as They are
Specialised in One Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Highly Influential by Teachers’ Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Negative Perspective about Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Teaching of Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Nature of Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
What to Teach in Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Over Simplification of Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Gap Between Teaching of Social Science and Dealing with
Societal Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Lack of Promoting the Skills of Thinking, Questioning,
Critical Analysis, and Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Lack of Authentic Field Experience- and Inquiry-Based Projects . . . . . . . 352
Teachers’ Understanding about the Objectives of Teaching of
Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Lack of Zeal in Teachers about Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Reforms in Education and Social Science Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Lack of Professional Development of Social Science Teachers . . . . . . . . 353
Teaching Social Science is Only Theory or it Develops Creative
Skills Also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Space for Reflection on Social Science Content to
Become Good Citizens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
To Provide Space for Developing National Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Social Reality Versus Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Issus Related to Interdisciplinary Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Hegemony of Science and Science Method and Struggle
For Existence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

Contents | xvii
Memorisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Summarising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
What is Significant about Teaching of Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

Chapter 03: Classroom Processes, Activities and Discourse

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Approaches to Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Active Learning Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Peer Teaching Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Collaborative Learning Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Inquiry- and Discovery-based Learning Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Problem-based Learning Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Experiential Learning Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Community Learning Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Reflection Learning Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

Chapter 04: Developing Critical Thinking

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Why we Need Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Developing Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Critical Thinking and the Social Studies Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Importance of Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
How to Do Effective Thinking—A Developmental Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Planning Educational Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Collecting Fundamental Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Systematic and Gradual Change in the Curriculum as per Need of
the Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Locate the Problem Areas of Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Initiate Discussion with Learners about the Effective Thinking Skills . . . 383
Shift From Old to New Way of Thinking Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Self-Monitoring Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

xviii | Contents

Chapter 05: Sources: Primary and Secondary

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Primary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Examples of Primary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Why we Need to Use Primary Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Secondary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Examples of Secondary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Why Use Secondary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
How the Use of Primary and Secondary Sources Facilitates Learning
for Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Engagement of Learners with Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Developing Critical- and Inquiry-based Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Development and Construction of Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Evaluate the Ability of Using HOTS on Various Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

Chapter 06: Evaluation in Social Science

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Purpose of Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Largely Learner Learns What Is Provided in the Classroom Interaction . . 396
Students’ Context (Social and Economic) Has a Great Role to Play in Their
Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Learners Learn More When They Are Given Chance for Inquiry in the
Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
How to Evaluate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Need of Evaluation for Learner’s Learning in Social Science . . . . . . . . . . 398
Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Assessment of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Assessment for Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Assessment as Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401

Contents | xix
Technique of Evaluation in Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402

Objective Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Short Question Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Long Question Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Project Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Detailed Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Oral Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Exhibition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Group Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Challenge of Evaluation in Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
How to Ensure Minimum Ability Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Prejudices and Biases in Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

Model Test Paper-I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M1

Model Test Paper-II�� M6
Model Test Paper-III�� M12
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1

This page is intentionally left blank
Preface
This book is departing from over dominance of facts in social science to development of concep-
tual perspectives about the various aspects associated with our everyday life. This book also pro-
vides relief to not only learner moreover to the discipline of social science to take breath separate
and beyond the hegemony of science. It also focuses to establish the identity of social science
related but not subordinate of science. The another main objective of this book is to stablish social
science as a subject or discipline which cannot be studied in segregated manner and therefore
there is need to develop social science with the inclusive approach as far as allied subjects are con-
cern. This book is a systematic effort to under social science as a social science with its own nature.
Another agenda of this book is to provide space and opportunities to understand the concept
simply as well as with increasing complexity. It is tried in this book that concepts are presented
relatively complex. This is done to avoid the habituation of mind to understand things simply
without engaging with complexity of the ideas and tasks. What make is more interesting that this
book is not only for the people of social sciences rather non social science people must read it to
develop a significant perspective about social science, which will help them to criticize their own
understanding of social science if they are continued to understand social science as boring and
facts and figure based subject.
The beauty of the book is that it is not written (for example history) only chronologically rather
largely to help learners to understand the concept effectively, it is written conceptually. Therefore,
it does not simply deals with the dates and kings rather it works on conceptual issues. This book
also works the principle to Five E’s- engaging, exploration, elaborating, explaining and enhanc-
ing. Every chapter of the book provides space for the engagement of learner in the given content
which leads towards exploration, elaboration, explanation and enhancement. These 5 Es are
further discussed in second segment of preface.
The writing style is not rigid, structured and bound in the formal way, rather writer has used
open perspective to use, and therefore one will find variation in writing style which changes as
per concept and examples used for explanation. This provides freedom to reader to think and
construct meaning out of the content discussed in the chapter.
Brief about the Book

This book is presented in four parts, though author is more convinced to have a collective writing
regarding social science but the current available discourse forced to present this book in given

xxii | Preface
for domains named History, Geography, Social and Political Science and pedagogical perspectives
and issues.
First unit is related to history, which provides a comprehensive understanding about history.
One will find it written in a different way as it is a combination of two writing styles of history
i.e. chronological and conceptual. It ranges from ancient time to the present time, where it not
only presents the content rather raised question about various aspects related to historical issues,
challenges and debates. The whole idea behind this is to develop critical perspective about history
where learner does not accept any given rather crucially review and revisit the fact. The content
is also break to monotonous way of reading and writing history and provides and reflective space
to analyses the historical concepts.
Second unit deals with Geography, which provides space and opportunities to understand vari-
ous aspects of geography. This book have given special emphasis on using lived experiences to
understand geographical concepts with relation to other sister branches of social science like his-
tory and geography. A special emphasis has given on human geography, which provides a unique
perspective to the book. Various pictures are used to illustrate the concept of Earth, water, Globe
etc., so that learner can develop better understand with pictorial representation. The book pro-
vides a comprehensive opportunity to understand concept critically and use their cognitive skills.
Third unit of the book is related to social and political life. The idea of this segment is to
facilitate learners to understand political science not only as social aspect of life rather as a pure
discipline of political science which NCF 2005 failed to do. This book is a great deviation from the
epistemological conflict which is created by NCF 2005 to define political science as a branch of
social science. This book is not only explains the social aspects of political concept rather discuss
the functional education of these concepts, which was missing in the books written on the basis
of NCF 2005. The idea of gender, equality, freedom, governing system, democracy etc. are dis-
cussed with substantiate examples. The book provides space to develop meta-cognitive abilities,
critical and reflective thinking about the various political issues, challenges and concerned.
How This Book Will Help

The available books in social science pedagogy, either talks about the content or only deals with
pedagogy, but this book is an effort to bring these two aspects bring together to make compre-
hensive and depth sense of social science as a discipline. All four units of this book are written
comprehensively with reader friendly language, which facilitate them to understand the concept.
Along with this simplicity, book also provides cognitive challenges to reader to develop critical
understanding about the concept. Critical ability to understand knowledge facilitates leaners to
transfer knowledge from one situation to another. Reading all dimensions of social science and
relating them with pedagogical perspective strengthen the learners understanding social science.
The brief point after every chapter gives a quick look of the chapter, which enhance the academic
rigor of the book. Hence this book facilitates cognition to think critically not only about social
science rather in general.

Preface | xxiii
How to Read This Book

Suggesting how to read this book will dismiss the very novel idea of this book itself that there is no
fixed method or way of reading and it depends the way reader feels comfortable and understand
the concept. What effort I am trying to do here is to share how one can engage with this book.
The engagement can be understood at two levels but these two levels move simultaneous. First
is the 5 Es which have been discussed above and second how to select the portion of the book
to read (first to end or selective portion). The present book have 4 parts where first three repre-
sent history, geography and social political life and forth part is pedagogy of social science. Let
us consider second level first i.e. how to select what to read first. We should not read this book
from one chapter to the last chapter in continuation, rather we need to select few chapters form
one section and after finishing those few chapter from next section such as read two chapters
from history, two from geography, two from history and then two from pedagogical perspectives.
This will help learner to develop a sense of social science in a collective and inclusive manner then
reading rather reading them separately. Learners will also be able to make linkages between offi-
cial branches of social science.
Fist level provides space to engage with cognitive process. Suggested 5 Es provide opportu-
nities to understand explore and generate knowledge. Every chapter has space for learners to
engage with creative question where their own thinking gets stimulated. Their engagement will
also help them to explore the concern arears in their own life and experiences which will further
facilitate them to elaborate about the concepts. At fourth step they will be able to provide expla-
nation of the concepts critically, which is known as authentic knowledge. All these 4 Es create a
platform to develop or enhancing learner ideas, perspectives and knowledge about any concept.
That is how they will be able to enhance their learning.
Therefore, this two fold process of reading this book will provide better space to understand
the available content critically. The reader must keep three things in mind while reading this book
i.e. the methodology used to write and argue about the concepts either in favor or against, sub-
stantive ness of the discussed content, what can be more added to or to what extent this content
is substantiate to develop a perspective about social science and third critiquing the discussed
content, which will provide reader space to think beyond given ideas. The idea of this book is
not praising the book rather understanding the ideas and critiquing it for further generating of
knowledge and this should be the actual purpose of any quality book.

About the Author
Dr Sandeep Kumar is working as an Assistant Professor at Central Institute of Education (CIE),

Department of Education, University of Delhi. He has done his masters in Political Science and
Education and followed it up with an M.Phil. degree in constructivist perspective of learning
processes. His doctoral degree is in Human Right Education from University of Delhi. Recently,
he has been nominated as a member of the core committee of National Council for Teacher
Education (NCTE); constituted for a three-year B.Ed., M.Ed. integrated programme. His research
work focuses on sociological, psychological and human rights perspectives of education and
other associated issues. His area of interest extends beyond theoretical dimension, tending more
towards praxis.
Dr Kumar’s previous associations were as PGT Political Science, Assistant Professor in DIET–
SCERT and Assistant Professor in IP University before joining University of Delhi. He was the prin-
cipal investigator for several including five project funded by Delhi University. One international
project named UK–India Educational Research Initiative (UKIERI), and two projects funded by
IASE–MHRD. He has organized many seminars, workshops and symposia including a national level
conference. He was invited as pedagogy and psychological expert by various school organiza-
tions including Kendriya Vidyalaya for in-service teacher training programmes and programmes
conducted by SCERT. A prolific author of many books—Covering Social Science Teaching, Human
Rights Education, Child Development and Pedagogy and other allied areas. He has presented
research papers in national and international conferences and contributed theses to research
journals and edited books. He has guided more than 15 dissertations for the master of education
programme and is currently guiding two scholars to their doctoral degrees.
For feedback and comments you are welcome to write to sandy1502@gmail.com

Acknowledgements
This work has been a journey for me and it has not occurred in a vacuum. The present work has
reached its completion with the support and encouragement of numerous people, including my
well-wishers, my friends, colleagues, and the help and support of various institutions. Having
completed my work, I would like to thank all the people who made this work possible and made
this journey an unforgettable experience.
I cannot forget to thank Akhilesh, Lalit and Proxy for their helpfulness. We have discussed our
work for hours together, in person and over the phone. Discussing my work with them has con-
sistently motivated me to complete my work.
I, especially, want to thank my mother and father. They have worked very hard and sacrificed
a lot for me. They have, also, provided me unconditional love and care. Similar love and care was
provided by my brother, Kuldeep. He has been my best friend throughout my life and I am thank-
ful to him for all his advice and support. I would not have made it this far without them.
My heartiest thank goes to my wife Ritu. Her unconditional support has helped me to complete
this work. I feel that I have learned a lot about life and strengthened my commitment towards her
over the past few years. I truly respect her for all that she has done for me.
How can I forget to thank the two little angels I have in my life, Lavanya and Samarth. Although
I tried my best to provide them the time and care possible, my work schedules, often, prevented
me from fulfilling my fatherly responsibilities. I will compensate this absence in the coming years.
I also thank God for providing me strength to work hard and consistently.
Sandeep Kumar

Previous Year Papers
Social Science February 2016
Directions: Answer the following questions by 4. The Simon Commission, sent by the British
selecting the most appropriate option. to India in 1927, was opposed because
(a) it had no Indian representative in it.
1. Who among the following sailors sailed
(b) it had only English educated Indian
westwards across the Atlantic Ocean to
representatives.
find a sea route to India?
(c) it had very few Indian representatives
(a) Vasco da Gama
as compared to the British.
(b) Xuanzang
(d) it had no Indian woman representative.
(c) Christopher Columbus
(d) Faxian 5. Match the following:
2. Which among the following dynasties Movement/ Reformer
Organisation
introduced Malayalam language script in
its inscriptions? A. Brahmo Samaj I. Swami Vivekananda
(a) The Cholas B. Young Bengal II. Syed Ahmad Khan
Movement
(b) The Kushans
(c) The Cheras C. Ramakrishna III. H
enry Louis Vivian
Mission Derozio
(d) The Pandyas
D. Aligarh IV. K
eshub Chandra Sen
3. The Revolt of Songram Sangma in 1906 Movement
took place because
(a) A-IV B-III C-I D-II
(a) the Muslim traders in Bengal rose
(b) A-I B-IV C-III D-II
against the unequal terms of trade set
(c) A-III B-II C-IV D-I
by the British.
(d) A-II B-I C-IV D-III
(b) the peasants in Champaran revolted
against the indigo planters. 6. Veteran Gandhian leader Potti Sriramulu
(c) the Patidar peasants of Gujarat went on hunger strike in 1952, demanding
rebelled against the high land revenue the formation of which of the following
demand of the British. States?
(d) the tribal groups in Assam reacted (a) Tamil Nadu
against the colonial forest laws. (b) Telangana
A02_CTET_SOCIAL-SCI01_SE_XXXX_PYQ FEB-2016.indd 27 11/5/2016 3:38:26 PM

xxviii | Social Science
(c) Kerala 11. India’s research stations ‘Maitri’ and

(d) Andhra Pradesh ‘Dakshin Gangotri’ are located in which
7. Who among the following was an expo- continent?
nent of the notion of Wahdat-i-deen (a) Australia
that upholds the essential oneness of all (b) Europe
religions? (c) Africa
(a) Muhammad Ali Jinnah (d) Antarctica
(b) Baji Muhammad 12. Consider the following two statements
(c) Maulana Azad about ocean currents and choose the cor-
(d) Syed Ahmad Khan rect answer:
8. The main latitude that passes almost half- I. The warm ocean currents originate
way through India is: near the Equator and move towards
(a) The Equator the Poles.
(b) The Arctic Circle II. The cold ocean currents carry water
(c) The Tropic of Capricorn from lower latitudes to higher latitudes.
(d) The Tropic of Cancer (a) I is true and II is false
(b) Both I and II are true
9. Which one of the following defines the (c) Both I and II are false
‘Earth Day’? (d) I is false and II is true
(a) The motion of the earth around the
sun in its orbit 13. ‘Transhumance’ refers to
(b) The days on which the days and nights (a) seasonal movement of people for their
are equal all over the earth livelihood.
(c) The distances between the longitudes (b) urban to rural migration of labour
(d) The period of one rotation of the earth force during harvesting period.
around its axis (c) seasonal movement of people with
their livestock in search of new
10. Match the following: pastures.
Types of Species of Plants (d) seasonal movement of wild animals.
Vegetation
14. Match of the following:
A. Tropical rain forest I. Sundari
B. Tropical deciduous II. Babool Types of Rocks Examples
forest A. Instructive igneous rocks I Limestone
C. Thorny bushes III. Mahogany B. Extrusive igneous rocks II Sandstone
D. Mangrove forest IV. Saj
C. Sedimentary rocks III Basalt
(a) A-III B-IV C-II D-I D. Metamorphic rocks IV Granite
(b) A-IV B-III C-I D-II
(c) A-I B-II C-III D-IV (a) A-IV B-III C-II D-I
(d) A-II B-I C-IV D-III (b) A-III B-IV C-I D-II

Previous Year Papers: February 2016 | xxix
(c) A-I B-II C-III D-IV 20. ‘Basket weaving’ is an example of which
(d) A-II B-I C-IV D-III one of the following types of industry?
(a) Cooperative sector
15. ‘Chinook’, a local wind, blows in which of
(b) Large scale
the following regions?
(c) Small scale
(a) The Velds
(d) Joint sector
(b) The Pampas
(c) The Prairies 21. Which one of the following statements
(d) The Savannas about monarchy is incorrect?
(a) In a monarchy, people can raise ques-
16. Which one of the following atmospheric
tions about the decisions taken by the
layers helps in radio transmission?
monarch.
(a) Stratosphere
(b) The monarch does not have to explain
(b) Thermosphere
the decisions taken by him/her.
(c) Troposphere
(c) In a monarchy, people cannot question
(d) Mesosphere
the decisions taken by the monarch.
17. Which one of the following is a variety of (d) The final decision-making power lies
‘gold wrought’? with the monarch.
(a) Silk
22. On which one of the following rivers is
(b) Jute
Krishna Raja Sagara Dam constructed?
(c) Cotton
(a) Mahanadi
(d) Nylon
(b) Kaveri
18. Population density refers to (c) Godavari
(a) the number of people living in a unit (d) Krishna
area of the earth’s surface. 23. The Hindu Succession Amendment Act,
(b) the way in which people are spread 2005, provides an equal share in the
across the earth’s surface. deceased father’s property to:
(c) the number of people living in a par- (a) Daughter(s), son(s), and brother(s)
ticular area. (b) Wife, daughter(s), and sister(s)
(d) the number of people living during a
(c) Wife, son(s), and daughter(s)
specific time. (d) Wife, son(s), and brother(s)
19. Which one of the following methods is 24. Who among the following national lead-
used to take out minerals lying near the ers coined the phrase ‘Unity in Diversity’ to
surface of the earth? describe the Indian Nation-State?
(a) Open-cast mining (a) Mahatma Gandhi
(b) Shaft mining (b) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
(c) Quarrying (c) Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
(d) Drilling (d) Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru

xxx | Social Science
25. Consider the following two statements 29. In the context of Indian judiciary, appellate
about the functions of Janpad Panchayat system means
and choose the correct answer: (a) separation of power among the legis-
I. The Janpad Panchayat makes develop- lature, executive, and judiciary.
mental plans at district level. (b) that one can plead one’s case in a
II. The Janpad Panchayat helps Zila Parishad court without having a degree in law.
to regain money distribution among (c) the decisions made by the higher
Gram Panchayats. courts are binding on the lower courts.
(a) I is true and II is false (d) one can move to a higher court if one
(b) Both I and II are false feels that the judgement of the lower
(c) I is false and II is true court is not just.
(d) Both I and II are true 30. The executive organ of the State refers to
26. Consider the following two statements (a) the elected representatives.
on the Right to Information (RTI) Act and (b) every citizen of the country exercising
choose the correct answer: universal adult franchise.
I. Through the RTI Act, a citizen can get (c) a group of people responsible for
information pertaining to the work- implementing laws and running the
ing of the departments of the Central government.
Government only. (d) the judges of the Supreme Court and
II. To get information under the Right to High Courts.
Information Act, a citizen has to first 31. Article 22 of the Constitution ensures:
file a petition in any court of any level. (a) Right to Constitutional Remedies
(a) I is true and II is false
(b) Right not to be ill-treated during arrest
(b) Both I and II are false or while in custody
(c) I is false and II is true (c) Right against Exploitation
(d) Both I and II are true (d) Right to Education
27. Who among the following was the writer 32. Who among the following is the leader of
of the story, Sultana’s Dream? the ruling party in Lok Sabha?
(a) Rokeya Sakhawat Hussain (a) The president
(b) Pandita Ramabai (b) The Vice President
(c) Mumtaz Ali (c) The Prime Minister
(d) Rassundari Devi (d) The Speaker
28. Who among the following wrote the book, 33. Consider the following statements on the
Gulamgiri? nature of Social Science at the upper pri-
(a) E. V. Ramasamy Periyar mary stage:
(b) Dr B. R. Ambedkar I. It is study of people in their environment.
(c) Jyotirao Phule II. It is a study of relations among people
(d) Shri Narayan Guru and their interdependence.

Previous Year Papers: February 2016 | xxxi
III. It is a study of the past and its relation (a) it lays too much emphasis upon scien-
to the present. tific temperament.
Select the most appropriate choice (b) it presents several situations of conflict
from the above statements. in human values.
(c) it is considered as a non-utilitarian
(a) I and II
subject.
(b) I, II, and III
(d) it encourages many subjects study.
(c) II and III
(d) I and III 38. Which one of the given choices is an
incorrect description of school-based
34. Social and Political Life textbooks at the
assessment?
upper primary level cover content related
(a) It covers scholastic aspects.
to which of the following subjects?
(a) Psychology (b) It covers only co-curricular aspects.
(c) It covers non-scholastic aspects.
(b) International Relations
(d) It covers all aspects.
(c) Economics
(d) Philosophy 39. Consider the following two statements
on a teacher’s role in transacting a Social
35. Why would you ask questions on historical
Science topic and select the correct answer:
imagination? Choose the most appropriate
I. The teacher must ensure the dignity of
option from the following:
(a) It shows how historians fill gaps in his- all students and conduct discussions
with sensitivity.
tory with their imagination.
II. The teacher must focus upon facts
(b) It is fun-way to remember dates end
events. with the boys and the feelings of the
(c) It encourages comparison of the pre- girls.
sent with the past. (a) Only I
(d) It evaluates a student’s ability to iden- (b) Neither I nor II
tify sources. (c) Only II
(d) Both I and II
36. Why would you use narratives in Social
40. Why is the study of Social Science ‘scien-
Science teaching? Choose the most appro-
tific’?
priate reason from the given options.
(a) It helps its reader to study the scientific
(a) To sensitize students so that they can
society.
find appropriate role models
(b) It comprises systematically acquired
(b) To ensure that syllabus is completed
verified knowledge.
(c) To entertain and enliven a class
(c) It uses scientific terms in its content.
(d) To link concepts to live realities
(d) It fulfils the demand for calling Social
37. According to the National Focus Group Studies as science.
(2006), the teaching of Social Science is 41. You have to depict the proportion of
losing popularity as time a rural worker spends as employed,

xxxii | Social Science
underemployed, and unemployed in a year. 45. What is the nomenclature change suggested
Which one of the following diagrammatic by the National Curriculum Framework
representations would you select? (NCF) 2005, for Civics?
(a) Pie diagram (a) History
(b) Bar diagram (b) Geography
(c) Time line diagram (c) Social and Political Life
(d) Flow diagram (d) Economics
42. Select the most appropriate reason for 46. Which value will you emphasise the least
assessing students through art in Social in the upper primary Social Science class-
Science subjects. room from among the following?
(a) It improves students’ artistic abilities. (a) Competitiveness
(b) It is a means to enjoy different styles of (b) Cooperation
expression depicted in the textbook. (c) Scientific approach
(c) It makes it an enjoyable way of (d) Equality
evaluation.
47. What is the purpose of summative assess-
(d) It provides an opportunity for personal ment of students?
interpretation of concepts. (a) Assessing during the class
43. Which one of the following projects on (b) Assessing at the end of term
‘global warming’ is based on secondary (c) Assessing a project
sources? (d) Assessing at the end of a lesson
(a) Interviews with elders living in an area
48. Suppose a teacher has to teach the chap-
on changes in weather ter, ‘The Cold Desert—Ladakh’ in Class
(b) A collage of pictures on global VII. Which one of the following methods
warming would be most appropriate?
(c) A graphical representation of unana- (a) Survey method
lysed weather data collected from
(b) Workshop method
meteorological office (c) Case study method
(d) A discussing based on the weather (d) Regional method
changes mentioned in a book
49. Which one of the following methods is
44. A teacher provides some criteria to stu- most relevant for the teaching of historical
dents and asks them to assess their projects facts/historiography at the upper primary
on those bases. Which one the following level?
assessment measures has been adopted by (a) Project method
the teacher? (b) Map method
(a) Peer assessment (c) Problem method
(b) Formative assessment (d) Source method
(c) Self-assessment
(d) Summative assessment

Previous Year Papers: February 2016 | xxxiii
50. The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 55. Which were the three dynasties referred to
2005, recommends that children’s school as ‘Muvendar’ in Sangam poems?
education must be linked with: (a) The Cholas, the Rashtrakutas, and the
(a) The outside school environment Pandyas
(b) The annual examinations (b) The Cholas, the Palas, and the Rash
(c) The mainstream opinions trakutas
(d) The conditions of the school infra- (c) The Palas, the Cholas, and the Pandyas
structure (d) The Cholas, the Cheras, and the
Pandyas
51. On which of the following choices is the
data best represented by a bar diagram? 56. The Rampurwa bull, a polished stone sculp-
(a) Temperature ture, now placed in Rashtrapati Bhawan,
(b) Air pressure was built during the reign of which one of
(c) Rainfall the following?
(d) Humidity (a) The Mauryas
(b) The Pandyas
52. In order to develop an understanding of
(c) The Cholas
democratic institutions, choose the most
appropriate curricular approach from the (d) The Kushans
following. 57. Who among the following propounded
(a) Describe ideal situations the doctrine of ‘VishishtAdvaita’?
(b) Provide examples of realities along (a) Shankara
with ideal situations (b) Allama Prabhu
(c) Provide mainly national-level examples (c) Ramanuja
(d) Introduce students to harsh realities (d) Basavanna
53. In which one of the following languages, 58. An archive is a place where
mathematician and astronomer, Aryabhata (a) sculptures found in excavations are
wrote his book, Aryabhatiyam? kept.
(a) Hindi (b) remains of the buildings made of
(b) Prakrit stones and bricks found by archaeolo-
(c) Pali gists are kept.
(d) Sanskrit (c) historical manuscripts and documents
are kept.
54. Which one of the following stupas is
(d) excavated bones of animals and birds
marked as the place where the Buddha
are kept.
preached his first message?
(a) Sarnath 59. Which one of the following statements is
(b) Bodh Gaya correct about the Veerashaiva Movement
(c) Sanchi initiated during mid-twelfth century in
(d) Thotlakonda Karnataka?

xxxiv | Social Science
(a) It was initiated by Namdev and his trained with great care to hold the
companions. most important political officers in the
(b) It argued against Brahmanical ideas kingdom.
about caste and treatment of women. II. ‘Bandagan’ were totally dependent
(c) It focused on worship of Vitthala. upon their masters. So, the Sultans
(d) It was against all forms of ritualism but could not trust and rely upon them.
promoted idol worship. (a) I is false and II is true
(b) I is true and II is false
60. Consider the following two statements
(c) Both I and II are true
about ‘Bandagan’ in the early Delhi
(d) Both I and II are false
Sultanate and choose the correct answer:
I. ‘Bandagan’ were special slaves pur-
chased for military service and were

Social Science September 2015
Directions: Answer the following questions by (c) Detective method

selecting the most appropriate option. (d) Case-study method
1. What is the most important reason for 4. Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate
the use of storyboards in Social Science choice:
teaching? To organise knowledge and ideas, concep-
(a) Narrating incidents tual resources include timelines, summa-
(b) Producing attractive textbooks ries, _____ and ______.
(c) Providing simplistic information (a) information maps, concept maps
(d) Encouraging discussion on the given (b) exploratory software, questions bank
narrative (c) teacher modelling, bar graphs
(d) memory cues, review questions
2. Which of the following activities is most
appropriate for developing an understand- 5. Activity-based questions make Social
ing of the Indian Parliament’s role and Science lessons:
functions? (a) Lengthy
(a) Flow diagram of functions and respon- (b) Comprehensive
sibilities (c) Joyful
(b) Discussion on newspaper report on (d) Debatable
Parliament disruption 6. Which one of the following methods is
(c) Holding a youth parliament
most suitable for developing an under-
(d) Reading from the text standing of Social problems?
3. A teacher suggests that students make a (a) Role-play
table recording the number of buckets of (b) Case-study
water used by a student in a week. After (c) Film screening
this activity, she initiates a discussion on (d) Photo essay
water usage and conservation. Which
7. A teacher wants her students to know
method of learning is the teacher encour-
about government schemes through pri-
aging in the class?
mary sources. Which one of the following
(a) Problem solving method
schemes is inappropriate?
(b) Enquiry method
A03_CTET_SOCIAL-SCI01_SE_XXXX_PYQ SEP-2015.indd 35 11/5/2016 3:40:00 PM

xxxvi | Social Science
(a) A review of a book on government (c) Visit to an exhibition

schemes (d) Internet search by students
(b) An interview with a Block Development 11. Portfolio is an important tool of continuous
Officer and comprehensive evaluation because
(c) A survey of schemes in the students’ (a) it is easy implement.
neighbourhood (b) it provides minimal information.
(d) A report on expenditure incurred (c) it indicates skills developed in the
on various schemes in the students’ students.
neighbourhood (d) it is compulsory.
8. Choose an appropriate and meaningful 12. Which type of learning sources are you
written assignment in Social Science from encouraging your students to use, when
the following: you show them a historical monument?
(a) An original assignment that tests (a) Primary source
concepts (b) Textual source
(b) A summary of the chapter (c) Graphic resource
(c) Searching for an exact answer from (d) Folk resource
the text book
(d) The previous year’s assignments 13. ‘Imagine that you have come across two
old newspapers reporting on the Battle
9. To prevent cynicism among students about of Seringapatam and the death of Tipu
democratic institutions, which of the two Sultan. One is a British paper and the other
given options would be most appropriate? is from Mysore.
I. Emphasise ideal functioning and
Write the headline for each of the two
principles newspapers.’
II. Indicate impossibility of changing What is the reason for including this activ-
institutions ity in the history textbook of Class VIII?
III. Emphasise that social inequality in (a) Develop writing skills in students
inevitable
(b) Develop the concept of diversity of
IV. Indicate the role of informed public
views in students
(a) Both I and II
(c) Create a record of annexation by the
(b) Both I and IV British
(c) Both III and IV (d) Communicate British policies to the
(d) Both III and II masses
10. Choose the best method from among the 14. The National Curriculum Framework (2005)
following to encourage roles in a Social suggests that Social Science must link a
Science class at the upper primary level. child’s life at school with:
(a) Guided discussion on experiences (a) Life inside the classroom
(b) Lecture by an expert (b) Life outside the classroom

Previous Year Papers: September 2015 | xxxvii
(c) Bookish knowledge 19. In which one of the following scripts was
(d) Teachers’ expectation most of the Ashokan inscriptions written?
(a) Devanagari
15. Choose the most appropriate option:
(b) Brahmi
Students at upper primary level can be
(c) Tamil
asked to go for a field visit as a part of
(d) Olchiki
Social Science projects so that:
(a) It is participative and fun for students. 20. Some of the earliest Hindu temples had
(b) It enables comparison of realities with a hall where people could assemble. This
the ideas and concepts. place was known as:
(c) It frees the teacher to do other activi- (a) Pradakshina patha
ties while students are busy. (b) Mandapa
(d) It fulfils the mandatory requirement of (c) Gramabhojaka
project completion. (d) Garbhagriha
16. Which one of the following methods is 21. Vinaya Pitaka is a book related to:
most suitable for teaching Geography at (a) Sanskrit Grammar
the upper primary level? (b) Preachings of Mahavira
(a) Discussion (c) Thoughts of Zoroaster
(b) Field visit (d) Rules of the Buddhist Sangha
(c) Story telling 22. King Harshavardhana’s court poet,
(d) Debate Banabhatta wrote his biography, the
17. The teaching of Social and political life text- ‘Harshacharita’ in:
books at the upper primary level focuses on (a) Urdu
which one of the following approaches? (b) Sanskrit
(a) Learning through real life situations (c) Prakrita
(b) Learning through definitions (d) Hindi
(c) Rote learning
23. The earliest ‘Viharas’ for both Jains and
(d) Learning through synthesis of concepts Buddhist monks were made of:
18. To teach the topic, ‘Different types of mar- (a) Wood
kets’, which one of the following projects (b) Brick
would be most appropriate? (c) Soil
(a) Making collage on markets from (d) Stone
newspapers and magazines 24. Among which of the three dynasties the
(b) Visiting a shopping mall for seeing ‘Tripartite struggle’, the long-drawn-out
products sold there conflict over Kanauj was fought?
(c) Comparing prices at which shopkeep- (a) Gurjara-Pratihara, Pala, and Chola
ers buy and sell products (b) Rashtrakuta, Chola, and Pala
(d) Exhibit products bought from the mar-
ket in the classroom

xxxviii | Social Science
(c) Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and (a) Syed Ahmed Khan

Chola (b) Ziauddin Barani
(d) Pala, Rashtrakuta, and Gurjara-Pratihara (c) Rokeya Sakhawat Hussain
(d) Mumtaz Ali
25. Khanqahs in Sufism refer to:
(a) Chanting of a name 29. Choose an appropriate reason for provid-
(b) Discussion of parables ing students an open book exercise in a
(c) Places where Sufi masters held their classroom.
assemblies (a) Memorising details of a lesson
(d) A special kind of song (b) Reading a text with specific questions
(c) Evaluation of unprepared students
26. Which one of the following statements is
(d) Encouraging use of textual language
correct about Chola temples?
(a) Chola temples often became the nuclei 30. Study of Social Science subjects is vital as it
of rural settlements only. enables children to:
(b) Chola temples were endowed with (a) Evaluate events from the past
land by common people. (b) Conserve natural resources
(c) Chola temples were the hub of eco- (c) Learn details about democracy
nomic, social, and cultural life. (d) Understand society and its environment
(d) The making of iron images was the most
31. The Ural Mountains separate:
distinctive feature of Chola temples.
(a) Africa and Asia
27. Which one of the following statements (b) Asia and Europe
is correct about Tawarikh written for the (c) Africa and Europe
Sultans of Delhi Sultanate? (d) North America and South America
(a) These were written in Urdu, the lan-
guage of administration of the Delhi 32. The place in the crust where the earth-
Sultanate. quake waves start is called:
(b) Tawarikh were written by those who (a) Centre
(b) Focus
hardly ever resided in cities.
(c) Epicentre
(c) The authors of Tawarikh advised rulers
(d) Crater
on the need for good governance and
just rule. 33. Which one of the following layers of
(d) Tawarikh were not written by the the atmosphere is most ideal for flying
authors to get rich rewards from the aeroplanes?
Sultans. (a) Troposphere
28. Who among the following reinterpreted (b) Stratosphere
verses from the Koran to argue for wom- (c) Mesosphere
en’s education in the nineteenth century? (d) Thermosphere

Previous Year Papers: September 2015 | xxxix
34. Which one of the following is the most 38. Products of which one of the following are
important factor that influences the distri- known as ‘Black Gold’?
bution of temperature on the earth? (a) Coal
(a) Insolation (b) Gold
(b) Solar radiation (c) Petroleum
(c) Terrestrial radiation (d) Copper
(d) Distance from sea 39. Which of the following is not a nuclear
35. Which one of the following statements power station of India?
about the Amazon Basin is correct? (a) Kalpakkam
(a) The Amazon basin falls in the equato- (b) Tarapur
rial region. (c) Narora
(b) The Amazon river flows through (d) Pokhran
the equatorial region in the western 40. Shifting agriculture is known as Milpa in:
direction. (a) India
(c) The Amazon river forms Delta covered
(b) Malaysia
with Mangrove forests.
(c) Mexico
(d) The Amazon river basin drains por-
(d) Brazil
tions from Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, and
Argentina. 41. Which one of the following industries
comes under public sector?
36. Which one of the following is the highest
(a) Hindustan Aeronautic Limited
roadway of India in the world? (b) Sudha Dairy
(a) Itanagar–Pasighat
(c) Maruti Udyog Limited
(b) Manali–Leh
(d) Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited
(c) Shillong–Silchar
(d) Udhampur–Srinagar 42. Which one of the following statements
about Gram Sabha is correct?
37. Which one of the following techniques (a) It is the meeting place of the Sarpanches
is not a mitigation mechanism to control of all the villages in a district.
landslides? (b) The Secretary of the Gram Sabha is
(a) Hazard mapping to identify areas responsible for calling the meeting of
prone to landslides the Gram Sabha and the Panchayat
(b) Construction of retention walls to stop and keeps a record of the proceedings.
and slippage (c) The developmental plans of all the
(c) Decreasing vegetation cover to arrest
Gram Panchayats are reviewed in the
landslides Gram Sabha.
(d) Ensuring surface drainage control (d) The Gram Sabha regulates the money
works to restrict the movement of distribution among all Gram Panchayats.
landslides

xl | Social Science
43. Consider the following two statements on (b) In a democracy, citizens enjoy certain
people’s participation in democracy and freedoms.
choose the correct answer: (c) In a democracy, a ruler has absolute
I. Organising social movements is a way powers to rule the country.
to challenge the government and its (d) In a democracy, people can raise ques-
functioning in a democracy. tions about the decisions.
II. Democracy allows people to partici- 47. Campaigns have led to new laws for the
pate but all sections of people are not protection of women. In 2006, a law was
able to do so. framed to protect women from:
(a) I is true and II is false (a) Domestic violence
(b) Both I and II are true (b) Sexual harassment
(c) I is false and II is true (c) Child abuse
(d) Both I and II are false (d) Unequal wages
44. Which one of the following is the Tibetan
48. Which one of the following statements
National epic? about media is incorrect?
(a) Buddha Saga (a) Money is earned through advertise-
(b) Kesar Saga ments.
(c) Siddha Saga (b) The technology that mass media uses
(d) Nirvana Saga keeps on changing.
45. Consider the following two statements (c) An important function of mass media
about the functions performed by ‘Patwari’ is to communicate information to the
and choose the correct answer from the people.
following: (d) There is regular interference on the
I. Patwari maintains and updates land part of the government in the func-
records of a village or a group of villages. tioning of media.
II. Patwari is responsible for providing 49. The cost to advertise on a news channel
information to the government about
depends on:
the crops grown in the area under her/
(a) The popularity of the channel
his jurisdiction.
(b) The demand of the viewers
(c) The big business houses
(b) Both I and II are true (d) The corporate sector
(c) I is false and II is true
(d) Both I and II are false 50. Consider the following two statements
about Public Interest Litigation (PIL) and
46. Which of the following statements is incor- choose the correct answer:
rect about democracy? I. It is a mechanism to seek necessary
(a) In a democracy, the country’s citizens information about the functioning of
are allowed to elect whomever they the government.
want.

Previous Year Papers: September 2015 | xli
II. It is a mechanism that allows any indi- (a) Indian state is not ruled by any specific
vidual or organisation to file petition religious group.
to secure justice in the High Court (b) The State does not enforce any par-
or Supreme Court on behalf of those ticular religion nor takes away reli-
whose rights are violated. gious freedom of individuals.
(a) I is true and II is false (c) The State allows government institu-
(b) Both I and II are true tions to display and promote values
(c) I is false and II is true specific to a particular religion.
(d) Both I and II are false (d) The State is not strictly separate from
religion but it does maintain principled
distance from religion.
about the ‘Question Hour Session’ of the
Parliament and choose the correct answer: 54. The Indian State has:
I. The member of Parliament seeks (a) Communist form of government
information about the working of the (b) Capitalist form of government
government. (c) Presidential form of government
II. It is a mechanism through which the (d) Democratic form of government
executive controls the legislature. 55. Who among the following founded
‘Satyashodhak Samaj’ to propagate caste
(b) Both I and II are true equality?
(c) I is false and II is true (a) Ghasidas
(d) Both I and II are false (b) Narayan Guru
52. Consider the following two statements (c) Haridas
on judicial review and choose the correct (d) Jyotirao Phule
answer: 56. Who among the following was hanged
I. The Judiciary can strike down particu- to death for attacking his officers in
lar laws passed by the Parliament if Barrackpore on 29th March, 1857?
there is a violation of the basic struc- (a) Bhagat Singh
ture of the Constitution.
(b) Raj Guru
II. A bill cannot become a law unless it is
(c) Sukhdev
passed by the Judiciary. (d) Mangal Pandey
(b) Both I and II are true 57. Which of the following statements about
(c) I is false and II is true the British policy of ‘paramountcy’ is
(d) Both I and II are false correct?
(a) It declared that if the Indian ruler
53. According to Indian Constitution which died without a male heir, his kingdom
one of the following statements is incor- would be confiscated.
rect about Indian Secular State?

xlii | Social Science
(b) It claimed that the authority of the (a) Earth is slightly flattened at the poles.
company was supreme; hence, its (b) Earth is neither too hot nor too cold.
power was greater than that of the (c) Two-third of earth’s surface is covered
Indian states. with water.
(c) It emphasised the practical benefits (d) Favourable conditions are available on
of a system of European learning as earth to support life.
opposed to oriental learning. 60. From the Earth, only one side of the moon
(d) It declared that no other trading group is visible because it
in England could compete with East (a) takes more time in moving around the
India Company. earth than the time to complete one
58. Which one of the following groups of spin.
planets has rings around it? (b) takes exactly the same time in moving
(a) Saturn, Venus, and Mars around the earth as the time to com-
(b) Saturn, Jupiter, and Uranus plete one spin.
(c) Saturn, Neptune, and Mars (c) only moves around the earth, but does
(d) Saturn, Venus, and Neptune not spin.
(d) does not move around the earth, but
59. Why is the earth described as a ‘Geoid’?
only spins.
Choose the correct answer from the
following:

Directions: Answer the following questions by (a) Both A and B are false
selecting the most appropriate option. (b) Both A and B are true
(c) A is true and B is false
1. Which one of the following is not a com-
(d) A is false and B is true
ponent of maps?
(a) Size 5. Which one of the following states of India
(b) Symbols is popular for the ‘Kalamkari print’?
(c) Distance (a) Tamil Nadu
(d) Direction (b) Karnataka
(c) Andhra Pradesh
2. What is the angle of inclination of the
(d) Punjab
Earth’s axis with its orbit plane?
1° 6. Which one of the following tribal groups is
(a) 23
2 mainly confined to Uttarakhand?
(b) 45° (a) Gonds
1° (b) Mala Irular
(c) 66
2 (c) Bhil
(d) 90° (d) Bhotia
3. The ‘Janpad Panchayat’ has 7. Who among the following rulers were
(a) many Zila Parishads under it. best known for controlling the ‘Silk Route’
(b) many Municipal wards under it. around 2000 years ago?
(c) many Gram Sabhas under it. (a) Kushans
(d) many Gram Panchayats under it. (b) Pandyas
(c) Cheras
(d) Cholas
I and II on ‘Social advertisements’ and
choose the correct answer: 8. Under ‘Subsidiary Alliance’, the East India
I. Social advertisements are those adver- Company forced the Indian rulers of the
tisements that have larger message for states to
the society. (a) have their independent armed forces,
II. Social advertisements are made only not get protection by the Company,
by the State. but still pay towards its maintenance.

xliv | Social Science
(b) not have their independent armed I. The ultimate aim of agricultural devel-
forces, get protection by the Company, opment is to increase food security.
without any payment towards its II. Food security refers to the existence
maintenance. of availability of food to all people in
(c) have their independent armed forces, the times of natural calamities, when
as well as get protection by the shortage of food occurs.
Company and pay towards its mainte- (a) Both A and B are true
nance. (b) Both A and B are false
(d) not have their independent armed (c) A is true and B is false
forces, but only get protection by (d) A is false and B is true
the Company and pay towards its
13. Which one of the following is not consid-
maintenance. ered as a fossil fuel?
9. Which one of the following is not a fact (a) Petroleum
about Ahom? (b) Natural gas
(a) The Ahom state was divided into clans (c) Firewood
called Paiks. (d) Coal
(b) The Ahom society was very sophisti-
14. Which one of the following may cause tre-
cated. mendous destruction only on the coastal
(c) The state of Ahom was created by areas?
suppressing the older political system (a) Tsunami
of the Bhuiyans.
(b) Volcano
(d) The Ahom state depended upon
(c) Tides
forced labour. (d) Earthquake
10. The term Hagiography refers to:
15. The innermost layer of the Earth is mainly
(a) Writing of a saint’s biography
made up of:
(b) Writing of a saint’s autobiography
(a) Silica and iron
(c) Writing of a ruler’s biography (b) Nickel and alumina
(d) Writing of a ruler’s autobiography
(c) Silica and alumina
11. Which one of the following is a type of (d) Nickel and iron
tropical grasslands? 16. Which one of the following features is a
(a) Savanna result of depositional work of a river?
(b) Steppe (a) Meanders
(c) Down
(b) Ox-bow lake
(d) Pampas (c) Waterfall
12. Consider the following two statements I (d) Flood plain
and II about food security and choose the
correct answer:

Previous Year Papers: February 2015 | xlv
17. During an earthquake at what measure- (a) Persian

ment on the Richter scale do things begin (b) Hindi
to fall? (c) Arabic
(a) 6.0 or higher (d) Urdu
(b) Over 7.0 22. In Buddhism, Bodhisattvas were:
(c) 2.0 (a) Persons who attained enlightenment
(d) Over 5.0 (b) Chinese Buddhist pilgrims
18. Which one of the following was introduced (c) Buddhist scholars
with the coming of British art in India dur- (d) Statues of Buddha
ing the colonial period? 23. Which one of the following was not the
(a) Mural art condition to become a member of a Sabha
(b) Oil painting in the Chola Empire?
(c) Perspective (a) They should be between 25 and 70
(d) Miniatures
years of age.
19. Around 2000 years ago, Varanasi was a (b) They should have their own homes.
famous craft centre where Shrenis were (c) They should have knowledge of the
(a) Buddhist monasteries. Vedas.
(b) associations of craftspersons and mer- (d) They should be owners of land from
chants. which land revenue is collected.
(c) iron ploughshares used for agricultural 24. The Rowlatt Act, 1919, was opposed
production. because
(d) coins that have designs punched on to (a) it gave rights to separate electorates
the metal. to Muslims.
20. Consider the following two statements I (b) it disallowed Indians from possessing
and II on manuscripts and inscriptions and arms.
choose the correct answer: (c) it curbed the Fundamental Rights like
I. Manuscripts were usually written on Freedom of expression and strength-
palm leaf or on the specially prepared ened police powers.
bark of a tree known as birch. (d) introduced diarchy in provinces.
II. Inscriptions were written on relatively 25. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written in
hard surfaces like stones and metals. a book called the:
(a) Both A and B are true (a) Atharvaveda
(b) Both A and B are false (b) Yajurveda
(c) A is true and B is false (c) Dharmashastras
(d) A is false and B is true (d) Arthashastra
21. Which one of the following was the lan- 26. Garbhagriha, the most important part of
guage of administration under the Delhi some of the earliest Hindu temples, was
Sultans?

xlvi | Social Science
(a) the place in the temples where people (d) direct rays of the Sun fall on the Tropic
could assemble. of Capricorn, and at this position,
(b) caves elaborately decorated with none of the poles is titled towards the
sculptures and painted walls. Sun.
(c) the place where the image of the chief 31. What kind of language needs to be used in
deity was installed. Social Science teaching?
(d) the place where religious rituals were (a) Representative of dominant groups
not performed. (b) Discriminatory
27. Which one of the following grasslands is (c) Neutral and sensitive
the homeland of Native Americans? (d) Difficult
(a) Steppe
32. Projects on democratic institutions could
(b) Pampas be done to show that
(c) Velds (a) they can be analysed to identify fea-
(d) Prairies tures and challenges.
28. Breeding of fish in specially constructed (b) they are as described in the textbooks.
tanks and ponds is known as: (c) they are ineffective.
(a) Pisciculture (d) students must accept these institu-
(b) Horticulture tions as they are.
(c) Sericulture 33. Summative assessment is inappropriate for
(d) Viticulture the following:
29. Bering Strait is a narrow stretch of shallow (a) Deciding upon the grade
water that connects: (b) End of the term assessment
(a) Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean (c) Monitoring the progress of teaching–
(b) Arctic Ocean and Pacific Ocean learning process
(c) Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean (d) Summarising student’s learning
(d) Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean
34. What are pie diagrams useful for?
30. “On 21st March and 23rd September, the (a) Showing features of a historical period
whole Earth experiences equal days and (b) Comparing different amounts
nights.” This is because (c) Showing a particular amount in rela-
(a) direct rays of the Sun fall on the equa- tion to the whole
tor, and at this position, none of the (d) Showing a pattern
poles is titled towards the Sun.
35. Each chapter of the History textbook for
(b) direct rays of the Sun fall on the Tropic
Class VI is introduced by a young girl or
of Cancer, and at this position, one of a boy. Why do you think this strategy has
the poles is titled towards the Sun. been adopted by the textbook makers?
(c) direct rays of the Sun fall on the equa- (a) To show boys and girls can study
tor, and at this position, one of the history
poles is titled towards the Sun. (b) To evaluate the connect of the chapter

Previous Year Papers: February 2015 | xlvii
(c) To inculcate a spirit of enquiry and dis- 40. Teacher ‘B’ is currently teaching a lesson
covery in students on history of a region. What do you think
(d) To show how introduction can be ‘B’ should do?
done (a) Highlight the similarities and changes
in different time periods
36. “You are a peasant in Alauddin Khilji’s or
(b) Highlight identities of different rulers
Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign and you
(c) Encourage the students to remember
cannot pay the taxes demanded by the
the main features of the period
Sultan. What will you do?”
(d) Highlight the similarities of the present
In the above question what is being
with the past
encouraged?
(a) Historical imagination 41. What is the purpose of evaluation?
(b) Importance of sources (a) To identify problems students
(c) Respect for culture (b) To rank children
(d) Importance of literature (c) To encourage competition
(d) To improve teaching–learning pro-
37. At the upper primary stage, Geography
cesses
and Economics together can help in the
following: 42. Historical films are useful in Social Science
(a) Developing a perspective on issues of teaching as they
environment, resources, and develop- (a) concentrate on an individual’s prob-
ment lem.
(b) Understanding plurality (b) portray history as fiction.
(c) Developing knowledge of places and (c) bring alive various dimensions of a
environment specific social setting.
(d) Understanding optimal allocation of (d) have good entertainment value.
resources 43. What kind of outlook should be there
38. When is formative evaluation conducted? towards Social Science textbooks?
(a) At the end of the session (a) As a document to be memorised
(b) Before teaching a new unit (b) As an avenue for further enquiry
(c) During teaching–learning process (c) As a repository of knowledge
(d) At the end of a unit (d) As a final statement
39. Biases, discrimination, and prejudices in 44. Tawa Matsya Sangh, a federation of fish-
the classroom could be avoided by workers’ cooperatives is an organisation
(a) organising a lecture on humanity. fighting for the rights of displaced forest
(b) ignoring them, as children will grow dwellers in the State of:
out of them one day. (a) Uttarakhand
(c) discussing different dimensions of (b) Chhattisgarh
social realities. (c) Jharkhand
(d) handing out the Preamble of the (d) Madhya Pradesh
Constitution.

xlviii | Social Science
45. Which one of the following Fundamental (c) History, Geography, Political Science,
Rights is not guaranteed to every arrested and Environmental Science
person under the criminal law as stated in (d) History, Geography, Economics, and
Article 22 of the Constitution? Environmental Science
(a) Confessions made in police custody 49. The position paper on Teaching of Social
can be used as evidence against the Science emphasises
accused. (a) respecting different opinions and
(b) The Right not to be ill-treated or tor- examining ideas and practices.
tured during arrest or in custody. (b) accept social hierarchies.
(c) The Right to be informed at the time (c) increasing the use of textbooks.
of arrest of the offence for which the (d) encouraging memorisation.
person is arrested.
(d) The Right to be presented before a 50. Maps and diagrams in a Social Science
Magistrate within 24 hours of arrest. textbook are relevant as they
(a) add a new dimension to a concept.
46. The Members of Legislative Assembly are (b) are made by experts.
(a) elected by the people. (c) make a textbook attractive.
(b) appointed by the Governor. (d) clarify a concept.
(c) appointed by the Prime Minister.
51. A case study of a social movement given to
(d) appointed by the Chief Minister.
a class for discussion need not incorporate
47. A coalition government implies the following:
(a) power sharing between two or more (a) Solutions to the movement
political parties after elections when (b) Background of the movement
no party has been able to get a clear (c) Objectives of the movement
majority. (d) Problems areas of the movement
(b) power sharing between State
52. While teaching Human Resources to Class
Government and Panchayati Raj
VIII students, what core message would
Institutions.
you like to promote?
(c) power sharing between government
(a) Importance of people as a resource
at the centre and state.
(b) Utilisation of resources by human
(d) power sharing between executive and
beings
judiciary.
(c) Distribution of population
48. At the upper primary stage, Social Science (d) Importance of physical resources
comprises: 53. Which one of the following is not a func-
(a) Geography, History, Political Science, tion of the Gram Panchayat?
and Economics (a) Executing Government schemes
(b) Political Science, Geography, History, related to generation of employment
and Sociology in the villages

Previous Year Papers: February 2015 | xlix
(b) The construction and maintenance of (d) allows only the religious minorities to
the infrastructure of the villages approach the court if they believe that
(c) Levying and collecting local taxes their cultural and educational rights
(d) Gram Panchayat elects its Panchayat provided in the Constitution have
Secretary been violated by the State.
54. Which one of the following does not fall 57. The ‘Civil Rights Movement’ was started in
within the purview of Civil Law? the USA
(a) Disputes related to sale of land (a) to demand equal rights and address
(b) Harassing a woman for dowry racial discrimination for all the African-
(c) Filing a divorce case American citizens.
(d) Claiming custody of children (b) to demand voting rights of the African-
American men.
55. Which one of the following statements is
(c) to demand social security of the
incorrect about the judiciary?
(a) Judiciary has the power to strike down African-American senior citizens.
(d) to demand voting rights of the African-
laws passed by the Parliament.
American women.
(b) The judicial system provides a mecha-
nism for resolving disputes between 58. Which one of the following statements is
citizens, between citizens and the gov- not true about the Parliament of India?
ernment, but not between two State (a) In the matters dealing with finances,
governments. the government does not require
(c) The legislature and the executive can- Parliament’s approval.
not interfere in the work of judiciary. (b) The Parliament, while in session,
(d) It plays a crucial role in protecting the begins with a question hour.
Fundamental Rights of citizens. (c) The Parliament consists of the
President, the Rajya Sabha, and the
56. The Right to Constitutional Remedies
Lok Sabha.
(a) allows only the linguistic minorities to
(d) The Parliament in our system has
approach the court if they believe that
immense powers because it is the rep-
their cultural and educational rights
resentative of the people.
provided in the Constitution have
been violated by the State. 59. While teaching Social Science, a teacher
(b) allows all citizens to approach the must attempt to
court if they believe that any of the (a) focus upon remembering the details.
Directive Principles of State Policy have (b) focus upon facts, values, and patterns.
not been fulfilled by the State. (c) focus only upon facts, but not on
(c) allows all citizens to approach the values.
court if they believe that any of their (d) focus only upon values, but not on
Fundamental Rights have been vio- facts.
lated by the State.

l | Social Science
60. Suppose the prescribed Social Science text- (b) Dictate summaries of each lesson
book is difficult for the students. What will (c) Use question–answer technique
you do? (d) Emphasise rote learning
(a) Provide a variety of supplementary
materials

Social Science September 2014
Directions: Answer the following questions by (a) Staying at one place would deplete
selecting the most appropriate option. resources
(b) To follow movement of animals which
1. In some areas, people started living in vil-
they hunted
lages about 8000 years ago. Which of the
(c) To fight for resources with another
following were among these areas?
group of hunter gathers
(a) Areas around Narmada
(d) To search for water resources
(b) Sulaiman and Kirthar Hills
(c) Ganga and Yamuna doab 6. Which period is the longest in the human
(d) Deccan and Konkan history?
(a) Palaeolithic age
2. Which of the following areas was known
(b) Megalithic age
as Magadh in the ancient period?
(c) Mesolithic age
(a) South of Ganga
(d) Neolithic age
(b) Between Ganga and Yamuna
(c) North of Ganga 7. Ancient rocks have been found in:
(d) Between Yamuna and Chambal (a) Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
(b) Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh
3. Bharata was a group of people mentioned
(c) Andhra Pradesh
in the Rig Veda. They lived in:
(d) Madhya Pradesh
(a) South India
(b) North India 8. Which of the following is not a Harappan
(c) West India site?
(d) Northwest India (a) Rakhigarhi
(b) Sotkakoh
4. Rig Veda was originally composed in: (c) Ganweriwala
(a) Prakrit (d) Chirand
(b) Sanskrit
9. Puru, Yadu, and Bharata are mentioned in
(c) Brahmi
Vedas as:
(d) Shauraseni
(a) Janas
5. Which of the following was not a reason (b) Rashtras
for hunter-gathers to move from place to (c) Rajanyas
place? (d) Dasyus

lii | Social Science
10. Shafi’i and Hanafi are: (b) Common people got benefited as
(a) Islamic architecture styles there was a sharp fall in prices.
(b) Places in Saudi Arabia (c) Many princely states rebelled against
(c) Islamic schools of law British rule.
(d) Two Islamic rulers (d) Indian industries expanded as war
created a demand for industrial goods.
11. Dantidurga, who performed a ritual called
hiranyagarbha, was a: 16. Which of the following is an example of
(a) Chola king desert?
(b) Pratihara Chief (a) Ladakh
(c) Rashtrakuta Chief (b) Sundarban
(d) Pallava Chief (c) Konkan
12. Who has written that Raziya was more (d) Western Ghats
able and qualified than her brothers? 17. Which of the following statements regard-
(a) Al-Biruni ing position of the Earth is true?
(b) Badayuni (a) The axis of the Earth is a definite line
(c) Minhaj-i-Siraj 1
that makes an angle of with 66 its
(d) Ziauddin Barani 2
orbital plane.
13. In an inscription, a Delhi Sultan is said to (b) The axis of the Earth is a definite line
have been chosen by the God because he 1
that makes an angle of with 23 its
had the qualities like Moses and Salomon. 2
orbital plane.
Who was that Delhi Sultan?
(c) The axis of the Earth is an imaginary
(a) Sikandar Lodi
1
(b) Firoz Shah Tughlaq line that makes an angle of 66 with
2
(c) Balban its orbital plane.
(d) Alauddin Khilji (d) The axis of the Earth is an imaginary
1
14. In which revenue settlement during the line that makes an angle of 23 with
2
East India Company’s rule was the village its orbital plane.
headman made responsible to collect rev-
18. The circle of illumination is the
enue and pay it to the Company?
(a) circle that divides the globe into two
(a) Zamindari Settlement
parts.
(b) Permanent Settlement
(b) circle that divides the day from night
(c) Ryotwari Settlement
on the globe.
(d) Mahalwari Settlement
(c) position of the Earth on equinox when
15. In which ways did World War I alter the day and night are equal.
economic and political situation in India? (d) position of the Sun on a particular
(a) Political activities of the Indian National meridian at 12:00 o’clock in noon.
Congress were banned for six years.

Previous Year Papers: September 2014 | liii
19. Conventionally direction marked ‘A’ repre- (c) Variety of shawl

sents (d) Buddhist monks
C 25. The diagram represents:
Cold
air
Warm
A B air
D
Cardinal directions
(a) North
(b) South
(c) East (a) Orographic rainfall
(d) West (b) Convectional rainfall
(c) Cyclonic rainfall
20. Lakshadweep Islands are located in the:
(d) Pre-monsoon rainfall
(a) Indian Ocean
(b) Arabian Sea 26. Which industry is often called backbone of
(c) Bay of Bengal modern industries?
(d) South China Sea (a) Petroleum
21. ‘Campos’ found in Brazil is a: (b) Energy
(a) Tribe (c) Transport
(b) Tropical grassland (d) Steel
(c) Traditional dance 27. In organic farming
(d) Tropical animal (a) chemical fertilizers are used to increase
22. The Kolkata port is situated on/in the: yield.
(a) Ganga Sagar (b) generic modification done to increase
(b) Bay of Bengal yield.
(c) River Hooghly (c) natural manures and pesticides are
(d) River Bhagirathi used.
(d) only production of cotton has been
23. Which continent is least populated in the
allowed in India.
world?
(a) Europe 28. Which of the following is true with regard
(b) Australia to food security?
(c) South America (a) Food security exists when government
(d) Africa maintains buffer stock of grains for
24. ‘Gompas’ found in Ladakh are: next five years.
(a) Buddhist monasteries/temples (b) Government imposes ban on grains
(b) Variety of goat exports for maintaining sufficient stock.

liv | Social Science
(c) Government encourages producing (b) federation of States to run the country.
organic foods for better and secured (c) only the Central Government has the
health. right to make laws.
(d) Food security exists when all people, (d) judiciary is the highest authority in the
at all-time have access to sufficient, country.
safe, and nutritious food. 35. If a politician in one state decides not to
29. Which of the following is a popular eco- allow labourers from other states to work
friendly automobile fuel? in his state, which Fundamental Right will
(a) CNG be violated?
(b) PNG (a) Right to equality
(c) LPG (b) Right to freedom
(d) KG-6 (c) Right against exploitation
30. Barometer is used to: (d) Right to constitutional remedies
(a) Measure rainfall 36. The Rajya Sabha can have at most:
(b) Measure temperature (a) 225 members
(c) Measure atmospheric pressure (b) 235 members
(d) Measure sea level (c) 245 members
(d) 260 members
31. The apostle of Christ, St. Thomas is believed
to have come to: 37. The parliament in our system has immense
(a) Goa power because
(b) Karnataka (a) it has the power to make laws.
(c) Tamil Nadu (b) it has the power to overrule judiciary.
(d) Kerala (c) it is the representative of the people.
(d) all powers are vested with the
32. What is Zulu?
Parliament.
(a) A tribe of South Africa
(b) A language of South Africa 38. Function of the executive in Indian democ-
(c) National animal of South Africa racy is to:
(d) A traditional dance South Africa (a) Enact laws
(b) Implement laws made by the
33. According to the Constitution, how many Parliament
organs of the State are there? (c) Elect the Prime Minister
(a) Two (d) Elect the President
(b) Three
39. The Mid-day Meal programme is said to
(c) Four
have many positive effects. Which one of
(d) Five
the following is not one of them?
34. Federalism refers to (a) Enrolment of poor children in schools
(a) existence of more than one level of has increased.
government in the country. (b) Caste prejudices have been reduced.

Previous Year Papers: September 2014 | lv
(c) Poor students can now concentrate 43. In order to understand the role of various
on their studies as they do not have issues during an election, which of the
empty stomachs. following would you most likely ask your
(d) Poor children are getting high marks in students?
examinations. (a) Analyse newspaper editorials regard-
40. The wheel diagram shows typical employ- ing arguments against each other by
ment opportunities to labourers in rural political parties
areas. For how long are they unable to get (b) Analyse each party’s properties and
a regular job? the types of policies it is most likely to
support
Dec Jan
(c) Conduct survey in your locality for the
Nov Feb popularity of political parties
Harvesting
(d) Analyse and compare the time devoted
by national news channels to different
Oct Mar parties
Weeding 44. Which of the following would you rec-
Apr ommend for the peer learning in your
Sept
classroom?
preparation
Sapling
Transplanting (a) Drama

Aug May (b) Computer-aided learning
(c) Participation in routine activities only
July Jun
(d) Visit to research laboratories
(a) Three months 45. Which of the following statements is cor-
(b) Four months rect about Social Science?
(c) Five months (a) Social Science is not concerned with
(d) Six months diverse concerns of society.
41. A method used in a Social Science class- (b) Social Science emphasises homogene-
room in which learners are asked to evalu- ity and rituals.
ate one another’s likeability is called as: (c) Social Science is a subjectivist disci-
(a) Self-assessment pline.
(b) Sociometric techniques (d) Social Science lays the foundation for
(c) Case study an analytical and creative mindset.
(d) Psychometric techniques 46. In Social Science, the recent NCF position
42. Which of the following is an essential qual- paper on examination reforms emphasises:
ity of creative thinking? (a) Open book exams
(a) Convergent (b) Continues assessment
(b) Generative (c) Test performance
(c) Reflective (d) Flexible sitting arrangement while test-
(d) Deductive ing

lvi | Social Science
47. Studying the life history of a village com- 52. In the Indian pluralistic society, textbooks
munity to understand the education of the of Social Science should
young ones is an example of which kind of (a) reflect the majority opinion.
data? (b) reflect the government’s views.
(a) Secondary data (c) avoid controversies about all religions
(b) Narrative data and social groups.
(c) Clinical case-study data (d) include and represent all religions and
(d) Primary data social groups.
48. The process of deriving inferences from 53. In order to teach about equity, which of
observable facts is called: the following would be the most suitable
(a) Analysis method?
(b) Exposition (a) Give a lecture
(c) Deduction (b) Give a project
(d) Brainstorming (c) Assign field-work around the ideas of
poverty and capitalism
49. To show the change in rainfall in a particu-
(d) Highlight the constitutional provisions
lar region in a decade, which of the follow-
to promote equity
ing would be a suitable teaching aid?
(a) Flow chart 54. Which of the following will promote a
(b) Bar-diagram social learning of rules, regulations, and
(c) Frequency polygon values?
(d) Venn diagram (a) Project work
(b) Group discussions
50. ‘To understand the importance of knowl-
(c) Book reading
edge and wisdom of peers’—is valued in
which perspective? (d) Writing essays
(a) Cognitive 55. Which of the following descriptions of a
(b) Emotive learner’s behaviour could be used to assess
(c) Behaviourist attitudes and values in a Social Science
(d) Constructivist classroom?
(a) Accepting all the ideas of the teachers
51. Which of the following teaching methods
(b) Insisting to work alone
would be most effective in Social Science
(c) Feeling free to ask questions
that teachers must use?
(d) Getting good grades in academics
(a) Ensure that learners have learnt the
content by taking repetitive tests 56. Diagnostic and remedial teaching in a
(b) Assign grades liberally Social Science classroom will involve?
(c) Engage learners in critical and thought (a) Recognition of specific difficulty of the
provoking activities student
(d) Assign home assignments (b) Providing a lot of material to read

Previous Year Papers: September 2014 | lvii
(c) Providing a lot of opportunity for 59. Which of the following constitutes the cul-
discussions tural capital of a student?
(d) Correcting the errors of students (a) Monetary and financial resources
instantly (b) Electronic equipment available for use
by a student
57. During teacher-education, micro-teaching
(c) Educational background of the family
refers to which of the following?
(d) Number of places that a student has
(a) Teaching by observing the teacher-
visited
educator minutely
(b) Teaching a miniature classroom with 60. Which of the following is an aspect of
peers role-playing as students progressive education in a Social Science
(c) Teaching students in small groups classroom?
(d) Teaching a small chunk of content at a (a) Segregation of learners
time (b) Functional intelligence
(c) Emphasis on scoring in examination
58. When a teacher uses individual experi-
ences in order to explain concepts in a (d) Respect for popularity and multiplicity
Social Science class, then s/he is
(a) making the lesson engaging.
(b) channelising the energies of students.
(c) promoting the ability to relate their
local reality with the global context.
(d) take care of the linguistic and cultural
diversities among learners.

Directions: Answer the following questions by (c) India became vast market for indus-
selecting the most appropriate option. trial products.
(d) many industries were established in
1. The movement Vande Mataram in Andhra
India.
region was known as:
(a) Non-cooperation 5. In which land revenue settlement, the
(b) Swadeshi Rajas and Taluqdars were recognised as
(c) Civil disobedience Zamindars?
(d) Khilafat (a) Ryotwari settlement
(b) Mahalwari settlement
2. The book Stri Purush Tulana, which is
(c) Permanent settlement
based on criticism of the social differences
(d) Pattidari settlement
between men and women, was authored
by which of the following scholars? 6. Begum Hazrat Mahal took an active part in
(a) Pandita Ramabai organising the uprising against British at:
(b) Begum Rokeya (a) Kanpur
(c) Tarabai Shinde (b) Lucknow
(d) Rassundari Devi (c) Faizabad
(d) Allahabad
3. The Christian missionaries in the 19th cen-
tury wanted to introduce Christian educa- 7. Which of the following Acts transferred
tion in India to: the administration of India from the East
(a) Educate elite class India Company to British Crown?
(b) Improve moral character of the people (a) Act of 1833
(c) Educate masses (b) Act of 1858
(d) Make Indians loyal to company gov- (c) Act of 1861
ernment (d) Act of 1868
4. With the industrialisation of Britain in the 8. In the medieval Assam, paiks were:
19th century (a) Forced labourers
(a) India became the main supplier of raw (b) Plantation workers
materials to British industries. (c) Water carriers
(b) India provided cheap labour to British (d) Members of conscript army
industries.

Previous Year Papers: February 2014 | lix
9. ‘Manigramam’ and ‘Nanadesi’ were: 13. Who among the following said, ‘The upper
(a) Famous towns during Chola period castes had no right to their land because
(b) Famous guilds of south India in reality, the land belonged to indigenous
(c) Administrative units of Cholas people, the so-called low castes’?
(d) Famous villages given as Brahmadeya (a) Shri Narayan Guru
to Brahmanas (b) Haridasa Thakur
(c) Ghasidas
10. Cited below are some sites and present-
(d) Jyotirao Phule
day states where the evidences of grains
and bones of domestic animals have been 14. Which one of the following statements is
found. appropriate in reference to the construc-
tion of Audience Hall (Diwan-i-Aam) by
Name of the site Present-day state
Shah Jahan?
I. Chirand A. Kashmir
(a) White marble of the Taj Mahal is a
II. Koldihwa B. Uttar Pradesh symbol of peace.
III. Burzahom C. Andhra Pradesh (b) King’s justice would treat the high and
IV. Hallur D. Bihar the low as equals.
(c) Contentedness in the subject helps to
The correct match of the above two column is: rule better.
(a) I-D; II-B; III-A; IV-C (d) It was a necessity to bring the rate of
(b) I-C; II-D; III-B; IV-A crimes under control.
(c) I-A; II-C; III-D; IV-B 15. Who among the following could not
(d) I-B; II-A; III-C; IV-D be a member of a Sabha as laid down
11. The rivers Ganga and Yamuna are men- in the inscriptions from Uthiramerur in
tioned ______ in the Rig Veda. Chengalpattu of Tamil Nadu?
(a) around a thousand times (a) Those between the age of 35 and 70
(b) a hundred times years
(c) twelve times (b) Those having knowledge of the Vedas
(d) once (c) Those who have their own homes
(d) Those who have not submitted their
12. Which one of the following features is
accounts
common to both Buddhism and Jainism?
(a) Only those who left their homes could 16. Which one of the following facts does not
gain true knowledge. hold true about Gramabhojaka, the village
(b) Both these religions were supported headman in the northern parts of India?
mainly by traders. (a) He was often the largest landowner.
(c) Man had to give up everything includ- (b) His post was hereditary.
ing their clothes to gain salvation. (c) The king never used him to collect
(d) The constant craving for more could taxes.
be removed by following moderate (d) Generally, he had slaves and hired
path. workers to cultivate the land.

lx | Social Science
17. Which property of soil is determined by the (a) Orange country of South Africa
parent rock? (b) Kashmir valley of India
(a) Rate of weathering and humus (c) Mediterranean region
(b) Thickness of soil (d) Queensland in Australia
(c) Accumulation of soil 24. Which one of the following helps the ships
(d) Chemical properties, permeability, and to navigate?
texture (a) Area of high tides
18. Minerals that lie near the earth surface are (b) Area of low tides
simply dug out by the process known as: (c) Area where the warm ocean currents
(a) Quarrying and cold currents meet
(b) Calcination (d) Area of ocean currents
(c) Open cast mining 25. The radio waves transmitted from the
(d) Sintering earth are reflected back to the earth by:
19. The oldest rocks in the world are found in: (a) Exosphere
(a) Western Australia (b) Mesosphere
(b) South Africa (c) Stratosphere
(c) South India (d) Thermosphere
(d) Hawaii Islands 26. The balance in the environment gets dis-
20. Activity that changes raw material into turbed if
products of more value is called: (a) the relative number of species is not
(a) Primary activity disturbed.
(b) Secondary activity (b) human activities continue to preserve
(c) Economic activity natural habitats.
(d) Tertiary activity (c) indiscriminate killing of wildlife is
21. The Apache and the Crow are: banned.
(a) Tribes of North America (d) deforestation and soil erosion con-
tinue.
(b) Nomads bands of Kenya
(c) Nomads bands of the USA 27. Which of the following is not a principle of
(d) Documentaries on environment sustainable development?
(a) Maximum use of natural resources
22. Which of the following is an example of
(b) Respect and care for all forms of life
Sunrise industry?
(c) Change in personal attitude and prac-
(a) IT industry
tices towards environment
(b) Cooking oil industry
(d) Improvement in the quality of human
(c) Paper industry
life
(d) Jute industry
28. Two cities N and M are located at 15° E and
23. Which region is known as the Orchard of
15°W of Greenwich, respectively. What will
the World?

Previous Year Papers: February 2014 | lxi
be the difference in time between these 33. According to the Hindu Succession
two cities? (Amendment) Act, 2005,
(a) 30 minutes (a) only sons or male members of the
(b) 1 hour family can have the right in family
(c) 1 hour 30 minutes property.
(d) 2 hours (b) only wife has right to inherit property
of her deceased husband.
29. The minimum Wages Act
(c) sons, daughters, and their mothers can
(a) specifies that minimum wages should
get an equal share of family property.
be given to labourers.
(d) followers of the Arya Samaj will not be
(b) specifies that the wages should not be
governed by this Act.
below a specific minimum.
(c) allows employers to decide minimum 34. Which of the following comes under the
wages of their employees. function of the State Government?
(d) covers only government employees (a) To maintain peaceful relationship with
under the organised sector. Pakistan and Bangladesh.
(b) Decision to discontinue the Board
30. Which Article of the Constitution prescribes
Examination for Class X.
that the enforcement of any disability
(c) Introduction of new train between
arising out of ‘untouchability’ shall be an
offence punishable in accordance with law? New Delhi and Vasco da Gama.
(a) Article 15 (d) Introduction of a new design of 1000
rupee note.
(b) Article 17
(c) Article 21 35. Dropout rates of Dalit and Adivasi girls are
(d) Article 28 highest because
(a) their parents do not value education.
31. What is the key reason of inequality in
(b) of poverty and social discrimination.
India?
(a) Poverty (c) of non-availability of all-girls schools.
(b) Religion (d) benefit of their education will be avail-
able to their in-law’s family.
(c) Caste
(d) Sex 36. Which one of the following is not a social
advertisement?
32. Right to the constitutional remedies
(a) Atithi Devo Bhava
(a) protects the fundamental Rights of
(b) Life Insurance—Zindagi Ke Saath Bhi,
citizen.
Zindagi Ke Baad Bhi
(b) is about the Constitution remedying
(c) Lane driving is life driving
itself by amendments.
(c) excludes the Right to Education Act, (d) Save every drop of water
2009. 37. Identify the issue which is hardly focused
(d) gives judiciary the power to strike upon by the media despite its significance.
down a law enacted by the parliament. (a) Murders and killings

lxii | Social Science
(b) Demolition of buildings (b) Emphasis only on the scholastic

(c) Gender sensitivity aspects of learning
(d) Drinking water (c) Consideration of the needs of the
learner
38. With reference to judiciary, identify the
(d) Rapport among learners, teachers,
odd one out of the following provisions.
and parents close to each other
(a) Separation of powers
(b) Once appointed to office, it is very dif- 42. Before assigning a new type of assign-
ficult to remove a judge. ment, a teacher must tell her students
(c) The judges are appointed without any (a) that the forthcoming assessment
interference from the government. will be/will not be based on this
(d) The tenure of service for judges is assignment.
fixed. (b) about the weighing of this assignment
39. D. K. Basu Guidelines laid down by the in their final result.
(c) about her expectation from students
Supreme Court of India are about
in terms of learning from doing the
(a) prevention of sexual harassment of
assignment.
women at workplaces.
(d) about the requisite previous experi-
(b) protection of children from sexual
ence students must possess for doing
offences in schools.
this assignment.
(c) procedures to be used by various
agencies for the arrest, detention, and 43. Four children of Class VIII were asked to
interrogation of any person. create some creative articles from waste
(d) procedures to be followed for the re- materials. On completion of the assign-
election in a constituency. ment, the teacher gave the following
observations. On the basis of this informa-
40. In Subhash Kumar vs State of Bihar (1991),
tion, adjudge the most creative child.
the Supreme Court held that the
(a) Most of the time uses imagination
(a) right to freedom includes expressing
criticism of the government. and is conscious not to use expensive
(b) right to life includes the right to the material.
(b) Discusses with teacher constantly and
enjoyment of pollution-free water and
asks for approval at each step.
air.
(c) With little guidance, can make reason-
(c) right to freedom of religion does not
ably good items.
include criticising the other religions.
(d) Skilful and possesses a vision to con-
(d) right to equality should force private
vert waste materials into productive
companies to provide reservation in
items.
jobs.
44. Projects in Social Science are useful:
41. Which characteristic of the traditional
external examination is excluded in the I. in theme-based tasks
present school-based assessment? II. if they do not involve collection
(a) Emphasis on systematic learning and analysis

Previous Year Papers: February 2014 | lxiii
III. if based on contexts from within (c) Handicapped children to study in reg-
the text ular schools
IV. for the group work in class or at (d) Handicapped children to study in spe-
home cial schools
Which two alternatives from the above 48. A student of Class VIII is extremely upset
forms are correct? over her inability to write on a prescribed
(a) II and IV topic. Her teacher advises that she may
(b) I and II approach the assignment by breaking it
(c) I and IV into parts which are more familiar to her.
(d) III and IV Which of the following is the most appro-
priate with this method?
45. Capacity Building Programmes are essential
(a) At the outset, write the topic that is
for the teachers of Social Science because
familiar and then add material on how
(a) they are related to their professional
the topic is related to the assignment.
growth.
(b) Prepare a directory of books, articles,
(b) their increment in salary is contingent
and websites about the topic.
upon Capacity Building Programme.
(c) Find two sources of information on the
(c) schools have been asked to do so by
topic and find their common features.
the CBSE to keep the teachers busy.
(d) Prepare a paper and read-it to a friend
(d) they require conceptual and pedagog-
to determine which parts need to be
ical clarity in different components of
revised.
Social Science.
49. Which of the following approaches has
46. In a Social Science class, which one of the been used extensively to familiarise stu-
following is a suitable method for underlin- dents with ideas in the textbook Social and
ing the phenomenon that common areas Political Life published by the NCERT?
and open spaces in rural areas are disap- (a) Timeline
pearing fast? (b) Graph
(a) Make presentation with the help of (c) Chart
computers (d) Storyboard
(b) Discussion on the basis of text
50. The content of Social Science should
prescribed
(c) A survey project (a) provide comprehensive information
about the social issues and their solu-
(d) Group discussion over the topic
tions.
47. The National Policy on Education (NPE), (b) exclusively focus on issues related to
1986, suggested the development of ‘inte- social reality and should not encour-
grated programmes’ for the: age scientific method of research.
(a) Education of boys and girls together (c) aim at raising students’ aware-
(b) Education of the mentally disabled ness about history, geography, and

lxiv | Social Science
politics of India and the interconnec- (d) enlighten students to organise move-
tion among these. ments for better facilities for all.
(d) aim at raising students’ awareness 54. The National Curriculum Framework, 2005,
through critically exploring and ques- proposes that Geography should be taught
tioning familiar social realities. to
51. To make textbooks representatives of all (a) instruct the role of diverse geographi-
regions and social groups, cal features of India in its economic
(a) contents relating to all regions and growth.
social groups should be added in the (b) guide students about the destructive
textbooks. effect of natural disasters on the econ-
(b) relevant local content should be a part omy of India.
of teaching–learning process drawing (c) focus on the optimum extraction and
on local resources. utilisation of natural resources.
(c) textbooks should be written in all lan- (d) inculcate a critical appreciation for con-
guages mentioned in the Schedule VIII servation and environmental concerns.
of the Constitution of India. 55. Regarding pedagogy and resources for
(d) common issues among regions must
Social Science, the National Curriculum
be highlighted exclusively to promote Framework, 2005, says that teaching of
the spirit of federal republic. Social Science must adopt
52. To sensitise students about the gender (a) strategies that help students to
issues and role of socialisation in gender remember facts longer time.
discriminations, schools should (b) mind maps that enhance quick
(a) encourage team teaching and include retrieval of information.
male as well as female teachers. (c) methods that promote creativity and
(b) organise seminars on gender sensitiv- critical perspective.
ity by inviting eminent speakers. (d) approach involving maximum teach-
(c) ask teachers to use case studies and ing aids to promote intelligence.
give concrete examples. 56. Scaffolding in a Social Science classroom
(d) make rules that boys are not allowed
primarily intends to
to practice discrimination against girls. (a) strengthen the desirable outcome in
53. While discussing the functions of the State the summative assessment.
Government, issues related to health, (b) help the students till the time inde-
water, transport, etc., may be discussed to pendent thinking is possible.
(a) make students aware how their State (c) assure the improvement of self-regula-
is doing on these accounts. tory skills.
(b) make students remember about the (d) enable the students to envisage ideas.
role of the Government in these areas. 57. The ability to break down information into
(c) allow learners to understand these smaller pieces and to establish relation
issues and express their critical views. among parts and the whole is:

Previous Year Papers: February 2014 | lxv
(a) Understanding (c) Mastery learning

(b) Applying (d) Structure training
(c) Analysing 60. Which of the following statements is true
(d) Remembering with regard to effective reflective practice
58. In order to optimise the time students spend in Social Science teaching?
on academic activities, a teacher should (a) Peer tutoring should be done carefully
(a) plan, teach, and impose timetable because it affects tutoring student’s
for transition time and classroom own reflective potential.
activities. (b) Reflective practice should reject those
(b) assign homework at least twice a students’ inputs that challenge teach-
week in core content areas. ing practices for the sake of classroom
(c) ask students to read new topics before discipline.
discussing them in class. (c) Reflection must exclude those links
(d) present a new material followed by a to conceptual frameworks that limit
question-and-answer session on the inquiry and problem solving.
material. (d) Teacher must create atmosphere of
59. Inductive learning is contradictory to which trust and flexibility to every learning
situation.
of the following approaches?
(a) Simulation
(b) Expository teaching

lxvi | Answer Keys
ANSWER KEYS
February 2016
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (a)

6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (a)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (c)
16. (b) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (c)
21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (d) 25. (b)
26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (c) 29. (d) 30. (c)
31. (b) 32. (c) 33. (b) 34. (c) 35. (a)
36. (d) 37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (a) 40. (b)
41. (a) 42. (d) 43. (d) 44. (c) 45. (c)
46. (a) 47. (b) 48. (d) 49. (c) 50. (a)
51. (c) 52. (b) 53. (d) 54. (a) 55. (d)
56. (a) 57. (c) 58. (c) 59. (c) 60. (c)
September 2015
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (c)

6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (b)
16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21. (d) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (d) 25. (c)
26. (c) 27. (c) 28. (d) 29. (b) 30. (d)
31. (b) 32. (b) 33. (b) 34. (a) 35. (a)
36. (b) 37. (c) 38. (c) 39. (d) 40. (c)
41. (a) 42. (b) 43. (b) 44. (b) 45. (b)
46. (c) 47. (a) 48. (d) 49. (a) 50. (c)
51. (a) 52. (a) 53. (c) 54. (d) 55. (d)
56. (d) 57. (b) 58. (b) 59. (a) 60. (b)

Answer Keys | lxvii
February 2015
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (c)

6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (a)
11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (d)
16. (d) 17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (a)
21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (c) 25. (d)
26. (c) 27. (d) 28. (a) 29. (b) 30. (a)
31. (c) 32. (a) 33. (c) 34. (c) 35. (c)
36. (a) 37. (a) 38. (c) 39. (c) 40. (a)
41. (d) 42. (c) 43. (b) 44. (d) 45. (a)
46. (a) 47. (a) 48. (a) 49. (a) 50. (d)
51. (a) 52. (a) 53. (d) 54. (b) 55. (b)
56. (c) 57. (a) 58. (a) 59. (b) 60. (a)
September 2014
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (c)

6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (d)
16. (a) 17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (d) 20. (b)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (a) 25. (c)
26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (d) 29. (a) 30. (c)
31. (d) 32. (b) 33. (b) 34. (a) 35. (b)
36. (c) 37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (d) 40. (c)
41. (b) 42. (b) 43. (b) 44. (a) 45. (d)
46. (b) 47. (d) 48. (c) 49. (b) 50. (d)
51. (c) 52. (d) 53. (c) 54. (b) 55. (c)
56. (a) 57. (b) 58. (c) 59. (c) 60. (d)
February 2014
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (c)

6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (d)
16. (c) 17. (d) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (b)
21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (c) 24. (a) 25. (d)
26. (d) 27. (a) 28. (d) 29. (b) 30. (b)

lxviii | Answer Keys
31. (a) 32. (a) 33. (c) 34. (b) 35. (b)
36. (b) 37. (d) 38. (d) 39. (c) 40. (b)
41. (b) 42. (c) 43. (d) 44. (c) 45. (d)
46. (c) 47. (c) 48. (c) 49. (d) 50. (d)
51. (b) 52. (c) 53. (c) 54. (d) 55. (c)
56. (b) 57. (c) 58. (a) 59. (b) 60. (d)

Unit I
History
Chapter 1 When, Where, and How

Chapter 2 Earliest Human Civilisation and Processes
Chapter 3 State Formation and Social Change
Chapter 4 Emperies, Social and Cultural Exchange
Chapter 5 Change and Continuity
Chapter 6 Emergence of New Power and Social Change
Chapter 7 Era of Rapid Changes
Chapter 8 Nationalist Movement and Social Reform
Chapter 9 India after Independence
M01_CTET_SOCIAL-SCI01_SE_XXXX_CH01.indd 1 11/29/2016 3:11:31 PM

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Chapter 1
Figure Web link Page number

Fig. 1.1 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rock_Shelter_15,_Bhimbetka_02.jpg 5
Fig. 1.2 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rock_Shelter_3,_Bhimbetka_02.jpg 5
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Fig. 1.5 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dhauli_ei02-63.jpg 7
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Chapter 2

Fig. 2.2 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Pre-history-maluti.jpg 18
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Fig. 2.6 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:010_glass,_carnelian_and_jasper_beads_5th_c._GMP. 23
JPG
Fig. 2.7 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Lothal_Dockyard.jpg 26
Below mentioned figure is licensed under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public
Domain Dedication.
Chapter 1

Fig. 1.11 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Ain-i-Akbari_%28The_Chronicles_of_ 10
Emperor_Akbar%29%2C_Lahore%2C_Pakistan%2C_c._1822_-_Royal_Ontario_Museum_-_
DSC09640.JPG

CHAPTER
When, Where, and

How 1
LeArNiNG ObjeCtives
• Understand the importance of studying history
• Know the importance of time and space in history
• Become aware of various kinds of sources to know history
• Analyse the present on the basis of past events
iNtrOdUCtiON
We know that history is a part of social science, but the question is: ‘Is it only a subject of some-
thing from the past? Why the study of history is so important for us? Why do we include this as a
subject in our school curriculum? How do we know about our past?’ These are some of the ques-
tions that will be discussed in this chapter, and we should try to understand history as a discipline.
Social science has a specific nature, which is based on the principle of understanding of society.
As a subject, Social science is a group of various disciplines such as Political Science, Geography,
Economics, and History. Most of the disciplines of Social science deal with the present scenario of
society, but history is the only discipline that not only deals with present but also deals about our
past. History gives us a base to understand the present scenario on the basis of past occurrences
and experiences. When we try to understand our past and analyse we did the good or bad, we
do it in the present and that is how we try to analyse our past in present and also unfold our past
from the canvas of present. But, while doing this analysis we commit some blunders. Just imagine
how people travelled (near and far) in the past from one place to another. How was the life in
absence of fire and agriculture? What were the ways of survival? Can we think some of such situ-
ations and elaborate about life in the past?
History is a subject that gives us insight to understand our past through a journey with time
and space. However, another pertinent question is how do you come to know about our past?
What are the ways that help us to know our past? Are these ways authentic and qualitative? Some
other kinds of questions are: why do we introduce history at school level? What is to be taught in
history at various levels? Why do we teach what we teach?

4 | Chapter 1 When, Where, and How
History is not merely a subject; rather, it is a powerful tool that facilitates interaction between the
present and the past. It is important to understand that there are various ideas about various civilisa-
tions across the world, and Indian civilisation is considered as one the oldest civilisation. However,
along with this, we should also understand that the qualities and characteristics prevailed to define a
state is different from the present. In addition, when we try to see history only from the present point
of view or to legitimate present situation and scenario, it takes us to a different kind of problem.
History is one subject that not only develops our understanding about our society in the past
but also develops the ability to become familiar about the present form of society that emerged
after a long journey of freedom struggle. Therefore, introducing history as a subject in school
education facilitates the learners the conceptualisation of their own past, which will help them to
analyse their present.
HOW TO KNOW OUR PAST

There are several ways to know about our past such as through monuments, reading books and
the available written materials that introduce us to the past, listening to folk songs, and so on.
However, the fundamental question is: what is the source? It is needless to say that the source is
most important to know about the past especially if you want to know the history of any particu-
lar time and space. Another question which rises here is that what is a historical source? A mate-
rial that has some important and useful and reliable information of history about a particular time
is called a source in history such as books, monuments, folk songs, stories, and so on. In history,
sources are most important because they are the base of understanding about the past. These
sources give us an insight to understand the contemporary situation of any particular time period.
There are many types of sources, but for convenience, all these sources are divided into two broad
categories, namely primary sources and secondary sources. Apart from these two sources, histori-
ans also use two more categories, namely archaeological sources and literary sources.
TYPES OF SOURCES
Primary Source of History
The primary sources are sources that are not manipulated by anyone. These are more reliable
and authentic sources. Primary sources are like chronicles, travellers accounts, coins, monuments,
palaces, forts, royal farmans, official orders, court bulletins, historical letters, religious literature,
inscriptions, and so on.
Secondary Sources of History

The secondary sources of History are based on primary sources. These types of sources are basi-
cally interpretations of primary sources. These sources are also important because they present
different types of aspects and interpretations of the same source.

Unit I History | 5
Archaeological Sources
Archaeological sources are those ancient ruins, remains, and monuments that are recovered as a
result of excavation and exploration of various sites. As in Madhya Pradesh, excavation and explo-
ration near the river Narmada helped us to know how people survived during this period which
is known as a period of hunting and gathering. Another such example is Bhimbetka caves where
wall paintings depict the contemporary lifestyle of ancient people. We can also assume about
their hunting and other such activities. Figures 1.1 and 1.2 present the life of ancient people.
Figure 1.1 A mythical animal and humans, Bhimbetka
Figure 1.2 Prehistoric rock paintings, Bhimbetka
Another pertinent question is how we can authenticate the originality of archaeological sources
with reference to their time period. The archaeologists have some processes through which the

chronology of any source can be identified. This process is known as radiocarbon dating, which is
based on scientific inquiry. We are aware of the fact that throughout a period, many monuments
had got buried due to various reasons. To know and reveal about these time periods, we have
to excavate these buried areas. This is a work of professional excellence and skill, where every-
thing is procured carefully. The process of excavation helped us to known about Mohenjo-Daro
(see Figure 1.3) and Dholavira (see Figure 1.4). Many other such facts of history have been and
can be unrevealed with the help of archaeology.
Figure 1.3 A street of Mohenjo-Daro
Figure 1.4 Reservoir at Dholavira

Unit I History | 7
Inscriptions
Inscriptions are a kind of archaeological source. These inscriptions are considered as the most
valuable historical sources, because inscription gives us written information about a time period.
These inscriptions are old and their language is not known to the people in present time. If the
languages of these inscriptions are unknown, then how one can read and make sense of these
inscriptions is an important question. With the help of epigraphy, these inscriptions can be read
and analysed. We should also know that the writing on inscription is known as palaeography. The
inscriptions are usually available on rocks, pillars, stones, slabs, walls of buildings, different kinds
of seals, and copper plates. Mostly these inscriptions are related to royal proclamations and com-
mandments. Other inscriptions are related to religious activities such as the ones found in temple
Figure 1.5 A Ashoka’s inscription
Figure 1.6 Ashokan inscription, Kandahar, Afghanistan

walls, pillars, stupas, and monasteries. These inscriptions and their location not only provide valu-
able information but also help us to understand the sociocultural, religious, and political aspects
of contemporary life, such as King Ashoka’s inscriptions (see Figures 1.5 and 1.6) help historians
to understand the outer boundaries of Ashokan empires.
Figure 1.7 A Copper plate inscription, Karnataka, 6th Century CE
Numismatic
Coins are a part of our daily life but have you ever thought about the study of coins? This study is
known as numismatics. Coins are another source of historical information. There were different
types of coins in different eras such as the coins of 500 BC are known as punch-marked coins. There
was no fixed shape on the punch-marked coins; these are pieces of metal that are punched by sign
or symbol, and that is why these coins are called punch-marked coins. In the era of Kushans, gold
coins were introduced first time in India. Gupta period is known for their silver coins. Now you can
see that various kinds of metals are used to make coins in different areas. Is there any difference
in using different types of metals to make coins? Metals used in the coins actually represent the
economy of the time or kingdom, for example, when gold was sued for coin making, it shows that
the economy was in better conditions, and if silver was used, the economy is less prosperous in
comparison to the gold economy. Coin shapes also help to understand the metal melting technol-
ogy of a particular time period. Coin inscriptions are also important because they help us to know
about the ruling person of that era. Some examples of coins are shown in Figures 1.8–1.10.
Literary Sources
Literature is important because it is the mirror of a society. Literature gives insight to understand
about society, political structure, economy, and their religious rituals of a particular time. There
are different types of literature available like religious literature, secular literature, accounts of for-
eigners, state chronicles, and so on. The religious accounts are available in a large range and are

Unit I History | 9
commonly divided into two main categories: Brahmanical and Non-Brahmanical literary sources.
Brahmanical literature includes Vedas, Puranas, Upanishads, and the great epics (Ramayana and
Mahabharata). The religious literature of Jains and Buddhist are known as Non-Brahmanical liter-
ary sources of history.
Figure 1.8 Punch-marked coins
Figure 1.9 Gold coins of Kushans
Figure 1.10 Gupta’s coins

There are some literatures that are not related to any particular ideology. These sources are
called secular literatures such as Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Patanjali and Panini writings, dramas of
Kalidas, and Kalhana’s Rajatarangini. All these historical texts have great value.
Time to time foreigners visited India. Some of them wrote some valuable accounts of their travels
like Megasthenes’ Indica, Ptolemy’s Geography, and Al-Beruni’s Kitab Al-Hind. These are some of
the well-known accounts written by foreigners. Accounts of foreigners are important because they
provide information related to contemporary time and also validate the other contemporary texts.
There are other types of literature sources such as state chronicles. State chronicles are impor-
tant because they provide systematic and authentic information about state affairs, such as
revenue records. They also represent the state’s perspective about certain issues. Especially in
medieval era, state-sponsored chronicles were prepared at large scale. The British also prepared
such chronicles which are known as gazette. There are some examples of state-sponsored chroni-
cles such as Ain-i-Akbari, Revenue Records, and Bengal Gazette (see Figures 1.11 and 1.12).
Figure 1.11 Ain-i-Akbari
Figure 1.12 Bengal Gazette

Unit I History | 11
TIME AND SPACE CONCEPT IN HISTORY

How do we know about a particular time? In history, the concept of time is very significant
because in absence of this concept, it is difficult to understand the changes occurring time to
time. In history, we are all familiar with the concepts of BC and AD. Modern history writings
started in the west and the birth of Christ is considered as a benchmark in the timeline of history.
In this context, we basically use two major terms BC, which mean Before Christ and AD means
Anno Domini. Some historians also use CE instead of AD and BCE instead of BC, in which CE
means Common Era and BCE means Before Common Era.
SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND

➨ Narmada River banks are the first site where the evidences are found related to hunting and
gathering.
➨ The evidence of growing wheat and barley during 8000 BC was found in Sulaiman and Kirthar
Hills in the Northwest of Indian subcontinent.
➨ Northeast and the Vindhyas are the places where people began to rear animals such as sheep,
goat, cattle, and so on.
➨ The earliest cites flourished on the banks of the River Indus and its tributaries 4700 years ago.
➨ New cites were developed on the banks of the River Ganga and its tributaries 2500 years ago.
➨ Social science has a specific nature, which is based on the principle of understanding of society.
➨ As a subject, social science is a group of various disciplines such as political science, geography,
economics, and history.
➨ History gives us a base to understand the present scenario on the basis of past occurrences
and experiences.
➨ History is not merely a subject; rather, it is a powerful tool that facilitates interaction between
the present and the past.
➨ There are many types of sources, but for convenience, all these sources are divided into two
broad categories, namely primary sources and secondary sources.
➨ The primary sources are sources that are not manipulated by anyone. These are more reliable
and authentic sources.
➨ Primary sources are like chronicles, travellers accounts, coins, monuments, palaces, forts, royal
farmans, official orders, court bulletins, historical letters, religious literature, inscriptions, and
so on.
➨ The secondary sources of history are those sources which are based on primary sources.
➨ Archaeological sources are those ancient ruins, remains, and monuments that are recovered as
a result of excavation and exploration of various sites.
➨ Radiocarbon dating is based on scientific inquiry.
➨ Inscriptions are a kind of archaeological source. These inscriptions are considered as the most
valuable historical sources, because inscription gives us written information about a time
period.

➨ These inscriptions and their location not only provide valuable information but also help us to
understand the sociocultural, religious, and political aspects of contemporary life.
➨ Bharat and India are two words used for our country.
➨ The word India is developed from Indus, which is called Sindhu in Sanskrit language.
➨ Iranian pronounced Sindhu as Hindos and Greeks pronounced Hindos as Indos.
➨ Bharat is a word used for a group of people who lived in the northwest of the subcontinent.
Rig Veda’s earlier Sanskrit composition, which is dated about 3500 years ago, mentions about
Bharata.
➨ Manuscript means a book written by hand on palm leaf.
➨ BC means before Christ, and AD means Anno Domini (in the year of lord).
➨ CE means Common Era, whereas BCE means Before Common Era.
Check Your Progress

1. What are the differences between primary 5. Describe the concept of time and space in
and secondary sources of history? history.
2. What do you understand about archaeol- 6. What are inscriptions and literary sources?
ogy? How is it important in History? Elaborate with examples.
3. What is epigraphy?
4. What is palaeography? Why is it important
in studying history?
Objective Questions
1. Social science is: 3. History is a subject which gives us insight
(a) Group of subject to understand about:
(b) Single subject (a) Our present
(c) Integration of subjects (b) Our past
(d) None of these (c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of these
2. Social sciences constitute with:
(a) History, political science, and 4. Historical sources are categories in two
geography categories:
(b) Political science, geography, and (a) First-hand source and third-hand source
economics (b) Primary source and secondary source
(c) History, political science, geography, (c) Primary source, secondary source, and
and economics higher sources
(d) History, geography, and economics (d) None of these

Unit I History | 13
5. Archaeological monuments are example of: (c) Religious accounts

(a) Secondary source (d) Secular accounts
(b) Normal source 12. Megasthenes’ Indica, Ptolemy’s Geography,
(c) Known source Al Beruni’s Kitab Al-Hind are examples of:
(d) Primary source (a) Religious accounts
6. The study of coins known as: (b) Secular accounts
(a) Numismatics (c) Travellers accounts
(b) Nursing (d) None of these
(c) Neurology 13. Iranians pronounce Sindhu as _______and
(d) Numerical Greeks pronounce as Indos.
7. Reading and analysing the inscription (a) Indos
known as: (b) Hindos
(a) Epigraphy (c) Indies
(b) Epicgraphy (d) Sandos
(c) Topography
14. Sulaiman and Kirthar hill in the northwest
(d) Epigography
of the Indian subcontinent are the first
8. The study of writings on inscriptions is sites where 8000 years BC ago
known as: (a) new planned cities first began to grow.
(a) Calligraphy (b) wheat and barley first began to grow.
(b) Palaeography (c) sheep and goats first began to be
(c) Daleography reared.
(d) Saleography (d) None of these
9. Exploration is part of: 15. A book written on palm leaf is called:
(a) Archaeology (a) Row script
(b) Micrology (b) Manuscript
(c) Sociology (c) Rescript
(d) Psychology (d) Script
10. Narmada River’s banks are the first sight 16. BC, AD, BCE, and CE are important in:
where we found evidences related to: (a) Study of history
(a) Hotel and motel (b) Study of geography
(b) Hunting and gathering (c) Study of sociology
(c) Wheat and barley (d) None of these
(d) None of these
11. Ramayana and Mahabharata are examples
of:
(a) States chronicles
(b) Travellers accounts

Earliest Human CHAPTER
Civilisation and
Processes 2
LEARNING OBjECTIVES
• Understand the primitive lives of human beings and their associated activities
• Become aware about the shift from food gatherers to cultivators in human history
• Understand about the Harappan civilisation
• Explore the reasons of decline of Harappan civilisation
INTRODUCTION
This chapter focuses on the earliest human activities, life of hunters and gatherers, first site of
farming, and the civilisations. The purpose of this chapter is to understand the processes of human
settlement in India. In this chapter, we will focus on first human civilisation in India. We will try to
understand how people started farming and how they settled and built well-planned cities in the
Indian subcontinent. Why hunting and gathering were important? Why did not they stay at one
place? There are four major points for not staying at one place.
Less availability of food was the first reason for their migration. All available resources come
to an end when used continuously, which forced them to move to other places rich in all kinds
of foods. Second, animals moved from place to place either in search of smaller prey or in search
of grass and leaves. Third, trees bear fruits and plants are seasonal, and therefore, animals and
human beings moved from place to place in search of these fruits and plants. Fourth, living things
need water. Water is essential for animals, humans, and plants. Hence, in search of water, they
moved to different places.
It is interesting and also surprising to know that people around two million years ago lived as
hunters and survived only on hunting and gathering fruits. However, archaeological evidences
have proved this fact that people lived in Indian subcontinent and they fed themselves by hunting
animals, catching fishes, gathering nuts, fruits, and seeds for their survival.

Unit I History | 15
HOW DO WE KNOW ABOUT THESE PEOPLE

It is an important question that how we come to know about them when we have no written
evidences about their life. In such a situation, archaeology helps us to understand their life and
practices. Archaeologists identified tools made of stones, wood, and bones used by those people
for various purposes. It is important to know that tools made of stones served the best among
others. Some of such tools are shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 Tools made of stones
In Figure 2.1, there are different types of tools. These tools are different in shapes and sizes and
are used for different purposes. Few tools were used to cut meat and bones. Some were used to
chop woods, whereas others were used to kill animals, and the hunting tools were sharp. Wood
was used to make tools, huts, and also used as firewood.
PLACES WHERE PEOPLE STARTED TO LIVE

Which were the best places to live can be an important question to be asked. There were various
criteria which people used to decide a place to live. One of the criteria was the availability of good
kinds of stones to make their tools, which they used for hunting and other purposes. These places
are called factories. Archaeologists found some places near river banks where they found many
things such as blocks of stone, discarded tools because they were not in perfect shape, etc. These
were the places where people lived relatively for a longer time. Archaeologist called these places
with various terms such as habitation, factory, habitation-cum-factory, and so on. It is important
to know that every term has different meanings and uses in different contexts. For example,
when we use the term habitation, it is directly related to those places where people lived longer
spells of time. When we use the term factory, it is related to those places where archaeologists
found stone tools, discarded stones, and chips of stones, and when we use the term habitation-
cum-factory, it is related to those places that are not only used for habitation but also for tool
making. Therefore, these places are called factories.

16 | Chapter 2 Earliest Human Civilisation and Processes
STONE TOOLS AND THEIR MAKING PROCESS

There were two kinds of techniques prevailed for stone tool making, and these are as follows:
1. Stone on stone: Here, the pebble from which the tool was to be made (also called the core)
was held in one hand. Another stone, which was used as a hammer was held in the other
hand. The second stone was used to strike off flakes from the first till the required shape was
obtained.
2. Pressure flaking: Here, the core was placed on a firm surface. The hammer stone was used
on a piece of bone or stone that was placed on the core to remove flakes that could be
shaped into tools.
(Source: NCERT textbook, Class 6, Our Past-I, Chapter 2, On the Trail of the Earliest People, pp. 16)
CHANGING ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN BEING

The environment always keeps on changing, and it is not same today as it was 12,000 years ago.
We know that the earth’s environment is getting warm day by day, which caused for the devel-
opment of many grass lands. These emerged lands of grass provided space for better survival for
animals such as deer, antelope, goat, sheep, cattle, and so on. These changes not only changed
the dynamics of living organisms but also changed their lives too. These climatic changes also
changed human life. Hunters started following animals, knowing their food habits and breeding
seasons, because this helped human to identify their seasonal place to live. Gradually, human
started herding and rearing animals. Another important point to highlight here is fishing. Humans
started fishing in this era. They also observed that different kinds of grasses such as wheat, barley,
rice, and so on grow naturally. They got insight to grow these grasses on their own.
ROCK PAINTING
Understanding the Past through Paintings
What is rock painting? Do these have any roles to play about our past? The answer is certainly yes.
Rock paintings are those paintings that are drafted by primitive (earliest) people of human civilisa-
tion. In the Indian subcontinent, most of the rock paintings are found in caves such as Bhimbetka,
etc. Most of the caves are in Madhya Pradesh, southern Uttar Pradesh, and Maharashtra. Why
we find these paintings in these caves? The primitive people did not have shelter like us. These
people lived in natural habitation such as caves and trees. While living in the caves, they draw or
sketch on the walls of the caves. In these sketches, they mostly drew animals and their rituals that
were in practice at that time. Rock painting is important for us to reconstruct our past. These are
the good sources to know how they lived and how they survived in that era. These paintings give
us unbiased knowledge of that era. The material which they used in painting helped us to know
about their knowledge of colours and knowledge of plants. Another question is who made these

Unit I History | 17
paintings? It is tough to answer this question because their social structure was different than the
present one. Another important thing to know is that there were various kinds of practices that
prevailed; therefore, we cannot generalise about these practices that were happening in Indian
subcontinent and should avoid any kind of judgement.
GATHERERS BECAME CULTIVATORS

When talking about food, we have wide range of food grains, vegetables, and fruits. However, it
is interesting to know that how food gatherers become cultivators. Today, it seems little unbeliev-
able that our ancestors’ were food gatherers because we have enough access of good food and
we are also familiar about cultivation. Even today cultivation is not an easy task. Then imagine
how difficult it could be that time when there was no technology as we have today. Now, it is
important to know about the importance of cultivation and how people changed from hunting
to cultivating.
To know more about cultivation, it is important to know about domestication. Domestication
is one of the reasons why people became cultivators from gatherers, and cultivation motivates
them to live permanently at one place, which is known as permanent settlement. Domestication
is not only related to animals. Rather, it is also related to agricultural activities. It is difficult which
started happening first whether animal breading or agriculture, but we cannot ignore this in the
process of knowing human history. Domestication needs good knowledge about animals and
plants. Only selected animals and plants are included in this. Plants prone to diseases are not
included in this process.
Plant selection also has some distinguishing features such as they selected only large-sized
grain and strong stalks for better yield. Animal selection was also done on some distinguished
features such as animals that are gentle for breeding was only selected. This process of domesti-
cation clearly differentiated between domesticated animals and plants, and wild animals. Another
pertinent question is at what time the domestication process began? It is difficult to answer this
question because it was a process throughout and not a product which occurred all of sudden. An
archaeologist has estimated that it began about 12,000 years ago. As a result of this domestica-
tion, humans stared using different plants and animal products in their lives. Some of the earliest
domesticated plants were wheat and barley, and some of the earliest domesticated animals were
sheep and goats.
Archaeologist and scientists are exploring various sites in South Asian subcontinent to know
more about these animals, plants, farming, and farmers. Archaeologists have found evidences of
early farmers and herders in the excavation from those sites. They found the remains of plants and
animal bones along with burnt grain. Most of these except grains are identified by the scientists.
There are many sites in the subcontinent that have many remains of grains and bones of different
animals. Some of these sites and finding are given in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Archaeological evidences of early farmers and herders in the following sites
Sites Grain and bone

Mehrgarh (Pakistan) Wheat, barley, sheep, goat, and cattle
Koldihwa (Uttar Pradesh, India) Fragmentary animal bones and rice
Mahagara (Uttar Pradesh, India) Cattle and rice
Gufkral (Kashmir, India) Lentil and wheat
Burzahom (Kashmir, India) Dog, cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, lentil, and wheat
Chirand (Bihar, India) Barley, green gram, wheat, buffalo, and ox
Paiyampalli (Andhra Pradesh, India) Black gram, millet, cattle, and sheep
Hallur (Karnataka, India) Pig, sheep, Millet, and black gram
On the Way of Settled Life

At present, we know about how we live. We also know about the types of houses across the
world. Just imagine how people lived 6000 years ago? Which type of houses they built? Through
some archaeological sites, let us try to understand how people lived in that era. Burzahom
(present day Kashmir, India) is one of the sites where people built pit-houses. Pit-house is made by
digging the ground, which has stairs downward to approach the house. These pit-houses may be
used for shelters in cold weather. In Burzahom, archaeologists found cooking hearths inside and
outside of the huts. These cooking hearths were used according to the weather.
At many sites, various kinds of stone tools were also found. These tools were different from
Palaeolithic tools, and archaeologists called them Neolithic. These are different because these
tools were polished. Mortars and pestles were used for grinding grains. Even today, several thou-
sand years after, our society uses mortars and pestles for grinding grains. In this era, Palaeolithic
type tools are continued to be used. Tools made of bones are also used. Some examples of such
tools are shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2 New stone tools

Unit I History | 19
In these sites, many kinds of earthen pots are also found. Some of them are decorated, and some
of them are used for storing things. Pots were also used for cooking, and cooking changed the
eating habits especially for grains such as rice, wheat, and lentils, and these became an impor-
tant part of the diet. Cotton production was also important because it was used in weaving of
clothes. But, when these changes happened: is an important question to be asked. Whether these
changes happened at the same time or at different times? These changes did not happen all of
a sudden at same time. Rather, these were gradual changes and not rapid. These were adopted
slowly and gradually over a period of time. It is important to know that these activities were hap-
pening at different places on different rates and in different ways. At some places, both men and
women were included in all activities, but in on other places, it was not the same. Similarly, at
few places, people still indulge in hunting and gathering, whereas others indulge in cultivation.
CUSTOMS AND PRACTICES

Customs and practices played a great role in human life. How can we know about the customs
and practices of their times? Why are these customs important in human society? When we search
answers to these questions, we relate their situation to the situation of present time farmers and
herders. Archaeology does not clearly define these things. Scholars and social scientists have stud-
ied present-day farmers and herders. Their studies have shown that most of them lived in groups.
These groups are basically ethnic groups and scholars named them as tribes. Deep analysis shows
that these groups followed certain customs and practices. When scholars studied archaeological
sites, they relate their findings from these sites with present time farmers and herders’ lives; they
found some similarities in their customs and practices. Some of the customs and practices are
continuously followed at present day also.
Let us try to understand these things through Mehrgarh archaeological site. Mehrgarh archae-
ological site is located near the Bolan Pass. Mehrgarh is one of the main sites that provide evi-
dences about the fact that man and women learnt to grow barley and wheat together. They were
the first to rear goats and sheep in this area of the subcontinent. Mehrgarh is one of the earliest
villages of the Indian subcontinent. When archaeologists started excavating this site, they found
some of the important things that are found first time in Indian subcontinent such as many kinds
of animal bones at the earliest levels of this site. Wild pig and deer bones are also found at the
earliest level of this site. At later levels, more bones of sheep and goat were found.
Another important finding at Mehrgarh is the remains of square or rectangular houses. These
houses are different from other sites. These houses had four or more compartments. Maybe these
compartments used for storage. Ritual is a most important component in social setup. Ritual may
be considered as various kinds of customs and related activities. Archaeologists excavated these
sites and found some graveyards. These graveyards are not simple graveyards; rather, they had
some distinct features. Mehrgarh has several burials sites. In one graveyard, a dead person was
buried with goats. This has some important meaning, may be it was a belief that goats serve as
food in the next world. These buried things give us an idea about their rituals and practices.

EARLIEST CITIES OF INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

So far we have seen how human beings became farmers and herders from the life of hunting
and gathering. We have also seen how these things changed human life and how human beings
started a settled life. In this section, we will see how earliest village emerged. Through their
houses and other excavated things, we will try to understand how they used different things and
how they paid respect to their relatives. Let us try to understand about the earliest cities of the
Indian subcontinent.
We know well about Harappan civilisation, but how do we came to know about them? Let us
know through Harappa how people discovered this ancient Indian city. When we see some old
buildings what we think and what we understand about them? Every building tells us some stories
about them. Some of these stories are related to their structure and some are related to other
important events or incidents. About 150 years ago in Punjab, when railway lines were being laid
down, railway engineers found ready-made, high-quality bricks in Harappa. Instead of buying
new bricks, they used these good-quality Harappan bricks which they found near by the site. In
this process, some of the buildings of the old city were completely destroyed. In such a situation,
when things are destroyed, a significant question arises that how did we come to know about
the ancient Harappa city?
Almost eight years after this incident, archaeologists excavated this area and found that
Harappan is one of the oldest cities in the Indian subcontinent. Harappa was the first discovered
ancient city. However, later more sites were also discovered and many similarities were found
between these sites. These sites have some similarities, but most important and similar thing
between these cities is similar kind of buildings. These similarities provided logic to the archaeolo-
gists to give a name to this civilisation as Harappa. According to carbon dating examination, these
cities were constructed about 4700 years ago.
What Makes These Cities Special

When we analyse these cities, we found some similarities and some uniqueness in these cities.
Which types of similarities and uniqueness are these? The city planning of various sites are com-
mon in Harappan civilisation. These cities are divided into two or more parts. In this division,
west part was smaller but higher. Archaeologists used citadel term for this type of settlement.
Generally, the east part of these cities was larger but lower, which is called a lower town. Walls of
baked bricks were built around the city. These were high-quality bricks and therefore have lasted
for thousands of years. When we see wall structure, bricks were laid in an interlocking pattern
because interlocking pattern made walls strong.
These cities have some special things such as special buildings were constructed on the citadel
pattern, e.g., Mohenjo-daro. Let us see Mohenjo-daro’s picture and try to analyse it (Figure 2.3).
Mohenjo-daro is well known for its bath tank which is built on its premises. Archaeologists called
this tank ‘the great bath’. The great bath was built with bricks, coated with plaster, and made

Unit I History | 21
Figure 2.3 The Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro
water-tight with a layer of natural tar that makes this building unique. There are steps at two sides
to enter in this tank. There are rooms around the tank. The water source of the tank was probably
a well, and the used water was drained out with the help of special drains. We do not know how
and when people take bath in this tank: it may be usually or on any special occasions. It may be
for all or only for special people. Most of the Harappan sites have some specific thing, buildings,
etc., such as the fire altars. In Kalibangan and Lothal, archaeologists found some fire altars. These
fire altars are well built, and they had a specific measurement. We do not know all the uses of
fire altars, but their specific locations and other things provide the idea that they may be used for
sacrifice performance. Other important buildings were storage houses. In Harappa, Lothal and
Mohenjo-daro are some of the cities where storehouses were found.
Houses, Drains, and Streets of Harappan Cities

The most important thing that makes Harappan cities specific was their planning. Their cities are
well planned. Their streets and drainage systems make it different from the other contemporary
cities. Houses are the most important buildings for us to understand how people lived in Harappa
and what kind of techniques they used to build their houses and other buildings. In these cities,
most of the houses were of either single floor or double floor. Rooms are built with courtyard.
For water supply, some of the houses had well. Most of the houses had separate bathing area.
These buildings were made of bricks. Bricks of Harappan civilisation are one of the most impres-
sive things that attract everyone. These bricks were in specific shape and well backed. Many of
the cities had the drainage system. The drainage system of these cities is a tremendous example
of planning capabilities of the people of that era. Let us see Figure 2.4(a) and (b) and try to under-
stand their planning capabilities.
In Figure 2.4(a) of Mohenjo-daro, drains are laid out very carefully in straight lines. In some cit-
ies, the drains were fully covered. Each drain had a gentle slope that could help easy flow of water.

(a) (b)
Figure 2.4 (a) Drainage system of Mohenjo-daro

(b) Bricks wall of Harappa
Houses were connected with this drainage system. The drainage system had different types of
drains such as houses were connected with smaller drains that connect it to the street drains and
street drains were connected with bigger drains that help to exit water from the main city. Another
interesting thing is that drains had inspection holes. These holes were provided at intervals, which
were helpful for cleaning these drains. Houses, streets, and drains were built at the same time.
Life in These Cities

It is interesting to explore about the life the Harappans lived. Was life at Harappa similar to the
life we live? We have discussed some of the Harappan cities and it is clear that these cities were
busy and populated places. These cities did not emerge suddenly; these are systematically built
cities. It means that they planned first and then started construction according to their planning.
Other questions like how people lived in these cities and which type of ruling system they fol-
lowed are also very significant questions. These cities were probably ruled by an individual or a
group of people. In the excavation of these sites, we found some valuable objects which are rare
in this area. Maybe they brought these items from different places; it means that they had some
contact with their neighbouring areas. They used different types of ornaments made of gold and
silver or beautiful beads for themselves. There are many such evidences that indicate the presence
of scribes. Scribes are those people who know how to write, and they helped in preparing seals
and other administrative works. There are evidences of existence of craftsperson in Harappan cit-
ies. These craftsperson maybe both men and women, and craftsperson used to make all kinds of
things either in special workshops or in their houses. Archaeologists found many terracotta toys
in these cities. These terracotta toys are made for children. Harappan seal and terracotta toys are
shown in Figure 2.5.

Unit I History | 23
(a) (b)
Figure 2.5 (a) Harappan seal (b) Terracotta toys
In the last paragraph, we did a brief discussion about the craftsperson. Figure 2.6 shows some of
the objects they made.
Figure 2.6 Beads
In Figure 2.6(a), four types of jewellery are shown. These are made of carnelian. Carnelian is a
beautiful red stone. Look at this jewellery picture carefully, what is interesting in it? The stones are
cut in shapes, polished, and a hole is bored in the centre of the stone, and then a string is passed
through it. Now, look at Figure 2.6(b) of stone blades. These stone blades are beautifully cut and
polished. Just think about them, what were the similarities in these things? These things are made
by stones. Archaeologists also found many other things in these cities such as gold, silver, bronze,
copper, stones, shells, and so on. Most of the things found in these sites are made of stones.

Bronze and copper were basically used in making weapons, tools, ornaments, and vessels. Beads,
blades, and weights are the most common findings from these cities. Another beautiful creation
of Harappan civilisation is Harappan seals. These seals are made of stone and beautifully furnished
and polished. These seals are generally rectangular in shape. Most of the seals have an animal
carved on them. Other things found in these cities are beautiful pots with black designs.
Some pieces of clothes are also found in Mohenjo-daro. These pieces of clothes were attached
with the copper objects and the lid of a silver vase. Mehrgarh is the first site where we found
the evidence of cotton cultivation. This evidence is of around 7000 years old. Archaeologists also
found spindle whorls. These spindle whorls were made by faience and terracotta. These tools
were used to spin thread.
All things we saw and discussed above are beautifully made, which need high-level perfection.
There is no doubt that these things are made by specialists. Specialists is a person who is well
trained to do a specific kind of work with perfection such as polishing beads, cutting stone, drilling
in small pieces of stone, carving seals, and so on. These specialists were known as craftsperson.
Availability and Accessibility of Raw Materials

What is raw material? Raw material is a necessary material to make any object. Raw material is
a substance found naturally as ores of metals or wood or produced by herders or farmers. This
raw material was processed and various kinds of goods were produced. For example, cotton is
a raw material which is produced by farmers and then processed into clothes. Some raw materi-
als were easily available locally but others materials such as tin, copper, gold, and some precious
stones were brought from distant places. Table 2.2 gives the names of metals and the names of
the places where these metals are brought from.
Table 2.2 Metals found n ancient India
Metal Places
Copper Rajasthan (India), Oman (West Asia)
Tin Afghanistan and Iran
Gold Karnataka (India)
Precious stones Gujarat (India), Iran, and Afghanistan
Food for City People

In Harappan civilisation, people who lived in cities were not doing cultivation; they were engaged
in others kinds of activities. Now, an important question is that, if they were not doing cultiva-
tion, then how they got food or who provided them food. In this civilisation, people also lived at
countryside other than cites, who reared animals and engaged in cultivation. These herders and
farmers used to supply food to the city people.

Unit I History | 25
Harappans were good at farming and grew many types of crops such as barley, wheat, peas,
sesame, mustard, linseed, pulses, and so on. They used plough for cultivation. This tool was help-
ful in digging the surface of the earth for planting seeds. The ploughs were made by wood. It is
interesting to know that the archaeologist did not find any actual ploughs but found toy model of
ploughs, which helped us to interpret about the use of ploughs in cultivation. Cultivation mostly
dependent on heavy rainfall, but if rainfall did not happen as per need, they used other kinds of
irrigation, which means that the cultivation was not fully dependent on rainfall. One of the ways
of irrigation could be storage of rain water and use it later in needful situation for cultivation.
Finding cattle bones also indicates that animals were used for cultivation in Harappan civilisation.
Most of the identified bones are of the reared cattle like buffalos, sheep, and goats. Harappans
grew grains and herbs and also engaged in collecting food (fruits), fishing, and hunting.
Harappan Sites in Gujarat

If we analyse Gujarat’s geographical conditions, most of the places in Gujarat are dry and cultivation
largely depends on heavy rainfall. In starting of excavation of Harappan sites, most of the Harappan
sites were found in Sindhu and Yamuna River plains. In 1967, Archaeological Survey of India discov-
ered a new Harappan site in Khadirbet and Rann of Kutch. This new site was named as Dholavira.
Discovery of Dholavira changed the view of archaeologists and social scientist about Harappan
civilisation. Dholavira settlement is different from the other Harappan sites. Other Harappan sites
were divided into two parts but Dholavira was divided into three parts. All the three parts of
Dholavira were surrounded by massive stone walls. Entrance to the city is only through a gateway.
Archaeologists found a large open area of settlement which was used for public ceremonies.
Large letters of Harappan script was found and these letters carved on white stones. The
archaeologists did not find wooden letters; latter, perhaps, they inlaid in wood but they are
destroyed. A large number of Harappan scripts on small objects were also found from these sites,
in which most of these written objects were seals.
Another important Harappan site found in Gujarat is Lothal. Lothal is situated on a tributary of
Sabarmati River in Gujarat. This site is close to the Gulf of Khambhat. This place is situated in an
area where a large number of semi-precious stones are easily available. Lothal was an important
site because it was a centre of making objects made of metals, shells, and stones. When archae-
ologists analysed their settlement, they found storehouses in the city and most of the seals were
found in those storehouses. One building was found with a large number of pieces of stones,
tools for bead making, half-made beads, and finished beads. Probably this building was a work-
shop for making beads. Another interesting finding in Lothal is the dockyard. Figure 2.7 shows
the picture of this dockyard and try to understand its architecture.
This huge tank (Figure 2.7) is found in Lothal. Archaeologists state that this huge tank was used
by people of Lothal, where ships and boats came through the river channel and sea. This dockyard
was probably used for loading and unloading of goods.

Figure 2.7 Dockyard at Lothal
A MYSTERY OF THE END OF A CIVILISATION

As per archaeologists, massive changes happened in Harappan civilisation around 3900 years ago,
which they come to know by carbonic process. In many of Harappan cities, people stopped living
and probably people slowly migrated to other areas. Evidences have shown the gradual decline
of use of writings, seals, and weights. A very few raw materials were found in these sites, which
was brought from distant places. This indicates something happened at that time. Later stages of
Mohenjo-daro shows that the drainage system of the city broke down and garbage piled up on
the streets of the city. But, how did these sudden changes happen?
Well, we are not sure about what had happened in that era. Scholars have different views on
this matter. Some scholars say that it happened because the river dried up, and another view is of
deforestation, but none of these reasons were able to explain the end of all the cities. Flooding of
a river or drying up affects only some of the areas but not all cities.
Another view is that the rulers of these cities lost their control. We are not able to explain why
these cities are abandoned, but one thing is clear. People from the site of west Punjab and Sindh
(Pakistan) moved towards newer, smaller settlements of the eastern and southern areas.

➨ Initially food was the reason for migration of people.
➨ It is interesting and also surprising to know that people around two million years ago lived as
hunters and survived only on hunting and gathering fruits.
➨ Archaeologists help us to understand the past life and the practices of the people of that era.
➨ Archaeologists identified tools made of stones, wood, and bones used by those people for
various purposes.

Unit I History | 27
➨ People decided their living places on the basis of availability of good quality stones to make
tools.
➨ There were two kinds of techniques prevailed for stone tool making, and these are as follows:
– Stone on stone: Here, the pebble from which the tool was to be made (also called the
core) was held in one hand. Another stone, which was used as a hammer was held in the
other hand. The second stone was used to strike off flakes from the first till the required
shape was obtained.
– Pressure flaking: Here, the core was placed on a firm surface. The hammer stone was
used on a piece of bone or stone that was placed on the core to remove flakes that could
be shaped into tools.
➨ Changing environment became one of the causes of animal rearing.
➨ Rock paintings are those paintings that are drafted by primitive (earliest) people of human
civilisation.
➨ Domestication is one of the reasons why people became cultivators from gatherers, and
cultivation motivates them to live permanently at one place, which is known as permanent
settlement.
➨ Only selected animals were reared and only selected plants were grown by primitive human
beings.
➨ At many sites, various kinds of stone tools were also found. These tools were different from
Palaeolithic tools, and archaeologists called them Neolithic. These are different because these
tools were polished.
➨ Mehrgarh archaeological site. Mehrgarh archaeological site is located near the Bolan Pass.
Mehrgarh is one of the main sites that provide evidences about the fact that man and women
learnt to grow barley and wheat together.
➨ Wild pig and deer bones are also found at the earliest level of Mehrgarh site. At later levels,
more bones of sheep and goat were found.
➨ Harappa is one of the oldest cities in the Indian subcontinent. According to carbon dating
examination, these cities were constructed about 4700 years ago.
➨ Harappan cities are divided into two or more parts. In this division, west part was smaller but
higher. Archaeologists used citadel term for this type of settlement. Generally, the east part of
these cities was larger but lower, which is called a lower town.
➨ Mohenjo-daro is well known for its bath tank which is built on its premises.
➨ The most important thing that makes Harappan cities specific was their planning. Their cities
are well planned. Their streets and drainage systems make it different from the other contem-
porary cities.
➨ In these cities, most of the houses were of either single floor or double floor. Rooms are built
with courtyard.
➨ Some pieces of clothes are also found in Mohenjo-daro. These pieces of clothes were attached
with the copper objects and the lid of a silver vase.

➨ As per archaeologists, massive changes happened in Harappan civilisation around 3900 years
ago, which they come to know by carbonic process.
➨ We are not sure about what had happened in that era which became a cause of decline of
Harappan civilisation. Some scholars say that it happened because the river dried up, and
another view is of deforestation, but none of these reasons were able to explain the end of all
the cities. Flooding of a river or drying up affects only some of the areas but not all cities.
Check Your Progress

1. Write a short note on hunting and human beings in Neolithic and Palaeolithic
gathering. eras?
2. Explain how the early man became farmers 6. Discuss about houses, streets, and drain-
and headers. age systems of Harappa?
3. Explain the role of agriculture in human 7. Write short notes the following:
history. (a) Great bath
4. Write a short note on domestication. (b) Mehrgarh
5. Try to explain the role of tools in human (c) Harappan civilisation
evolution. Which type of tools was used by (d) Harappan crafts person
Objective Questions
1. Hunting and gathering is related to: 3. Bhimbetka caves are situated in:
(a) Earliest people (a) Arunachal Pradesh
(b) Present time (b) Andhra Pradesh
(c) Harappans (c) Madhya Pradesh
(d) None of these (d) Himachal Pradesh
2. Two techniques used in making of tools 4. Archaeologists found some fire altars evi-
were dence in:
(a) pressure flaking technique and bones (a) Harappa and Mohenjo-daro
flaking technique. (b) Lothal and Dholavira
(b) stone on stone technique and pressure (c) Burzahom and Rakhigarhi
flaking technique. (d) Kalibangan and Lothal
(c) shell flaking technique and stone on 5. The evidences of cotton cultivation were
bone technique. found in subcontinent, which are________
(d) bone on wood technique and bone years old.
pressure flaking technique.

Unit I History | 29
(a) 5000 (a) Aitadel

(b) 6000 (b) Bitadel
(c) 7000 (c) Citadel
(d) 8000 (d) Ditadel
6. Lothal is situated on a tributary of which 11. French cave painting famous for:
river of Gujarat? (a) Tools
(a) Narmada (b) Paintings
(b) Daman Ganga (c) Bones
(c) Tapti (d) Fire
(d) Sabarmati 12. Terracotta toys were made for:
7. Dholavira settlement is different from the (a) Ceremonials
other Harappan sites because (b) Business
(a) it is divided into two parts. (c) Weapon
(b) it is divided into three parts. (d) Children
(c) it is divided into four parts. 13. According to carbon 14 dating, Harappan
(d) it is divided into five parts. civilisation is ______ year old.
8. Kurnool archaeological site is famous for: (a) 3800
(a) Stone tools (b) 3900
(c) 4000
(b) Bone tools
(d) 4100
(c) Wood tools
(d) Fire ashes 14. Dockyard found in:
(a) Bet Dwarka
9. Square or rectangular houses are found in:
(b) Dholavira
(a) Mohenjo-daro
(c) Desalpur
(b) Kalibangan
(d) Lothal
(c) Harappa
(d) Rakhigarhi 15. Which Harappan site was surrounded by
massive stone walls?
10. Harappa was divided into two or more
(a) Harappa
parts. In this division, west part is similar
(b) Mohenjo-daro
but higher. Which term Archaeologists
(c) Kalibangan
used for this type of settlement?
(d) Dholavira

CHAPTER
State Formation and

Social Change 3
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Explore the journey that led to the formation of states and rise of the states Magadha and Vajji
• Understand the later Vedic phase with reference to transition of state and social order
• Know the diffusion of iron technology and agriculture
• Recognise the relationship between technological development and social change
• Be familiar with Buddhism and Jainism
• Explore the diffusion of iron technology and political organisation
INTRODUCTION
The chapter leaps into the period of 6th century BCE that is marked by significant political, social,
economic, and religious developments. Let us explore all those developments that make this
period so distinct from the rest.
POST-VEDIC PERIOD
Transition to State and Social Orders (1000 BCE–500 BCE)
The history of later Vedic period is based mainly on the Vedic texts compiled after the age of
Rig Veda. The sources for later Vedic phase includes three Vedas (Yajur, Atharva, and Sama),
Brahmanas, Upanishads, Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites, and iron implements.
Question: What are PGW sites?

Answer: Inhabited sites in Upper Gangetic basin of later Vedic period where people used
earthen bowls and dishes made of PGW pottery.
The sources highlight the Aryan’s expansion in the later Vedic phase from Punjab to present-day
Western Uttar Pradesh covered by Ganga–Yamuna doab. The Bharat and Purus were the two
important tribes who combined to form the Kuru people.

Unit I History | 31
Question: Do you know the land of Kurus occupying Delhi and upper reaches of Ganga–
Yamuna Doab?
Answer: It is Kurukshetra.
Gradually, Kurus coalesced with the Panchalas occupying central part of the doab (modern dis-
tricts of Bareilly, Badaun, and Farrukhabad). The authority of Kuru–Panchala had set up their capi-
tal at Hastinapur situated in Meerut district. The history of Kuru tribes is important for the Battle
of Bharata (950 BCE), which is the principal theme of the great epic called Mahabharata resulted
in the destruction of whole Kuru clan virtually.
In a famous passage of the Satapatha Brahmana, we are told that Agni, the fire God, moved
eastward, burning the earth until he reached the river Sadanira (currently, it is called Gandak). There
he stopped. He asked chieftain Videha Mathava to carry him over the river. Thus, the land of Videha
was Aryanised it took its name from its coloniser. The legend is mentioned in a famous passage of
Satapatha Brahmana. This event caused the Vedic people of later Vedic period to move towards Kosala
in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Videha in North Bihar; furthermore, land clearance by burning lead to
the migrations of warriors and agriculturists that resulted in the establishments of new settlements.
Do you think that some metal implements would have been used for cutting and burning the
trees in the forests?
A reference to a presence of a dark or black metal axe has been made in the later Vedic texts
such as Shyama or Krishna Ayas and it has also been found at excavated sites such as Atranjikhera
and Jakhera in Western Uttar Pradesh and its adjoining areas.
Question: What is the contemporary name of Shyama Ayas?

Answer: Iron.
Diffusion of Iron Technology and Agriculture

Agriculture was the chief means of subsistence of later Vedic people; however, it was primitive
because of the dominant use of wooden ploughshare since upper Gangetic plains had light soil.
On the contrary, the eastward thrust of Vedic people exposed the densely forested, moist soil of
mid-Gangetic plains receiving 114–140 cm rainfall, which could not be colonised without the aid of
iron implements. References to four great forests (Maha-Aranyas) and derivation of names of some
modern places such as Champaran from Champaranya, Arrah from ancient Aranya suggest that
middle Gangetic basin was thickly forested. Archaeological evidences of iron ploughshare are found
in Ropar, Jakhera, and Kaushambi; iron slag and iron subjects (axes, chisel, and sickles) are found
at Rajghat (Banaras). However, they are found meagre in quantity because of the corrosive nature
of soil in mid-Gangetic plains that complement huge textual reference to agricultural tools made
of iron. The mention of Kuddala (hoe/spade) and Kuddalika (one who earns his livelihood with the
help of his tool) in a Brahmanical text advances the use of iron implements further in agriculture.

32 | Chapter 3 State Formation and Social Change
All these information indicate the diffusion of iron technology; most importantly, iron tools and
implements were used not only in wars during post-Vedic period but also for other purposes such
as for clearing forests and bringing more and more land under plough. Since iron ploughshares
made deep ploughing possible with consequent proliferation of territorial settlements strength-
ened by the fact that more than 550 Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) sites (distinctive
artefact category of the period from 6th century up to the 1st century BCE) have been either
excavated or explored in the upper and middle Ganga plains.
The new agrarian economy based on the iron ploughshare required the use of bullocks; how-
ever, Vedic practice of killing cattle in sacrifices and non-Vedic tribal practice of killing cattle
for food decimated the cattle population. Therefore, to stabilise and flourish new agricultural
economy, killing was stopped.
Relationship between Technological Development and Social

Change
The use of effective iron implements was accompanied by an improved knowledge of cultivation
and a variety of crops. This enabled peasants to produce large surpluses that helped the growth
of towns. The existence of no less than 10 urban centres in the middle ganga basin during 600
BCE–300 BCE is proved by both archaeology and contemporary literature; for example, Champa,
Rajgriha, Saketa, and Banaras.
Trade has been both a cause and effect of increasing urbanisation as witnessed in the move-
ment of Alexander’s army from mainland Greece to India; this movement had opened a number
of trade routes and revealed the possibilities of mercantile relations between north west India
and west Asia. For example, along Ganga from Rajgriha to Kaushambi connecting Ujjain (Madhya
Pradesh) with broach, the chief port for sea trade with west; route from Kaushambi leading across
Punjab to Taxila, an outlet for India’s overland trade with north west. The Jatakas, the Buddhist
birth stories, make references to caravans of 500–1000 carts going from one place to another.
Trade received a major boost with the use of metal coins in the post-Vedic period. These coins
were issued by merchants and they were covered with punch marks; thus, these coins were
termed as ‘punch-marked’ coins. Many hoards of such coins have been found in the middle
Ganga plains indicating a reasonably high level of monetisation of region.
The growth of towns, expansion of trade and rise of money economy had led to the devel-
opment of diverse arts and crafts other than pre-existing service occupations (weaver, painter,
barber, and cook), such as vehicle maker, needle maker, carpenter, metalsmith, goldsmith, potter,
ivory maker, garland maker, and silk manufacturer implying specialisation in the field of commod-
ity production.
Artisans and craftsmen had soon organised themselves into guilds such as smiths, painters,
woodworkers, and leatherworkers, who inhabited a particular section of town. This led to the
localisation of crafts and industries and also their hereditary transmission from father to son. New
groups rose to prominence in society because of guilds such as jettaka (head of guild) and setthis
(financier or banker).

Unit I History | 33
In countryside, gahapatis (peasant proprietors) came to forefront by virtue of their wealth. In

earlier period, they were the lords of the house; however, now, they are the heads of large patri-
archal household of any caste. Since wealth was measured in terms of lands and not cattle, the
gahapatis became affluent.
The rise of new wealthy class in villages and towns caused economic inequalities that further
undermined the tribal ideas of kinship and equality; however, it strengthened four Varna divisions
of the society during the post-Vedic period. The cultural gap between aboriginal tribes, autoch-
thons (hunters and fowlers) at low level of material culture and Varna society led to the growth of
untouchability. For example, autochthonous people such as chandalas and pukkasas were objects
of spite and abhorrence.
Religion
Vedic ritualism and animals’ sacrifices conflicted the aspiration of rising social group and misfit
the basic changes in material lives of the people. Therefore, in 6th century BCE at Gangetic val-
ley, there emerged new philosophical ideas such as Charvaka school of philosophy, Vaisheshika
school, and Samkhya system; further, religious ideas of Jainism and Buddhism became the most
prevalent. The doctrine of ahimsa helped in increasing development in the plough cultivation,
which was mainly dependent on animal husbandry against animal sacrifice in the Vedic period;
however, undue emphasis on non-violence stood in the way of its propagation among agricul-
turalists whose profession involved killing insects and pests along artisans and craftsman whose
occupation endangered the life of other creatures. Jainism restricts on owning private property as
it creates social inequalities and this restriction was interpreted as a ban only on the possession of
land property. Therefore, the followers of Jainism had specialised in the traffic of manufactured
goods and confined themselves to financial transactions. Therefore, Jains became increasingly
associated with the spread of urban culture and maritime trade, especially during the recent
development of 6th century. Trade and use of money gave rise to money lending and usury; how-
ever, Dharmasutras (Brahmanical law books) decried the practice of lending money at an interest
rate and the Vaishyas who lent money because of growing trade and commerce were held in low
esteem. Further, they looked for better social status offered by the new religious ideas of Jainism
and Buddhism.
Jainism
Life of Vardhamana Mahavira (539 BC–467 BC)
Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain tradition. He was born at Kundagrama
near Vaishali to Kshatriya parents Siddhartha and Trishala. He married Yashoda and gave birth to a
daughter. At the age of 30, he became an ascetic and wandered for 12 years. In the 13th year of
his penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala Jnana. Thereafter, he was

called Mahavira and Jina (conqueror of world). His followers were called Jains and his religion was
Jainism. He preached his doctrines for 30 years and died at the age of 72 at Pava near Rajagriha.
The three principles of Jainism, also known as Triratnas (three gems), are right faith, right
knowledge, and right conduct.
Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread his teachings. He admitted both men and women in
the Sangha, which consisted of both monks and lay followers. The first Jain Council was convened
at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu, the leader of the Digambaras, in the beginning of the 3rd century
BC. The second Jain Council was held at Vallabhi in 5th century AD. The final compilation of Jain
literature called twelve Angas was completed in this council.
Buddhism
Life of Gautama Buddha (567 BC–487 BC)
Gautama or Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in 567 BC in Lumbini Garden near
Kapilavastu. His father was Suddhodana of the Shakya clan and mother Maya devi. He left home
at the age of 29 in search of truth. He wandered for 7 years and met several teachers but could
not get enlightenment. At last, he sat under a Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya and did intense penance,
after which he got enlightenment (Nirvana) at the age of 35. Since then he was known as the
Buddha or ‘the Enlightened One’. He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Banaras, and for
the next 45 years, he led the life of a preacher. He died at the age of 80 at Kushinagar.
The four noble truths of Buddha are as follows:
1. The world is full of sufferings.

2. The cause of suffering is desire.
3. If we get rid of desires, suffering can be removed.
4. This can be done by following the Eightfold Path.
The Eightfold Path consists of right view, right resolve, right speech, right conduct, right liveli-
hood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
The first Buddhist council was held at Rajagriha under the chairmanship of Mahakasyapa
immediately after the death of Buddha. Its purpose was to maintain the purity of the teach-
ings of the Buddha. The second Buddhist council was convened at Vaishali around 383 BC. The
third Buddhist council was held at Pataliputra under the patronage of Asoka. The final version of
Tripitakas was completed in this council. The fourth Buddhist council was convened in Kashmir
by Kanishka under the chairmanship of Vasumitra. The new school of Buddhism called Mahayana
Buddhism came into existence during this council.
The Buddhist texts were collected and compiled some 500 years after the death of Buddha.
They are known as the Tripitakas, namely the Sutta, the Vinaya, and the Abhidhamma Pitakas.
They are written in the Pali language.

Unit I History | 35
DIFFUSION OF IRON TECHNOLOGY AND POLITICAL

ORGANISATION
Like religion, contemporary political developments were also deeply rooted in changing material
condition towards the end of later Vedic phase. The diffusion of iron technology in agriculture
enabled peasants to produce more food grains than they required for consumption. This extra
produce was being collected to meet the growing needs of military and administration. Newly
introduced land taxes such as bhaga and kara became state’s source of income along obligatory
Bali (earlier voluntary tribute by people to the chief of tribe). Along peasants, new artisans and
traders also became tax-paying classes. According to law books, the artisans had to work one
day a month for a king and traders had to pay taxes on sales to toll officers known as shaulkike
or shulkadhyaksha. The taxation system grew consequently developing the state machinery that
became complex as the time progressed. For instance, tribal militia was now replaced by a stand-
ing army, the most effective prop of state organisation.
RISE OF STATES
In 6th century BCE, the rise of large states with towns as their base of operations strengthened the
territorial idea. A passage from panini makes clear that people owed allegiance to the Janapada
(territory to which they belonged) rather than their Jana (tribe). Therefore, the important feature
of political life was the emergence of several territorial states in different parts of the country.
According to the Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya, 16 large states (Mahajanapadas), each
comprising several agricultural settlements (Janapadas), existed in the 6th century BCE in the
Indian subcontinent.
Some of them had monarchical forms of government, while some others were republics. While
there was a concentration of monarchies on the Ganga plain, the republics were scattered in the
foothills of the Himalayas and in northwestern India. Some of the republics consisted of only one
tribe, such as Sakyas, Licchavis, and Mallas. In the republics, the power of decision in all matters
of the state vested with the public assembly, which was composed of the tribal representatives or
heads of families. All decisions were made by a majority vote.
Undoubtedly, this number of large territorial states is not ordinary. However, did all of these 16
Mahajanapadas play the same role in contemporary politics? The answer is NO. In the 6th century
BCE, only 4 states remained important. Can you guess their names? It is Kashi, Kosala, Magadha,
and Vajjian confederacy. However, what could have made these states so exclusive is significant
to explore.
Kashi was at first the most powerful of them and played important role in subversion of
Videhan monarchy. Its capital was Varanasi. The economic importance of Kashi lay in the fact of
being the leading centre of textile manufacture during the Buddha period. For example, Kashaya
(orange brown) robes of Buddhist monks are said to have been manufactured here.
Ayodhya was the capital of Kosala. King Prasenajit was its famous ruler. He was highly edu-
cated. His position was further strengthened by the matrimonial alliance with Magadha. His sister

was married to Bimbisara and Kasi was given to her as dowry. Subsequently, there was a dispute
with Ajatasatru. After the end of the conflict, Prasenajit married the daughter of Bimbisara. After
the death of this powerful king, Kosala became part of the Magadha.
The Vajji state is said to be a confederation of 8 clans (atthakulas) such as Vedehans and lichch-
havis, which was non-monarchical in nature.
Of all the kingdoms of north India, Magadha emerged powerful and prosperous. It became
the nerve Centre of political activity in north India. Magadha was endowed by nature with certain
geographical and strategic advantages. These made her to rise to imperial greatness. Her strategic
position between the upper and lower part of the Gangetic valley was a great advantage. It had
fertile soil. The iron ores in the hills near Rajgir and copper and iron deposits near Gaya added to
its natural assets. Her location at the centre of the highways of trade of those days contributed to
her wealth. Rajagriha was the capital of Magadha. During the reign of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru,
the prosperity of Magadha reached its zenith.
These four states fought for political hegemony for nearly 100 years; however, eventually
Magadha emerged victorious and became Centre of political activity in north India.
Magadha
Magadha became the most important Mahajanapada in about 200 years. Many rivers such as
the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha. This was important for (a) transport, (b) water
supplies, and (c) making the land fertile. Parts of Magadha were forested. Elephants, which lived
in the forest, could be captured and trained for the army. Forests also provided wood for build-
ing houses, carts, and chariots. Besides, there were iron ore mines in the region that could be
tapped to make strong tools and weapons. Magadha had two very powerful rulers, Bimbisara and
Ajatasatru, who used all the possible means to conquer other janapadas. Mahapadma Nanda was
another important ruler. He extended his control up to the north-west part of the subcontinent.
Rajagriha (now, it is called Rajgir) in Bihar was the capital of Magadha for several years. Later,
the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (now, it is called Patna). More than 2300 years ago, a ruler
named Alexander, who lived in Macedonia in Europe, wanted to become a world conqueror. Of
course, he did not conquer the world, but did conquer parts of Egypt and West Asia, and came to
the Indian subcontinent, reaching up to the banks of the Beas. When he wanted to march further
eastwards, his soldiers refused. They were scared, as they had heard that the rulers of India had
vast armies of foot soldiers, chariots, and elephants.
Vajji
While Magadha became a powerful kingdom; Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under
a different form of government known as Gana or sangha. In a Gana or a sangha there were not
one, but many rulers. Sometimes, even when thousands of men ruled together, each one was
known as a raja. These rajas performed rituals together. They also met in assemblies and decided

Unit I History | 37
what had to be done or how a situation can be handled through their discussions and debates.
For example, if they were attacked by an enemy, they discuss on what should be done to meet
the threat. However, women, dasas, and kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies.
Both the Buddha and Mahavira belonged to Ganas or Sanghas. Some of the most vivid descrip-
tions of life in the Sanghas can be found in Buddhist books.

➨ The history of later Vedic period is based mainly on the Vedic texts compiled after the age of
Rig Veda.
➨ Inhabited sites in Upper Gangetic basin of later Vedic period where people used earthen bowls
and dishes made of PWG pottery.
➨ The sources highlight Aryan’s expansion in later Vedic phase from Punjab to present-day
Western Uttar Pradesh covered by Ganga–Yamuna doab.
➨ The land of Kurus occupying Delhi and upper reaches of Ganga–Yamuna Doab is known as
Kurukshetra.
➨ Agriculture was the chief means of subsistence of later Vedic people but primitive because of
dominant use of wooden ploughshare since upper Gangetic plains had light soil.
➨ The use of effective iron implements was accompanied by an improved knowledge of cultiva-
tion and of a variety of crops. This knowledge enabled peasants to produce greater surpluses
that helped the growth of towns.
➨ Trade has been both a cause and effect of increasing urbanisation as witnessed in movement
of Alexander’s army from mainland Greece to India; this movement had opened a number of
trade routes and revealed the possibilities of mercantile relations between northwest India and
west Asia.
➨ Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain tradition. He was born at
Kundagrama near Vaishali to Kshatriya parents Siddhartha and Trishala.
➨ Gautama or Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in 567 BC in Lumbini Garden near
Kapilavastu. His father was Suddhodana of the Sakya clan and mother Maya Devi.
➨ The Four Noble Truths of Buddha are as follows:
– The world is full of suffering.
– The cause of suffering is desire.
– If we get rid of desires, suffering can be removed.
– This can be done by following the Eightfold Path.
➨ During the reign of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the prosperity of Magadha reached its zenith.
➨ Magadha became the most important Mahajanapada in about 200 years. Many rivers such
as the Ganga and the Son flowed through Magadha. This was important for transport, water
supplies, and making the land fertile.
➨ While Magadha became a powerful kingdom, Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was
under a different form of government, known as Gana or Sangha.

Check Your Progress

1. Discuss the transition to state and social 4. Discuss the rise of state during 16 BCE.
order during later Vedic phase. 5. Write short notes on the following:
2. How technology and agriculture got dif- (a) Jainism
fused in past? Elaborate with suitable (b) Buddhism
example from the past.
3. How technological development has con-
tributed in social change? Elaborate with
relevant examples.
Objective Questions
1. Which one of the following is not a source 5. What has been both a cause and effect of
of Vedic period? increasing urbanisation?
(a) Yajur Veda (a) Agriculture
(b) Atharva Veda (b) Trade
(c) Upanishads (c) Both of these
(d) Mahabharata (d) None of these
2. PGW stands for 6. The Charvak school of philosophy emerged:

(a) Painted Grey Ware (a) Around 6th century
(b) Powerful Grid Wire (b) Around 4th century
(c) Preserved Group Wealth (c) Around 7th century
(d) None of these (d) None of these
3. Aryan’s expansion in later Vedic phase 7. The life of Vardhamana Mahavira is associ-
found from: ated with:
(a) Punjab to present-day Western Uttar (a) 539 BC–467 BC
Pradesh covered by Ganga–Yamuna (b) 430 BC–567 BC
doab (c) 639 BC–767 BC
(b) Punjab to Narmada River in south (d) None of these
(c) Punjab to the Bay of Bengal 8. Vardhamana Mahavira was the _______
(d) All of these tirthankara of the Jain tradition.
(a) 25th
4. The Bharata and Purus were the two impor-
(b) 24th
tant tribes who combined to form the:
(c) 23rd
(a) Kuru people
(d) 26th
(b) Puran people
(c) Vedic people 9. Which one of the following is not the part
(d) All of these of three principles of Jainism?

Unit I History | 39
(a) Right faith (a) 16

(b) Right knowledge (b) 14
(c) Right conduct (c) 6
(d) Right moral (d) 20
10. The life of Gautama Buddha is associated 13. Ayodhya was the capital of:
with: (a) Kosala
(a) 567 BC–487 BC (b) Pataliputra
(b) 467 BC–587 BC (c) Magadha
(c) 650 BC–730 BC (d) None of these
(d) None of these 14. The present name of Pataliputra is:
11. Which one of the following is not one of (a) Patna
the four noble truths of Buddha? (b) Bengal
(a) The world is full of suffering (c) Lucknow
(b) The cause of suffering is desire (d) None of these
(c) If we get rid of desires, sufferings can-
15. The capital of Vajji kingdom was:
not be removed (a) Vaishali
(d) This can be done by following the (b) Kurukshetra
Eightfold Path (c) Magadha
12. According to the Buddhist literature, there (d) None of these
are _______ Mahajanpada.

CHAPTER
Empires, Social, and

Cultural Exchange 4
LEARNING ObjECTIVES
• Understand the emergence of Magadha as empire
• Explore the Mauryan Empire with reference to its kings and administration
• Know the Ashoka Empire and Ashoka’s dhamma
• Be aware of the Gupta empire and economic prosperity in this empire
• Know the social and cultural changes took place from 600 BCE to 600 CE
INTRODUCTION
The time period of 600 BC–600 AD, almost 1000 years, was a crucial era in the Indian history. In
this time period, many changes happened that gave shape to every aspect of the Indian society.
These changes not only happened in political aspect but also in social and religious aspects. In
these 1000 years, many changes happened in the subcontinent. In 600 BC, we saw the emer-
gence of Mahajanapadas. While most of the Mahajanapadas were ruled by kings/rajas, some of
the Mahajanapadas ruled in a different way. To understand the emergence of empires in Indian
subcontinent, let us analyse the emergence of Magadha.
EMERGENCE OF MAGADHA AS EMPIRE

We all know that there are 16 Mahajanapada emerged in the 6th century BC. During the time
period of the 6th century to the 4th century BC, Magadha emerged as a powerful state in the
Indian subcontinent. Historians defined the emergence of Magadha for different reasons; for
example, the region was productive, easy accessibility of iron ores, and use of elephants in
the army. Ganga and his tributaries were helpful in cheap communication and transportation.
However, knowing about Magadha is an interesting exploration. The emergence of Magadha is
contemporary to the emergence of Buddhism and Jainism. The contemporary Buddhist and Jain
texts provide us useful information about Magadha’s ruling kings such as Bimbisara, Ajatasatru,
and Mahapadma Nanda. These rulers had played important role in the emergence of Magadha.

Unit I History | 41
Magadha was located in between the Ganga and their tributaries. Some part of the present-day
Bihar is also included in Magadha. Rajagriha/Rajgir was the capital of Magadha. Rajagriha/Rajgir
means the house of the king. Rajagriha was located in hills and in the 4th century BCE. The capital
shifted from Rajagriha to Pataliputra, which is known as Patna in the present time. The Magadha
Empire was ruled by many dynasties but some of them played the most significant role in the
emergence of Magadha. Let us try to understand their contribution.
Haryanka
Around 542 BCE, Magadha came under the leadership of Bimbisara (542 BCE–493 BCE). Bimbisara
belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. He was the first king who strengthened his position by a mar-
riage alliance with their neighbouring states; that is, he first married the daughter of the king
of Kosala and sister of Prasenajit; second, he married lichchhavi Princess Chellana from Vaishali,
and third, he married the daughter of the chief of Madra clan, Punjab. These marriages to dif-
ferent princely families gave enormous diplomatic support to Magadha. These alliances helped
Magadha to expand northward and westward.
Bimbisara was killed by his son Ajatasatru and he became the king of Magadha. Ajatasatru ruled
around 492 BCE to 444 BC for almost 50 years. Ajatasatru is known for his aggressive policies of
expansion such as he conquered the republic of Vaishali and fought a war against Licchavi-ruled Vajji.
Ajatasatru was contemporary of Mahavir and Buddha. Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin. Udayin
region is important because he transferred his capital from Rajgir to Pataliputra. Later, Pataliputra
became the centre of the Magadha kingdom. After Udayin, the Haryanka dynasty rule was over and it
was succeeded by Shishunaga. The Shishunagas dynasty ruled almost 100 years. The greatest achieve-
ment of this dynasty was the destruction of the power of Avanti and his capital Ujjain. This dynasty was
ended by Avanti. Shishunagas dynasty was succeeded by the Nandas. The dynasty of Nandas proved
themselves as the strongest dynasty of Magadha. Nandas ruled the larger part of Indian subcontinent.
Under the reign of Mahapadma Nanda, they conquered the Kalinga. Mahapadma Nanda claimed
Ekarat, which means the sole sovereign. The Nandas were the first non-Kshatriya rulers in the Indian
history. The last Nanda ruler was defeated by Chandragupta Maurya who found the Mauryan Empire.
MAURYAN EMPIRE: THE EARLIEST EMPIRE OF INDIAN HISTORY

The Mauryan Empire was found by Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BCE. The Mauryan Empire
was based on the growth of Magadha. The expansion to Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta
Maurya was extended in northwest as Afghanistan and Baluchistan and in the regime of his
grandson Ashoka, who conquered Kalinga (costal area of Orissa, India).
How We Know About Mauryan Empire

In 1830, James Prinsep, an officer of the East India Company was deciphered the earliest
inscriptions, which used two scripts Brahmi and Kharosthi on coins. He found that most of these

42 | Chapter 4 Empires, Social, and Cultural Exchange
inscriptions and coins mentioned a king that they referred as ‘Piyadassi’. Piyadassi means ‘pleas-
ant to behold.’ Some of inscriptions were referred to the king Ashoka. According to the contem-
porary Buddhist writings, Ashoka was referred as the most famous king. This helped Indian and
European scholars to investigate the early Indian political history in a new direction. Scholars
used these inscriptions and texts to reconstruct the lineage of major dynasties ruled in Indian
subcontinent. The historians used a variety of sources such as archaeological finds, contemporary
Buddhist, Jain, and Puranic text, writings of Megasthenes, which is known as Indica, and Kautilya
or Chanakya’s Arthashastra to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire. Mauryan king
Ashoka’s inscription on rocks and pillars are the most valuable sources to understand the regime
of king Ashoka. Probably, Ashoka was the king in the Indian history who inscribed his messages
for public on the polished pillars as well as on the surfaces of the natural rocks.
Mauryan Kings
King Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. He ruled around 324 BCE–
300 BCE. The early life and ancestry of Chandragupta was not much known. There are some
contradictions about the early life and ancestry of Chandragupta; for example, Buddhist texts,
Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa, described Chandragupta as Kshatriya of Mauriya’s branch of Sakyas
who lived in Pipphalivana (eastern Utter Pradesh). In Vishakhadatta’s play Mudrarakshasa, he
used terms Vrishala and Kulhina for Chandragupta. These terms mean that a person is of humble
origin. A Greek writer Justin also says same thing about Chandragupta. Therefore, there is no clar-
ity about early life of the Mauryan king Chandragupta.
There are different stories about the Chandragupta’s conquests and empire building process.
However, the reality is that the details of Chandragupta’ conquests and empire building process
are not available to us to describe them. According to the Greek and Jain sources, Chandragupta
took advantage of the death of Alexander’s sudden death in 323 BCE in Babylon. The sudden
death of Alexander became a cause of disturbance in northwestern India. Chandragupta with
the help Kautilya raised a large army and launched campaigns against the Greek Kshatrapas.
Sandrocottus of the Greek writers identified as Chandragupta Maurya. Greek Kshatrapa Seleucus
sent his ambassador to the court of the Chandragupta Maurya. His name was Megasthenes who
had written Indica, which is not available. Chandragupta Maurya ruled from 324 BCE to 300 BCE.
Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by Bindusara. There is little knowledge about this
Mauryan king among historians. Some of the texts mentioned about him; for example, Tibetan
historian Taranath and Jain scholar Hemachandra says that Chanakya was continued as a minister
of Bindusara. In Divyavadana, it was mentioned that Bindusara appointed his eldest son Sumana/
Susima as his representative at Taxila and Ashoka at Ujjain. This text also mentions about one inci-
dent where a revolt broke out in Taxila and Susima was not able to control it; then, Ashoka was
sent to restore peace. The conquest of south India under Mauryas was not cleared. Some scholars
gave credit to Bindusara but most of the scholars believed that it was done by Chandragupta
Maurya. Bindusara continued his father’s policy of friendly relationship with Hellenic Kshatrapas.

Unit I History | 43
Pliny mentioned that Dionysius was appointed as an ambassador in Bindusara court. Dionysius
was the ambassador of the Greek Kshatrapa Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt. Bindusara died in 273
BCE and he ruled from 300 BCE to 273 BCE. There was mystery about his successor.
In 273 BCE, after the death of Bindusara, Ashoka became the king of Mauryan Empire. We do
not know about the earliest life of king Ashoka but there are some sources claiming that he killed
his 99 brothers for the kingship. However, there is some contradiction; this is because in his edicts,
he shows his affection about his brothers, sisters, and other relatives. Probably, Ashoka was the
Mansehra
Lampaka
Shahbazgarhi
Kandahar Taxila
Kalsi
Topra Meerut
Bahapur
(Delhi) Lumbini Rampurva
Lauriya Araraj
Sarnath
Gujarra Pataliputra
Kaushambi
Ujjain
Rupnath
Sanchi
Girnar
Panguraria
A
G
N
LI
Sopara Jaugada
KA
Sannathi
Bay of Bengal
Arabian Sea
Maski
Yerragudi
Anda
Brahmagiri
man &
N
ic o
Lakshadveep INDEX
ba r
Isla
Important cities
nds
Figure 4.1 Principal cities and inscriptions of the Mauryan Empire

first king in the Indian history that excavated his records on rocks. His inscriptions were most valu-
able source to reconstruct the ancient Indian history; especially they reconstructed the history of
Mauryan dynasty. The Ashokan inscriptions are found all over Indian subcontinents especially in
India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. There are two types of inscription found: one on rock,
which is called Rock Edicts and another on pillars, which is called Pillar Edicts. These inscriptions
were discovered almost at 47 different sites. The Minor Rock Edict was found at one place of
Madhya Pradesh and three places in Karnataka, in which they mention the name of Ashoka. All
other inscriptions referred king as Devanampiya, which means beloved of the God and Piyadassi.
Most of these inscriptions found in ancient highway routes and these were written in four differ-
ent scripts; for example, inscriptions found in Afghanistan are written in Greek and Aramaic script
is used, while those found in Pakistan are written in Prakrit language and Kharosthi script is used.
In all other areas, these inscriptions are in Prakrit language and written in Brahmi script.
Kalinga War and Ashoka’s Dhamma

Kalinga was the ancient name of coastal Orissa. Kalinga was independent neighbouring state of
the Mauryan Empire. We do not know why Ashoka fought a war against them. However, some
evidences show that Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. This war involved high-level vio-
lence and massacre. After this war, Ashoka was very horrified and he decided not to fight wars
anymore. Ashoka was the only king in the known history who returned back the areas he won in
war. After the war of Kalinga, there was a major change in Ashoka ruling policies. These changes
are known as dhamma. Ashoka’s dhamma was not a religious practice. His dhamma did not
involve worshiping of a God or other religious rituals. It was totally based on the moral aspect
of everyday life. In his inscriptions, Ashoka defined him as father and his people as his children.
It is his duty to teach them these moral lessons for their better life. The Ashoka faced many
problems in his regime, such as religious and ideological conflicts of different groups, animals
were sacrificed at mass level, servants and slaves were ill-treated, and quarrels in families and
amongst neighbours. According to Ashoka’s inscriptions, the head of the state should bear the
responsibility to solve the problem. Therefore, he appointed officers who are known as dhamma
mahamatta. Dhamma mahamatta went to every part of Mauryan Empire and taught dhamma
to people. Ashoka inscribed his messages on rocks and pillars and sent the officials to read his
messages for those could not read it. Ashoka sent mission to other lands such as Egypt, Syria,
Greece, and Sri Lanka. He built roads, rest houses, and dug wells on highways. He arranged medi-
cal facilities for human beings as well as for animals. Ashoka ruled from 273 BCE to 232 BCE. After
Ashoka, the Mauryan empire sustained almost 100 years.
Administration of the Mauryan Empire

Some sources such as Buddhist, Jain, and Greek writings, Arthashastra gave some important
information about Mauryan administration. The whole empire divided into five major political

Unit I History | 45
centres—the capital Pataliputra and the four provincial centres of Suvarnagiri, Tosali, Ujjain, and
Taxila. All these provincial divisions were mentioned in Ashokan inscriptions. One important ques-
tion is that could this vast empire have had a uniformed administrative system?
If we analyse the expansion of the empire, it was too diverse and vast. The geographical condi-
tions of the empire were different; for example, hilly terrain of Afghanistan and the coastal area
of Orissa. Historians assume that the strongest administrative control was around the capital area
and the provincial centres. The provincial centres were chosen carefully; for example, both Ujjain
and Taxila were situated on the long distance trade routes. Suvarnagiri, which literally means
Golden Mountain, was probably the gold mines of Karnataka. The transportation system in both
the land and river was vital for the existence of the empire. The arrangements of transportation
were good, and hence, the journey from centre to provinces could have taken weeks and not
months. The army was important for the stable state. Megasthenes mentions about a committee
with six subcommittees, which was coordinating the military activities in empire. Table 4.1 will
explain the working of subcommittees.
Table 4.1 Working of the army’s subcommittees
Subcommittees Works
First committee Navy related arrangements
Second committee Transport and provisions related work
Third committee Foot soldiers related arrangements
Fourth committee Hours related arrangements
Fifth committee Chariots related arrangements
Sixth committee Elephants related arrangements
Source: NCERT textbook, Class XII, Themes of Indian History (Ancient)-I,
Theme–II: Kings, Farmers and Towns-Early States and Economies
(C. 600 BCE 600 CE), pp. 34
Army Committee of the Mauryan Empire: Their Subcommittees

and Responsibilities
With the strong military base, king Ashoka also tried to hold his empire by propagating dhamma.
The principles of dhamma were simple and virtually universally applicable. The special officers
were appointed for dhamma, which was known as dhamma mahamatta.
NEW NOTION OF KINGSHIP IN DECCAN AND FURTHER SOUTH INDIA

The new kingdoms emerged in the Deccan and further south. These new kingdoms included the
Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas in Tamilnadu. The Sangam texts contain poems describing the chiefs.
The Cholas occupied the Kaveri River delta and their adjoining regions. The regions of Kanchi
were also part of Chola kingdom, which is known as Cholamandalam. The Chola kingdom was
situated towards the north-east of the Pandya kingdom. The Chola kings had some remarkable

victories in that region; for example, in the 2nd century BCE, the Chola king Elara conquered Sri
Lanka and ruled it over almost 50 years. The most distinguished Chola king was Karikala. Karikala
defeated Chera and Pandya kings in the great Battle of Venni, near Tanjore. Karikala had a power-
ful navy and he conquered Sri Lanka. He built 160 km of long irrigation channel and all these lead
to the growth of agriculture, craft, trade, and commerce. He was a great patron of literature and
promoted education. After Karikala, the successors of Karikala were weak and family members
fought with each other for the power. The Cholas declined and after the defeat by the Pallavas,
the Cholas were reduced in small number.
Thanesar
Kanauj
Mathura
Pataliputra
Prayaga Nalanda
Ujjain
Vallabhi Bharuch
SATAVAHANA
Ajanta
Bay of Bengal
Amaravati
Aihole
Arabian Sea
CHALUKYA
An
dam
PALLAVA
an & Nic oba
Kanchipuram Mahabalipuram
Arikamedu
LA
CHO
INDEX
CH
Puhar
Madurai Inner State
ERA
r Is
Outer State
lan
Lakshadveep
DY
A
ds
Aryavarta
PAN
Cities
Cities conquered by the Guptas
Figure 4.2 Important cities and kingdoms

Unit I History | 47
Pandyas
The Pandya kingdom was located at modern district Tirunelveli, Madurai, and Ramnad. Madurai
was the capital of the Pandya kingdom. The Sangam literature gives valuable information about
some of the Pandya kings. Nedunjeliyan was known as the greatest Pandya king. He defeated the
combined force of Cheras, Cholas, and five others in the Battle of Madurai. He ruled around 210
CE. Under the Pandya kings, the capital Madurai and port city Korkai became the great centres
of trade and commerce in the south Indian region. The Pandya kingdom had trade relations with
the Roman Empire. They send embassies to the Trojan and the Roman emperor Augustus court.
Cheras
The Cheras was also known as Keralaputras. They were situated in the west and north of the
Pandya kingdom. Like the Pandyas and Cholas, Cheras had the same importance in the south
Indian history. The Chera ruler Nedum Cheralathan conquered the Kadambas. He fought a battle
with the father of Chola king Karikala and both the kings were killed in the battle. According to
Chera tradition, Senguttuvan was the greatest king of the Chera dynasty. One of the interesting
facts is that some of the kings of all these three kingdoms claimed that they had victories expan-
sion to the Himalayas like the Chera king Nedum Cheralathan called himself Imayavaramban.
Imayavaramban means that he had the Himalaya mountains as the north boundary of his king-
dom. However, there was no evidence to support to this argument. These three kingdoms con-
stantly fought with each other and regularly fought with Sri Lanka.
Satavahanas of Deccan
After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, a powerful kingdom was established by the Satavahanas.
Satavahanas was also known as Andhra. The Aitareya Brahmana mentions Andhra as ancient
people. The Greek writer Pliny mentions about Andhras in his writings. He mentioned that Andhra
were powerful people who had possessed large numbers of villages and towns. They had strong
army that has 100,000 infantries, 2000 horses, and 1000 elephants. During the Mauryan age,
they were part of the empire but when the Mauryan Empire became weak, they declared them-
selves free. Simuka was the founder of this dynasty. He ruled from 235 BCE to 213 BCE. Simuka
was succeeded by his brother Krishna. Satakarni was the third king of this dynasty. In Nanaghat
inscription, it had description of his achievements; for example, he conquered western Malwa,
Vidarbha, and Narmada Valley, which known as Anup. He performed two Ashvamedha Yagnas in
his regime. He had known as the lord of Dakshinapatha. Satavahanas made substantial donations
for renovation and decoration of Sanchi Stupas and monasteries.
Gautamiputra Satakarni was the next important king of Satavahanas. He ruled almost 56 years.
He conquered Malwa from the Sungas. After Satakarni-II, Satavahana Empire expansion set back.
Nahapana had conquered some parts of Satavahana’s territory. A large number of Nahapana’s
coins were found in the Nasik area. During the regime of Gautamiputra Satakarni, Satavahana

became powerful again. His achievements are recorded in Nasik inscriptions of Gautami Balashri.
This inscription was excavated after his death. In this inscription, he was described as destroyer of
Sakas, Yavanas, and Pahlavas. He threw Nahapana from his territory and used his silver coins with
his seal. He re-conquered the northern Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Konkan, and Malwa from Sakas.
Gautamiputra was succeeded by Vasisthiputra Sri Pulmavi in 130 CE. Pulmavi ruled about 24
years and most of his coins and inscriptions have been found in Andhra Pradesh; this means
that under his regime, Andhra had become a part of the Satavahana Empire. He married the
daughter of Saka king Rudradaman. However, Rudradaman defeated the next Satavahana king
twice. He took Aparanta and Anupa from Satavahanas. Yajna Sri Satakarni was the last great
Satavahana ruler. He ruled from 165 CE to 195 CE. His inscriptions were found in Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh. The distribution of his coins pointed out that he extended
his kingdom from Bay of Bengal in the east to Arabian sea in the west. The depiction of ship with
a fish and conch on his coins indicates maritime trade and activities during his regime. The suc-
cessors of Yajna were weak and not capable to govern such a large empire. When Abhiras seized
Maharashtra and Ikshvakus and Pallavas appropriated the eastern provinces, the Satavahana
Empire was collapsed and ruled over small territory.
THE ERA OF FOREIGN INVADERS: THE INDO-GREEKS (YAVANAS), THE

PARTHIANS, THE SAKA, AND THE KUSHANS
Yavanas invasions started in the reign of Pushyamitra Sung. Pushyamitra Sung contemporary
Patanjali mentioned this invasion. Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram mentioned about Vasumitra’s
conflict with Yavanas. The Yavana word maybe used for Ionian Greeks but later it was used for
Greek nationality. The Yavanas were the first to establish foreign supremacy on Indian soil, and
then, they were succeeded by several central Asian tribes. These tribes invaded India and estab-
lished their political authority. Let us discuss here about some of these tribes:
Indo-Greeks
The Indo-Greek rulers were known as Yavanas. The Greek Emperor Alexander was invaded in the
western part of Indian subcontinent. After the sudden death of Alexander in Babylon, his empire
comes under the rule of his Generals. The Bactria and the adjoining areas of Iran were known as
Parthia. Around 250 BCE, Diodotus, the governor of Bactria, was revolted against the Greek and
proclaimed himself independent from Greeks. Some notable Indo-Greek kings are Euthydemus,
Demetrius, Eucratides, and Menander.
Menander was the most famous king among the other Indo-Greek rulers. Menander ruled
from 165 BCE to 146 BCE for almost 25 years. His capital was Sakala (modern Sialkot, Pakistan).
The Greek writings tell us that he was a great ruler and his territory extended from Afghanistan
to present-day Uttar Pradesh (India) in the east and Gujarat in the south. He was converted into
Buddhism by the Buddhist monk Nagasena. Nagasena and Menander’s debate on philosophy and

Unit I History | 49
Buddhism was in the form of questions and answers that were recorded as Milinda panha or the
Questions of Milinda.
The Indo-Greek rulers are the first ones in the history of India whose coins carried the names
and portraits of kings. They were the first rulers who issued gold coins. The coins of Indo-Greek
were well-known for the depiction of artistic and the realistic portraits.
Parthians (Pahlavas)
The Parthians were Iranian people. They are also known as Pahlavas. We have little information
about them and they are based on their coins and inscriptions. The earliest king of this dynasty
was Vonones. Vonones captured the power of Sistan and Arachosia. He adopted the title of ‘great
king of king.’ Spalirises was the successor of Vonones. King Gondophernes was the greatest ruler
of the Parthian dynasty. He ruled from 19 CE to 45 CE. He became the master of both Sakas–
Pahlavas area in the eastern Iran and western India. After Gondophernes, the Pahlavas rule ended
in India and Kushans took it over.
Sakas
The Sakas destroyed the northwestern Indian Indo-Greek rule. The Sakas were also known as
Scythians. Sakas were nomadic tribes of central Asia. Around 165 CE, they turned out of their
homeland by Yueh-chi and forced them towards India. Yueh-chi was later known as Kushans.
The Sakas invaded Bactria and Parthia and then they entered in India. The Sakas entered India in
five branches and they settled in various parts of northwestern and northern India. One Branch
of Sakas settled in Afghanistan, second in Punjab, third in Mathura, fourth in Maharashtra and
Saurashtra, and fifth in central India. The Sakas ruled from 1st century BCE to 4th century CE in
different parts of the Indian subcontinent. The most prominent Saka ruler in western India was
Nahapana. Various inscriptions of Nahapana were found in Maharashtra and he was mentioned
in records of the Satavahana rulers. The Saka ruler Rudradaman was the most illustrious ruler of
the central Indian Saka branch. He was ruled from 130 CE to 150 CE. The Junagarh inscription
provide us important information about Rudradaman and his rule was extended over the area
of Sindh, Saurashtra, Gujarat, north Konkan, Malwa, and some parts of Rajasthan. He repaired
the Sudarshan lake dam, which is built by the provincial governor of Chandragupta Maurya in
Kathiawad. Ujjain was the capital of Rudradaman and became a centre of education and culture.
Many scholars believe that the Saka era was found by the Saka rulers. This dynasty rule was ended
with the defeat by the Gupta king Chandragupta II around 390 CE.
Kushans
Around 165 CE in central Asia, Yueh-Chi came in conflict with a neighbouring tribe Hiung-nu.
Hiung-nu defeat Yueh-Chi and forced them to move out of their land. Because of the Great Wall
of China, they did not enter into the Chinese territory and they moved to the west side. In the

west, they met with the Sakas. The Sakas ruled in Bactria and they forced to Yueh-Chi to leave
their land. They came to India and settled down in the land of Sakas. They adopted agriculture
as a profession. In India, they are known as Kushans. According to Chinese sources, the Kujula
Kadphises was the first great king of Yueh-Chi. Kujula Kadphises was also known as Kadphises I.
Kadphises I united all the five groups of Yueh-Chi and established his authority over Afghanistan.
He called himself Dharma-thida and Sacha Dharma-thida means steadfast in true faith.
Kadphises I was succeeded by his Werna Kadphises, who is also known as Kadphises-II.
Kadphises expanded his territory up to Punjab or maybe the Ganga–Yamuna Doab. He issued
gold and copper coins that referred him as a great king and devotee of Lord Shiva. Kadphises II
was succeeded by Kanishka. Kanishka was the greatest king in all Kushan kings. Kanishka ruled
from 78CE to 101 CE. Some of the historians view that Kanishka was the founder of Saka era. In
his regime, the Kushans Empire was extended from Khotan in northwest to Banaras in the east,
Kashmir in the north to Saurashtra and Malwa in the south. His coins were found in all of these
areas. Purushapura, the modern Peshawar, was the capital of Kanishka. He was the follower of
Buddhism and the fourth Buddhist council was held in his regime. Asvaghosa, Parsva, Vasumitra,
Charaka, and Nagarjuna were some notable scholars of his court. In his regime, Mathura and
Taxila became the great centres of art and culture. After Kanishka, Vasishka, Huvishka, Vasudeva,
and others ruled. These names are purely Indian names that show Kushans were completely
assimilated with the Indian culture. After Vasishka rule, the Kushans power declined. Kushans
continue ruling in small territory up to 4th century.
Gupta Empire and Economic Prosperity

After the Mauryan Empire, many kings tried to establish a large empire but most of them could
not succeed to establish a stable and powerful empire. Around 320 CE in north India, an empire
emerged in leadership of Chandragupta I, and in a brief time, they expanded themselves on
large scale. Soon, he established himself and his sovereign empire. They ended the provincial
ruler’s era that emerged after the fall of the Mauryan Empire. The Gupta period was known as
‘Golden Age’ in the Indian history. The Gupta Empire was established by Sri Gupta. However, the
journey of the empire started in the era Chandragupta I regime. Chandragupta I was the son of
Ghatotkacha. The marriage alliances for king Chandragupta I was important for establishing his
power. He married with Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi. Lichchhavi gave them iron and mines in
dowry. Lichchhavis was the most powerful state at that time, and there are some evidences that
show their importance; for example, Chandragupta’s coins had portrait of Chandragupta I and
Kumaradevi and Lichchhavi written on them. Another example is the Allahabad inscription, where
the Gupta king Samudragupta proudly called himself Lichchhavis-duhita, which means the son of
Lichchhavi’s daughter. Chandragupta I had the title Maharajadhiraja. He issued gold coins.
Chandragupta I was succeeded by his son Samudragupta in 340 CE. According to Allahabad
inscription, he was the greatest king and conqueror in contemporary kings. He was chosen because
of his qualities. The Allahabad inscription was composed on Ashokan pillar by his official Harisena.

Unit I History | 51
In this inscription, he mentions Samudragupta’s great military achievements like he defeated 9

kings of Aryavarta. Another significant military achievement was his south Indian military cam-
paign, where he defeated 12 kings and princes of south Indian kingdoms. After defeating these
kings, Samudragupta did not kept them under his control directly; rather he gave back these
territories to their kings and princes and developed alliances with them. After these military exer-
cises, he performed Ashvamedha Yagna. In Ashvamedha Yagna, he issued gold and sacrificed the
horse. In Allahabad inscription, some contemporary political powers also mentioned, such as Saka,
Kushans, Murundas, and Simhalas (Sri Lanka). According to some Chinese sources, he had good
relationship with other countries; for example, Sri Lankan king Meghavarna had sent an embassy
asking his permission to build a monastery in Bodh Gaya. Samudragupta had multitalented per-
sonality. He was good warrior and wrote poems; therefore, he was known as kaviraja. Some of
his coins had portrait in which he is playing veena. In 380 CE, king Samudragupta died and his son
Chandragupta II became the king.
Chandragupta II was the most famous and powerful king of the Gupta dynasty. In his regime,
Gupta Empire reached at its highest glory. In his most famous victory, he defeated the Saka.
After this great victory, Chandragupta adopted the title of Vikramaditya. He issued silver coins
on this victory. Delhi’s iron pillar and inscriptions are good sources of information about his area.
His empire extended in east Bengal to northwest frontier in the west. In south, he established
matrimonial relations with Vakatakas. His daughter Prabhavatigupta was married with Vakataka
king Rudra sen II. This matrimonial relationship helps to control the southern areas. The regime
of Chandragupta II was well-known for its high-standard arts, literatures, and cultural progresses.
Kalidasa was in his court. Chinese scholar Fa-Hien travelled India in 405 CE and he stayed in
up to 411 CE. His travel records are helpful to understanding the social and cultural aspects of
Chandragupta II regime. King Chandragupta II died in 413CE. Kumargupta I became the king of
the Gupta Empire. He was the son of Chandragupta II. Kumargupta ruled almost 40 years. He
performed Ashvamedha but we do not know about his military achievements. He issued coins
that indicate he performed Ashvamedha. Since he had ruled for 40 years, we can understand that
he had administrative capability to govern large empire and maintain it successfully. In the last
years of his regime, he faced some challenges of Pushyamitra. Kumargupta was succeeded by
Skandagupta in 455 CE.
Skandagupta was the last Gupta king who tried to maintain his empire. His regime was full
of wars. He defeated the Hunas; however, at the end of his regime, attacks of the Hunas were
more frequent and they created biggest challenges for Gupta king. Skandagupta repaired the
Chandragupta Maurya’s Sudharshan lake dam.
Skandagupta died in 467 CE. After his death, the Gupta Empire gradually declined. It sustained
almost 100 years after Skandagupta death. In 512 CE, the Hunas attacked on north India in the
leadership of Toramana and he captured a larger part of the Gupta Empire in the north India. After
Toramana, his son Mihirakula ruled. Mihirakula invaded Magadha and defeated by Gupta king
Baladitya. According to other inscriptions, like Malwa, mention that Mihirakula was defeated.

After Gupta Empire

After the decline of the Gupta Empire, the regional kingdoms came into power such as Gauda in
Bengal and Valabhi. In 606 CE, Harshavardhana became the king. He was one of the earliest kings
whose history was well-documented. His biography Harshacharita was written by his courter
poet Banabhatta. Another reliable source was the writings of the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang.
Hiuen Tsang wrote in detail about his regime. He extended his boundaries on whole of the north
India. He wrote Nagananda, Ratnavali, and Priyadarshika. He was an efficient administrator and
he was doing great charities for his people. Further, he had built rest houses and hospitals. He
donated land grants to Buddhists, Jains, and Brahmanas. In every 5 years, he celebrated religious
festivals in Prayaga, where he performed dana. In 647 CE, Harshavardhana died. With the death
of Harshavardhana, the era of empires was ended.
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CHANGES

The time period from 600 BCE to 600 CE was the time period of social and cultural changes. In
600 CE to the 1st century was the time period of emergence of different type of ideologies in
the India subcontinent. Around 6th century BCE, Buddhism and Jainism emerged against the
Brahmanical rituals. Buddhism and Jainism began social changes in the Indian society. Most of the
people were against these rituals and they were attracted to Buddhism, Jainism, and other non-
Brahmanical ideologies. Around 3rd century BCE, the one of the major change happened. The
tradition developed and most of the texts came in the form of writings. The great epics Ramayana
and Mahabharata were available in the written format. These epics were good source for under-
standing how social division developed. However, these sources are less reliable because they are
edited time to time. Therefore, it is not possible to identify the actual time period of these epics.
The new form of Indian philosophy was emerged in this era and they were known as Upanishad.
Another type of texts written in this duration were Arthashastra, Jainism, and Buddhism texts.
Arthashastra was helpful to understand the Mauryan time’s social and economic situation.
Buddhist and Jain religious texts are good source to understand social and economic situation of
the people. The smaritigranth was the important texts of ancient India. These smaritigranth pro-
vide us important aspect of social rule and regulation, which they want to promote in the society.
From 2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE, many different types of literatures were written, such
as Kamasutra, Natya Shastra, and Mudrarakshasa. Travellers’ records are also important source
of understanding social and cultural changes. These records present the contemporary situation.
The monuments are also helpful to understand the social and cultural changes. Let us try to
understand it with the example of Sanchi stupa. Sanchi stupa was built around 3rd century BCE.
It was a huge structure. This structure gives us the idea of social life and their religious rituals; for
example, these stupa give us the idea of Buddha’s life. In Sanchi stupa, their outer boundary is
full of miniatures and these miniatures belong to different parts of society. In the era of Kushans,
Taxila and Mathura became the great centres of art and culture. The sculptures of the era present

Unit I History | 53
the social and cultural changes of that period. They depict the way of religious and social life.
Around 4th century CE, temples emerged. These temples tell us the journey of social and cultural
changes of that era. We all know that during 1000 years, many tribes came to India and they min-
gled in the Indian society. We all know about chaturvarna system; however, in this period, caste
system expanded themselves from fourth categories. Women’s role in society was well-defined in
this era and rules became rigid. New types of rituals were accepted by the society.

➨ In 600 BC, we saw the emergence of Mahajanapadas.
➨ During the time period from 6th century to 4th century BC, Magadha emerged as a powerful
state in the Indian subcontinent.
➨ The contemporary Buddhist and Jain texts provide us useful information about Magadha’s
ruling kings such as Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, and Mahapadma Nanda. These rulers played impor-
tant role in the emergence of Magadha.
➨ Magadha was located in between Ganga and their tributaries. It is some part of the present-
day Bihar.
➨ Rajagriha/Rajgir was the capital of Magadha. Rajagriha/Rajgir means the house of the king.
➨ The Haryanka: around 542 BCE, Magadha came under the leadership of Bimbisara (542 BCE–
493 BCE). Bimbisara belonged to the Haryanka dynasty.
➨ Bimbisara was killed by his son Ajatasatru and he became king of the Magadha. Ajatasatru
ruled around 492 BCE to 444 BC for almost 50 years.
➨ Ajatasatru was contemporary of Mahavir and Buddha.
➨ Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin. Udayin’s region is important because he transferred his
capital from Rajgir to Pataliputra.
➨ After Udayin, the Haryanka dynasty rule was over and it was succeeded by Shishunaga. The
Shishunaga’s dynasty ruled for almost 100 years.
➨ Shishunaga’s dynasty was succeeded by Nanda. The dynasty of Nandas proved themselves as
the strongest dynasty of Magadha. Nanda ruled the larger part of the Indian subcontinent.
➨ Mahapadma Nanda claimed Ekarat, which means the sole sovereign.
➨ The Nandas were the first non-Kshatriya rulers in the Indian history.
➨ The Mauryan Empire was found by Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BCE.
➨ In 1830, James Prinsep, an officer of the East India Company was deciphered the earliest inscrip-
tions, which used two scripts Brahmi and Kharosthi, and coins. He found that most of these inscrip-
tions and coins mentioned a king who they referred as ‘Piyadassi’. Piyadassi means ‘pleasant to
behold.’
➨ King Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. He ruled around 324
BCE–300 BCE.
➨ Buddhist texts Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa described Chandragupta as Kshatriya of Mauriya’s
branch of Sakyas, who lived in Pipphalivana (eastern Utter Pradesh).

➨ In Vishakhadatta’s play Mudrarakshasa, he used Vrishala and Kulhina terms for Chandragupta.
These terms mean that a person is of humble origin.
➨ Sandrocottus of the Greek writers identified as Chandragupta Maurya.
➨ Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by Bindusara.
➨ In 273 BCE, after the death of Bindusara, Ashoka became the king of the Mauryan Empire.
➨ Many inscriptions referred king as Devanampiya, which means beloved of the God and
Piyadassi.
➨ Ashoka’s dhamma was not a religious practice. His dhamma did not involve worshiping of a
God or other religious rituals. It was totally based on the moral aspects of everyday life.
➨ Ashoka ruled from 273 BCE to 232 BCE. After Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire sustained almost
100 years.
➨ Arthashastra gave some important information about Mauryan administration.
➨ After the fall of Mauryan Empire, a powerful kingdom was established by the Satavahanas.
➨ Satavahanas was also known as Andhra.
➨ Simuka was the founder of Satavahana dynasty.
➨ The Indo-Greek rulers were known as Yavanas.
➨ Some notable Indo-Greek kings are Euthydemus, Demetrius, Eucratides, and Menander.
➨ Nagasena and Menander’s debate on philosophy and Buddhism was in the form of questions
and answers recorded as Milinda panha or the Questions of Milinda.
➨ The Parthians were Iranian people.
➨ King Gondophernes was the greatest ruler of the Parthian dynasty.
➨ The Sakas destroyed the northwestern Indian Indo-Greek rule. The Sakas were also known as
Scythians.
➨ Yueh-chi was later known as Kushans.
➨ The Saka ruler Rudradaman was the most illustrious ruler of the central Indian Saka branch. He
ruled from 130 CE to 150 CE.
➨ Around 320 CE in north India, an empire emerged in the leadership of Chandragupta I and in a
short time period, they expanded themselves on large scale. Soon, he established himself and
his sovereign empire.
➨ Chandragupta I had the title of Maharajadhiraja.
➨ Chandragupta I was succeeded by his son Samudragupta 340 CE. According to Allahabad
inscriptions, he was the greatest king and conqueror in contemporary kings.
➨ Chandragupta II was the most famous and powerful king of the Gupta dynasty. In his regime,
Gupta Empire reached its highest glory.
➨ Kumargupta I became the king of the Gupta Empire. He was the son of Chandragupta II and
he ruled almost 40 years.
➨ In 606 CE, Harshavardhana became the king. He was one of the earliest kings whose history was
well-documented. His biography Harshacharita was written by his courter poet Banabhatta.
➨ He wrote Nagananda, Ratnavali, and Priyadarshika.
➨ In 647 CE, Harshavardhana died.

Unit I History | 55
Check Your Progress

1. Discuss about the emergence and develop- 4. Write short notes on the following:
ment of Mauryan Empire. (a) Samudragupta
2. What is dhamma? Describe in the context (b) Saka dynasty
of king Ashoka. (c) Indo-Greek rulers
3. Describe the role that Alexander’s sud- (d) Harshavardhana
den death played in the establishment of
Mauryan Empire?
Objective Questions
1. During the time period of 6th century to 5. Udayin transferred his capital from:
4th century BC, ____________ emerged as (a) Magadha to Kosala
a powerful state in the Indian subcontinent. (b) Avanti to Taxila
(a) Avanti (c) Taxila to Ujjain
(b) Kosala (d) Rajgir to Pataliputra
(c) Magadha 6. The conversation between Nagasena and
(d) None of these Menander is known as:
2. What is the name of the capital of (a) Nagapanho
Magadha? (b) Sagapanho
(a) Dhargir (c) Milinda panha
(b) Shargir (d) None of these
(c) Nargir
7. Yueh-chi was later known as:
(d) Rajgir
(a) Saka
3. Bimbisara belongs to: (b) Yavana
(a) Saka dynasty (c) Kushans
(b) Kushans dynasty (d) Pahlava
(c) Haryanka dynasty 8. Parthians were:
(d) None of these (a) Greek people
4. Ajatasatru was contemporary of: (b) Yueh-Chi people
(a) Mahatma Gandhi and Mahavir (c) Huna people
(b) Chandragupta Maurya and (d) Iranian people
Chandragupta I 9. King Mihirakula belongs to:
(c) Buddha and Mahavir (a) Kushan
(d) Ashoka and Samudragupta (b) Maurya

(c) Gupta (c) Karikala

(d) Huna (d) Rudradaman
10. Who adopted the title of Maharajadhiraja? 16. The Pandya kingdom had trade relation
(a) Chandragupta Maurya with:
(b) Chandragupta I (a) Mauryan Empire
(c) Chandragupta II (b) Gupta Empire
(d) Chandragupta III (c) Greek Empire
(d) Roman Empire
11. __________ was succeeded by Ashoka.
(a) Chandragupta 17. Karikala belongs to:
(b) Bindusara (a) Chera
(c) Bimbisara (b) Chalukya
(d) Menander (c) Chola
(d) Satavahana
12. The Saka ruler Rudradaman ruled from
_____________ 18. Ekarat means:
(a) 130 CE to 150 BCE (a) Whole sovereign
(b) 130 BCE to 150 CE (b) Role sovereign
(c) 130 BCE to 150 BCE (c) Mole sovereign
(d) 130 CE to 150 CE (d) Sole sovereign
13. King Harshavardhana died in: 19. Mihirakula was defeated by:
(a) 647 BCE (a) Vikramaditya
(b) 647 BC (b) Samudragupta
(c) 647 CE (c) Kumargupta
(d) None of these (d) Baladitya
14. Nahapana belongs to: 20. The Parthians were known as:
(a) Kushan (a) Yavana
(b) Huna (b) Huna
(c) Maurya (c) Kushan
(d) Saka (d) Pahlava
15. Sudarshan lake dam was repaired by:
(a) Nahapana
(b) Gautamiputra Satakarni

CHAPTER
Change and
Continuity 5
LEARNING OBjECTIvES
• Understand the emergence of new kingdoms with their nature
• Familiarise the concept of change and continuity with reference of political and social aspects
• Explore the process of establishment of empire with examples such as Chola Empire
• Know and understand the administration of Chola empire
INTRODuCTION
The time period from 7th century to 12th century CE was the time era of continuity. These changes
and continuities happened in every aspect of life such as social, political, and economic. These
changes played important role in the social, political, and economic life. This five-century period
created the base for further social and political changes. Let us try to understand these changes
and try to understand their importance in the Indian history.
In the 7th century CE, after the decline of Harshavaradhana empire, many new kingdoms
emerged in all Indian subcontinents and some of them were continue. Chalukyas of Badami,
Pallavas of Kanchipuram, and Pandyas of Madurai emerged as powerful dynasties. Chalukyas
began their rule in Badami and Aihole. They extended their kingdom between Nasik and upper
Godavari region. Pulakeshin II was the greatest king of Chalukyas and he ruled from 610 CE to 642
CE. Chalukyas was succeeded by Rashtrakutas. Dantidurga found the Rashtrakuta dynasty and he
defeated Chalukyas in 752 CE. Gangas and Kadambas were other powerful emerging dynasties.
Gangas’ king Durvinita was the prominent ruler and the scholar of Kannada and Sanskrit litera-
ture. Kadamba dynasty was found by Mayur Sarman. Kakusthavarman was the most powerful
king and great administrator of Kadamba dynasty. He ruled from 435 CE to 455 CE. The southern
peninsula was ruled by Pallava, Pandya, and Chola kingdoms.
EMERGENCE OF NEW KINGS AND KINGDOMS

Process of Emergence of New Dynasties
In the 7th century CE, the process of emergence of new powerful dynasty was different because
7th century was the era of big warrior chiefs and landlords. These warrior chiefs and warlords

58 | Chapter 5 Change and Continuity
were in powerful situation and existing kings acknowledged them as Samantas. These landlords
presented gifts to kings and provided necessary military help when the king is in need. These
Samantas were given rights by the king. After sometime, they gained power and wealth. They
became powerful and they themselves adopted the title of Mahasamanta and Mahamandalesvara.
In
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Figure 5.1 New kingdoms from 700 CE to 1200 CE

Unit I History | 59
These titles refer to the great lord of the region. Some of the landlords became more powerful
than the kings and they announced themselves independent; for example, Rashtrakutas were the
subordinates of the Chalukyas but in the mid of the 8th century, Rashtrakutas announced their
land as an independent state. The Rashtrakutas chief Dantidurga was performed Hiranyagarbha
ritual with the help of Brahmanas. Hiranyagarbha rituals believe in the rebirth of sacrificer as
Kshatriya. This ritual was performed by people who were not Kshatriyas by birth. This was not
the only way to establish independent kingdom; in other cases, the use of military skills and
strength is used to become independent powerful dynasties such as Kadamba Mayurasharma
and Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra. Kadamba Mayurasharma and Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra
were Brahmanas. They gave up their traditional professions and set themselves as a warrior. They
established their kingdom in Karnataka and Rajasthan.
If we try to understand the process of formation of these states, there was a continuity and
change. The legitimacy of state and the ruling dynasties was the biggest concern for the newly
established kingdoms. The legitimacy of newly established kingdoms was depended on the reli-
gious approval. Ruler can only be Kshatriya. If non-Kshatriya became the king, they have to per-
form some religious rituals and then only their kingship gets legitimation. Hiranyagarbha ritual
was one of the rituals, which was performed by those who were not born Kshatriya. The legiti-
macy depended on religious authority. This was in continuity of religious authority to legitimise
the political authority. Most of the kings adopted titles such as Maharaja, Maharajadhiraja,
Vikramaditya, and chakravartisamrat. Most of the kings performed some religious rituals that
were not only related with the political supremacy but also related with religious legitimacy like
Ashvamedha Yagna. It is also important to know that the process of change and continuity was
not restricted to the polity; rather it was also deeply associated with society. The four Varna sys-
tems did not exist in this era. This was the era of caste. Most of the castes were based on the work
that people do in their day-to-day life and gradually they shaped them into a particular caste.
Kumhar, Lohara, Khati, and Sunar castes were based on their work skills. Caste system became
vast and complex. We are not able to define which caste is Kshatriya and which is Vaishya or
Shudra. The relationship with Brahmins played a crucial role in making some Kshatriyas, and dur-
ing this process, social structure also affected.
Kingdoms’ Administration
Administration is the base of state; without good administration, the state cannot run prop-
erly. We all are well-known about the titles such as Maharaja, Maharajadhiraja, Chakravarti
Samarat, and Tribhuvana Chakravarti. These are not titles but these are helpful in understanding
the administration also. Samantas were the reality of this era. They were subordinates of these
kings. Revenue was the most important thing for the state to sustain. Revenue was collected by
these big Samantas for peasants, herders, artisans, and traders. The taxes are imposed by the
king and there are different types of taxes imposed by the king. For example, the inscriptions of
Cholas were found in Tamilnadu. In this inscription, 400 types of taxes were mentioned. Most of

the taxes were not taken in cash but those were mentioned as vetti (forces labour and sometimes
used as part time soldiers) and kadamai. Kadamai means land revenue. The taxation was different
from the present tax system. These taxes were imposed on houses, palm trees, property, cattle,
and so on. The king used these sources for establishment and construction of forts and temples.
The revenue collection work was done by specially recruited officials. These officials were from
influential families. Most of them were king’s relatives. In military, top positions were held by
king’s close relatives. The Samantas served military services for king.
Prashastis
Prashastis was different form of inscription. They did not contain full details but they projected
the view of the kings. The prashastis were informative and contained the ideology of the king.
They offer an overall view of an ideal king of different times and different regions. Most of them
were composed by administrator.
CHOLAS ANALYSED THE MAIN COMPONENTS

Chola kingdom was the oldest kingdom in south India. From 2nd century BCE to around 5th cen-
tury CE, they ruled as a powerful kingdom. The region of Kanchi was also part of Chola kingdom,
which is known as Cholamandalam. The Chola kingdom was situated towards the north-east of the
Pandya kingdom. The Chola kings had some remarkable victories in that region; for example, during
the 2nd century BCE, the Chola king Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled it over almost 50 years.
The most distinguished Chola king was Karikala. Karikala defeated Chera and Pandya kings in the
great battle of Venni, near Tanjore. Karikala had a powerful navy and he conquered Sri Lanka. He
built 160-km long irrigation channel, and all these developments led to the growth of agriculture,
craft, trade, and commerce. He was a great patron of literature and promoted education. After
Karikala, the successors of Karikala were weak and family members fought with each other for the
power. The Cholas declined and after the defeat by the Pallavas, and the Cholas were reduced to a
small ruling area. Almost three centuries, the Cholas ruled in south India as a small kingdom.
In these three centuries, Cholas ruled in small area of Uraiyur. They are the subordinates of
Muttaraiyar, Pallava king of Kanchipuram. Vijayalaya belonged to ancient Chola family and he was
ruling in small area of the Uraiyur. There was a conflict between the Pandya dynasty and Pallava
dynasty. Vijayalaya took advantage of their conflict, and in 850 CE, he captured Tanjore from
Muttaraiyar. He established imperial land of Chola dynasty. Nothing is wrong if we say Vijayalaya
was the founder of medieval time of Chola kingdom. After Vijayalaya, Aditya I was the second
king of the dynasty. In 885 CE, he defeated the Pandya king and occupied the Karnataka dynasty
of Pandya. After his death, his son Parantaka-I became the king. In 925 CE, he conquered Sri
Lanka, which was known as IIangai.
Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola were the greatest rulers of the Chola dynasty. Rajaraja
Chola was the great administrator and had good control on the kingdom. He conducted two-time

Unit I History | 61
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Figure 5.2 The Chola Empire from 9th century to 12th century CE
land survey; one of the surveys was conducted in 1000 CE. He built Brihadeeswarar temple in
1010 CE. Rajendra Chola was the greatest king of the Chola dynasty. He extended the boundaries
of Chola kingdom from Tamil area to other areas; for example, he conquered Odisha, defeated
the Pala dynasty of Bengal, and reached to Ganges River. He expended his kingdom in the north-
ern India. In celebration of his victory on northern India, he built a new capital Gangaikonda
Cholapuram. Now, his territory was falling from Ganga–Hooghly–Damodar basin in the north
as well as in Sri Lanka and Maldives. He had good relations with other countries; for example,

he sent diplomatic mission to China in 1016 CE, 1035 CE, and 1077 CE. After Rajendra Chola, the
Chola kings ruled almost 200 years.
Brihadeeswarar Temple and Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple:

Their Importance in Chola Kingdom
Brihadeeswarar temple of Tanjore was built by Chola King Rajaraja Chola I in 1010 CE.
Brihadeeswarar was not only the temple but it was the symbol of power of the Chola kingdom.
These temples were not only good examples of the Chola art and architecture, but these were
the centres of crafts and artisans. These temples were empowered from land and other sources.
The lands were granted by the kings and other people. The production of these land grants was
tax free and their production was only used in maintaining temples day-to-day routine works.
The temple hired large number of specialised peoples such as cooks, sweepers, musicians, danc-
ers, and priests. These people lived at the nearest places of the temple. These temples were not
only the worship places but also they emerged as social, cultural, and economic centres. A large
number of artisans and craft persons were giving their services to pilgrims and temples. These
temples were situated in the capitals of the kingdom, which means that these cities were political
centres also.
These temples are best examples of the Dravida style architecture. The Brihadeeswarar tem-
ple complex was spread in vast area. Its complex was built like a fortress. The temple had five-
storey Gopuram. The main shikhar of the temple was massive in size; it was 60-m high with 16
complicatedly articulated stories. The main entrance of Gopuram is built on exactly 30-m high.
Normally, the Gopuram was smaller than Vimana. The Gopuram was built with 400 pillars. In
Garbhagriha was circumambulation wraps around the massive lingam. The primary deity of the
Brihadeeswarar temple was Lord Shiva. There are some of other statues situated in the temple.
There are statues of Ashta Dikpalakas and these are Indra, Agni, Varuna, Kubera, Isana, Yama,
and Vayu. The big structure is indicating that the temple had large number of special people such
as cooks, priests, musicians, and sweepers.
Some of the bronze idols were also found near the temple areas. These bronze idols are good
examples of the finest works of bronze. Most of these bronze idols were deities. This means that
these temples were promoters of arts and crafts. One of the finest examples of the Chola bronze
work was the Lord Nataraja’s dancing statue.
Chola Empire: Agriculture and Irrigation

The Chola empire mainly stands on the revenue collection. The larger part of revenue was the
agricultural production. Without good agriculture production, larger revenue collection was not
possible. The Chola kings tried different polices to increase the agricultural production. Chola
king RajaRaja I did the land survey twice during his regime. These land surveys were helpful not
only to assess the production but also they helped to understand the problems of peasants.

Unit I History | 63
The agriculture was mainly based on rain water. Other sources were also used; however, their uses
were limited. Chola king knew that the Kaveri river flows into several small branches before it lays
down in the Bay of Bengal. These branches were useful because the overflow of these branches
help to deposit fertile soils on the bank of these branches. These branches provide necessary
moisture for the agriculture. In this area, mainly rice cultivated. Most of the areas of the kingdom
were cultivating only two crops in a year. Further, most of these areas’ crops destroyed because
of the less availability of water. If they wanted to increase production, they have to develop other
sources of irrigation. The Chola king developed canals in larger area. The irrigation was helpful
to increase rice and other crops’ cultivation. Agricultural production increased and the revenue
increased. Chola kings developed larger level irrigation systems that indicate that they had vision
of planning, source, and labour.
Chola Empire: Administration

Administration is the spinal cord of the empire. If administration is not working properly, the king
will not be able to rule properly. The Chola empire administration was one of the remarkable
and distinguished parts. It was well-maintained and well-regulated. The Chola administration
gives strength to the Chola kings to govern the entire empire easily. The Chola empire had some
distinguished features. Let us try to understand those features and their works. The Chola empire
was not centralised. They called their kingdom Rajyam/Rastrayam. The Rajyam was divided into
number of subdivisions. These subdivisions were known as Mandalam. Mandalam means prov-
inces. The main administrators in those Mandalam were close relatives of the king. Mostly, the
important mandalams were under the control of Rajkumar (prince) or the noble families. Vengi
and Madura, the two mandalams, were governed by the Chola prince. Other mandalams were
administered by those families, which gave tribute to Chola king and merged themselves as part
of the Chola King. The mandalams were also divided into another subdivision. This was known as
Valanadu or Kottam. The Chola state used another subdivision: Nadu and Nagarams. Here, Nadu
used for districts and Nagarams used for towns. Nadu was a group of villages.
There were assemblies of different levels such as Nattra and Nagarattar. Nattra was the assem-
bly of the Nadu and Nagarattar was the assembly of the Nagaram. The assembly of merchant and
artisan groups was also known as Nagaram. Unfortunately, we do not have detail of their rules and
regulations. In Nagaram, we had evidences of existence of Guilds or Srenis, Pugas. Guilds, Srenis,
and Pugas were some of the examples of the different autonomous corporate organisations.
These autonomous cooperative organisations were constituted by the artisans and craft persons.
The village administration was well-organised and that was different from the Nagaram adminis-
tration. The Chola inscriptions mentioned the presence of the assemblies on village level. There were
three types of assemblies present: Ur, Sabha, and Mahasabha. The members of these assemblies
were adult male members of the community. Ur was basically used for the most fertile land and had
good irrigation system for agriculture. Further, it was also used for assembly that had an executive
body like Abunganam. Ganam and Miyalunganam words are used as synonyms of the Abunganam.

The village society was mainly constituted by peasants. In Ur, peasants of the villages were
divided into some categories like Vellalar word used for the cultivator groups. Vellalar was used
for all peasants those who were involved in cultivation. In Vellalar, there were two types of peas-
ants: Kaniyudaiyar and Ulukudi. Kaniyudaiyar was used for the land-owning farmers and Ulukudi
was used for the tenant farmers. Vallas was identified for Shudra Varna. The Shudras in the Chola
kingdom were not same as in the north. They are economically powerful and they hold lands that
are the important base for the wealth. Other service groups such as potter and blacksmith had
control on small plots of the land. The right to transfer land rights was an important aspect of the
village community. The land transfers were done via sale or gifts. The rights of the land transfer
was known as the Kani rights. The Kani rights signified the rights of possession over land. The
Chola and Pandya land grants refer two sorts of the land rights: Karanmai and Mitatchi. Karanmai
right was the right to cultivate and also the right to occupancy. It was also divided into two other
rights: Kudi Nikki and Kudi Ninga. Kudi Nikki rights means a person previously situated in a village
and removed or deprived from their rights. Kudi Ninga right for such peoples who were not to be
disturbed. Mitatchi was a superior possessive right.
In Chola empire, land was divided into many categories such as Brahmadeya, Vellanvagai,
Shalabhoga, Pallichchhandam, Devadana, and Tirunamattukkani. Brahmadeya lands were
those land grants that are given to Brahmanas by the kings. Because of these land grants,
Brahmanas settled in large number at Kaveri valley. Vellanvagai lands were owned by the non-
Brahmana peasants. Shalabhoga lands were granted for school and Pallichchhandam lands are
those lands that are donated to Jain institutions. Devadana and Tirunamattukkani lands were
those lands that are granted for temples. Their revenues were used for temple-related works.
Meanwhile, Brahmadeya landholders became powerful. Sabha was the pure Brahmana assem-
bly. The selection of a new member to the Sabha was done by the lucky draw. These assem-
blies had important role to maintain the administrative works. Their meetings and decisions were
documented.
Mahasabha was an important institution of the Chola Empire. Two records of king Parantaka
I give us the detailed information about how Mahasabha work and the types of issues they dealt.
These records mention that the local Mahasabha organised to decide the selection criteria of the
members of Variyams. Variyams mean executive committee. The Mahasabhas had jurisdictional
rights over the communal lands and the private lands. Mahasabha had ownership of village lands.
Assemblies always tried to protect cultivators from harassment. They had right to transfer their
jurisdiction to other organisations. Mahasabha had rights to reclaim on forest and water lands.
They cooperated with the royal officials in land surveys and revenue collections. It had some rights
to taxation.
In village level, some duties were imposed by the state, such as Eccoru, Muttaiyal, and vetti.
1. Eccoru duty: This refers to the villager’s obligation to provide food for state officials.
2. Muttaiyal and vetti: They refer to the villager’s obligation to provide labour service for state
works.

Unit I History | 65
Further, Kudimai was another form of labour service. The land revenue records were well-
maintained by Mahasabha.
TRANSACTION PERIOD OF NORTH INDIA

In north India, from 9th century to 12th century CE had frequent changes. The new powers
emerged in the north India and they fought continuously. Around 750 CE to 1000 CE, three
major powerful dynasties emerged in India: Gurjara-Pratihara in north India, Palas in the east
India, and Rashtrakuta in the south India. Kanauj was the centre of the power. Therefore, these
three powerful dynasties continuously fought to capture the Kanauj. Kanauj was the centre of
the trade and culture. The Chandela dynasty was one of the Rajput dynasties. They settled their
kingdom in Bundelkhand. Most remarkable thing of the Chandela was their temples. In the time
of Chandelas, they gave land grants to Hindu and Jain temples.
In the end of 10th century, the ruler of Ghazni (Afghanistan), Sultan Mahmud, started to
invade in central Asia. Mahmud of Ghazni ruled from 997 CE to 1030 CE. He started a new trend
of the war, that is, war of money. He invaded India many times. Some of the selective attacks of
Mahmud of Ghazni were Thanesar in 1014 CE, Mathura in 1018 CE, Kanauj in 1021 CE, Lahore
in 1023 CE, and Somanath in 1025 CE. The purpose of these attacks was only looting. He paid
good money to those soldiers who fought for him. He started the trend of war for money. Further,
he attacked and captured large part of India but he never tried to establish his kingdom in India.
His prime purpose of attacks was money. They looted and returned to their land. Mahmud of
Ghazni’s attack on Somanath was one of the most valuable attacks for him. He set a benchmark
for other invaders, that is, for those only wanted money. One of the notable scholars of Ghazni,
Al-Biruni, came to India with the Mahmud of Ghazni. He was keenly interested in knowing about
the Indian society. He wrote a book named Kitab-al-Hind. His writings were a good source to
understand the contemporary political, social, and economic aspects.
Chahamanas or Chauhans emerged in Rajasthan and Gujarat around 11th century. The
Chahamanas were divided into many clans such as Chahamanas of Shakambhari, Chahamanas
of Naddula/Nadol, Chahamanas of Lata, Chahamanas of Dholpur, Chahamanas of Pratapgarh,
Chahamanas of Jalor: branch of Nadol, and Chahamanas of Ranthambore: branch of
Shakambhari. Chahamanas of Shakambhari became more powerful and they established
themselves. They established themselves in Ajmer. The kingdom of Ajmer became powerful under
the rule of Prithviraj III. He was also known as Prithviraj Chauhan or Rai Pithora. He ruled from
1178 CE to 1192 CE. He expanded his kingdom in entire Rajasthan, Haryana, Delhi, and some
parts of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
In 1175 CE, Shihabuddin Muhammad Gori became the ruler of Ghur (Afghanistan). He was an
ambitious ruler. Further, he wanted to expand his Sultanate. After his succession, he started inva-
sion in north western part of the Indian subcontinent. From 1175 CE to 1178 CE, he conquered
Multan and Sindh. In 1178 CE, he conquered Ahivara; however, in the Battle of Kayadara, Bhimdev

defeated Muhammad Gori. From 1179 CE to 1186 CE, he conquered whole Punjab. In 1192 CE,
the first Battle of Taraori was fought between Prithviraj III and Muhammad Gori. However, Gori
was defeated by Prithviraj III. In the Second Battle of Taraori, Prithviraj III was defeated by Gori.
This battle changed the future of India. Gori established his empire in India. This period was the
starting point of the emergence of new powerful dynasties in India.

➨ In 7th century CE, after the decline of Harshavaradhana empire, many new kingdoms emerged
all over the Indian subcontinents and some of them continued.
➨ Chalukyas of Badami, Pallavas of Kanchipuram, and Pandyas of Madurai were some of the
emerging powerful dynasties.
➨ Chalukyas began their rule in Badami and Aihole. They extended their kingdom between Nasik
and upper Godavari region.
➨ Pulakeshin II was the greatest king of Chalukyas and he ruled from 610 CE to 642 CE.
➨ Chalukyas was succeeded by Rashtrakutas. Dantidurga found that the Rashtrakuta dynasty
and he defeated Chalukyas in 752 CE.
➨ Gangas and Kadambas were another emerging powerful dynasties.
➨ Gangas’ king Durvinita was a prominent ruler and scholar of Kannada and Sanskrit literatures.
➨ Kadamba dynasty was found by Mayur Sarman. Kakusthavarman was the most powerful king
and great administrator of Kadamba dynasty. He ruled from 435 CE to 455 CE.
➨ The southern peninsula was ruled by Pallavas, Pandyas, and Cholas.
➨ In the 7th century CE, the process of emergence of new power was different because 7th
century was the era of big warrior chiefs and landlords.
➨ The warrior chiefs and warlords were in powerful situation and existing kings acknowledged
them as Samantas. These landlords presented gifts to kings and provided necessary military
help when the kings needed.
➨ These Samantas were given rights by the king. After sometime, they gained power and wealth.
They became powerful and they adopted the title of Mahasamanta and Mahamandalesvara.
These titles refer to the great lord of the region.
➨ Rashtrakutas were the subordinates of the Chalukyas; however, in the mid of 8th century,
Rashtrakuta announced as independent state.
➨ The Rashtrakuta chief Dantidurga performed Hiranyagarbha ritual with the help of Brahmanas.
➨ Hiranyagarbha rituals believe in the rebirth of sacrificer as Kshatriya. This ritual was performed
by those peoples who were not Kshatriyas by birth.
➨ Kadamba Mayurasharma and Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra were Brahmanas. They gave up
their traditional profession and set themselves as a warrior. They established their kingdom in
Karnataka and Rajasthan.
➨ Ruler can only be a Kshatriya. If non-Kshatriya became the king, they have to perform some
religious rituals and then only their kingship get legitimation. Hiranyagarbha ritual was one

Unit I History | 67
of the ritual, which was performed by those who were not born as Kshatriyas. The legitimacy
depends on religious authority.
➨ Most of the kings adopted titles such as Maharaja, Maharajadhiraja, Vikramaditya,
Chakravarti Samrat. Most of the kings performed some religious ritual that were not only
related with the political supremacy but also they were related with religious legitimacy like
Ashvamedha Yagna.
➨ Samantas were the reality of this era. They were subordinates of these kings. Revenue was the
most important thing for the state to sustain. Revenue was collected by these big Samantas
from peasants, herders, artisans, and traders. The taxes were imposed by the king and there
are different types of taxes imposed by the king.
➨ Kadamai means land revenue.
➨ Prashastis was different form of inscription. They did not contain full details but they projected
the view of the kings. The prashastis were informative and contained the ideology of kings.
➨ Chola kingdom was the oldest kingdom in south India. From 2nd century BCE to 5th century
CE, they ruled as a powerful kingdom.
➨ Kanchi was also part of Chola kingdom, which is known as Cholamandalam.
➨ Chola king Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled it over almost 50 years.
➨ The most distinguished Chola king was Karikala. Karikala defeated Chera and Pandya kings
in the great battle of Venni near Tanjore. Karikala had a powerful navy and he conquered Sri
Lanka. He built 160-km long irrigation channel and all these led to the growth of agriculture,
craft, trade, and commerce.
➨ Karikala was a great patron of literature and promoted education.
➨ In 925 CE, Parantaka I conquered Sri Lanka., which was known as IIangai.
➨ Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola were the greatest rulers of the Chola dynasty.
➨ Chola king Rajendra I had good relations with other countries; for example, he sent diplomatic
mission to China in 1016 CE, 1035 CE, and 1077 CE. After Rajendra Chola, the Chola kings
ruled almost 200 years.
➨ Brihadeeswarar temple of Tanjore was built by Chola king Rajaraja Chola I in 1010 CE.
➨ Brihadeeswarar temple had a five-storey Gopuram. The main shikhar of the temple was mas-
sive in size; it was 60-m high with 16 complicatedly articulated stories. The main entrance of
Gopuram is built on exactly 30-m high.
➨ One of the finest examples of the Chola bronze work was Lord Nataraja’s dancing statue.
➨ Chola king called their kingdom Rajyam/Rastrayam. The Rajyam were divided into number of
subdivisions. These subdivisions were known as Mandalam.
➨ Mandalam means provinces. The main administrators in these mandalams were the close
relatives of the kings. Mostly, the important mandalams were under the control of Rajkumar
(prince) or the noble families. Vengi and Madura, two mandalams, were governed by the
Chola prince.
➨ The land of Chola empire was divided into many categories such as Brahmadeya, Vellanvagai,
Shalabhoga, Pallichchhandam, Devadana, and Tirunamattukkani.

➨ Brahmadeya lands were those village lands that were granted to Brahmanas by the king.
Because of these land grants, Brahmanas settled in large number in Kaveri valley.
➨ Vellanvagai lands were owned by the non-Brahmana peasants. Shalabhoga lands were
granted for school.
➨ Pallichchhandam lands are those lands that are donated to Jain institutions.
➨ Devadana and Tirunamattukkani lands were those lands that are granted for temples. Their
revenue was used in temple-related works.
➨ Mahasabha was an important institution of the Chola empire.
➨ From 750 CE to 1000 CE, three major powerful dynasties emerged in India: Gurjara-Pratihara
in the north India, Palas in the east India, and Rashtrakuta in the south India. Kanauj was the
centre of the powerful dynasty.
➨ In the end of 10th century, the ruler of Ghazni, (Afghanistan) Sultan Mahmud started to invade
in central Asia.
➨ Mahmud of Ghazni ruled from 997 CE to 1030 CE. He started a new trend of the war, war for
money.
➨ One of the notable scholars of Ghazni came to India with the Mahmud of Ghazni named
Al-Biruni. He was keenly interested in knowing about the Indian society. He wrote a book
named Kitab-al-Hind.
➨ In 1175 CE, Shihabuddin Muhammad Gori became the ruler of Ghur (Afghanistan).
➨ Kingdom of Ajmer became powerful under the rule of Prithviraj III. He was known as Prithviraj
Chauhan or Rai Pithora.
➨ In 1192 CE, first Battle of Taraori was fought between Prithviraj III and Muhammad Gori.
Gori was defeated by Prithviraj III. However, in the Second Battle of Taraori, Prithviraj III was
defeated by Gori.
Check Your Progress

1. What do you understand about change 5. Write a short notes on
and continuity? (a) Chola king Karikala
2. Explain the changes took place from 700 (b) Prithviraj III
CE to 1200 CE. Write a short note on tribe. (c) Mahmud of Ghazni
3. Explain the importance of temples in Chola (d) Mahasabha
empire.
4. Discuss the importance of Chola adminis-
tration to sustain the Chola empire.
Objective Questions
1. Kadamba Mayurasharma and Gurjara- (a) Kshatriya
Pratihara Harichandra were: (b) Vaishya

Unit I History | 69
(c) Shudra 8. Lands were owned by the non-Brahmana

(d) Brahmins peasants were called:
(a) Brahmadeya
2. Mahasabha was an important institution of:
(b) Vellanvagai,
(a) Chauhans
(c) Shalabhoga
(b) Gurjara-Pratihara
(d) Pallichchhandam
(c) Cholas
(d) Pandyas 9. Chalukyas began their rule in:
(a) Badami and Aihole
3. From 750 CE to 1000 CE, Gurjara-Pratihara
emerged in _____India. (b) Kanauj and Bundelkhand
(c) Kanchi and Mysore
(a) South
(d) None of these
(b) East
(c) Central 10. Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola were
(d) North the greatest rulers of the______ Chola
dynasty.
4. Brahmadeya lands were those village lands
(a) earliest
granted to:
(a) Kshatriyas (b) later
(c) middle
(b) Warrior lords
(c) Brahmanas (d) None of these
(d) Temples 11. Pallichchhandam lands were donated to
______ institutions.
5. Chola king called their kingdom as:
(a) Brahmana
(a) Kshetram
(b) Buddhist
(b) Mandalam
(c) Islamic
(c) Virayam
(d) Rajyam (d) Jains
12. Mandalam means:
6. Sri Lanka was known as:
(a) Ur
(a) Langai
(b) Nadu
(b) IIangai
(c) Nagaram
(c) Rangai
(d) Province
(d) Tangai
13. Mahmud of Ghazni ruled from:
7. Who conquered Sri Lanka?
(a) 980 CE to 1010 CE
(a) Mahmud of Ghazni
(b) 997 CE to 1030 CE
(b) Mahummad Gori
(c) 999 CE to 1020 CE
(c) Bhimdev
(d) None of these
(d) Parantaka I

14. Brihadeeswarar temple of Tanjore was (a) 1023 CE

built by Chola king named: (b) 1024 CE
(a) Rajaraja Chola I (c) 1025 CE
(b) Rajaraja Chola II (d) 1026 CE
(c) Rajaraja Chola III 21. The Rashtrakuta chief _______ performed
(d) Rajendra Chola I Hiranyagarbha ritual.
15. Vengi and Madura, two Mandalams, were (a) Dantidurga
governed by: (b) Krishna
(a) Brahmanas (c) Govind III
(b) Sabha (d) Dhruva
(c) Mahasabha 22. Valanadu or Kottam was subdivision of:
(d) None of these (a) Rajyam
16. Kadamai means: (b) Mandalam
(a) Land revenue (c) Nadu
(b) Land reserve (d) Nagaram
(c) Land refiles
23. The southern peninsula of Indian subconti-
(d) Land records nent was ruled by:
17. Brihadeeswarar temple had a five-storey: (a) Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala
(a) Shikhar kingdom
(b) Gatway (b) Pallava, Pandya, and Chola kingdom
(c) Gopuram (c) Ganga, Kadamba, and Chahamanas
(d) Statues kingdom
(d) None of these
18. Maharaja, Maharajadhiraja, Vikramaditya,
and Chakravartisamrat are: 24. Shihabuddin Muhammad Gori became the
(a) Administrative posts ruler of Ghur in:
(b) Name of Sabha (a) 1158 CE
(c) Name of Nadu (b) 1165 CE
(d) Titles (c) 1175 CE
(d) 1185 CE
19. Kitab-al-Hind was related to:
(a) Al-Kaluni 25. In the Battle of Kayadara, Muhammad Gori
(b) Al-Biruni was defeated by:
(c) Al- Nino (a) Prithviraj I
(d) Al-Capichino (b) Prithviraj II
(c) Prithviraj III
20. The famous Somanath temple was
(d) Bhimdev
attacked in:

Emergence of New CHAPTER
Power and Social

Change 6
LEARNING OBJECTIvES
• Understand the establishment of Delhi Sultanate
• Be aware of Sayyid and Lodhi sultans of Delhi
• Understand the emergence of empire of The Mughal empire
• Know the time period of Akbar, Humayun, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan
• Explore the social changes that took place during the new emerged powers
INTRODUCTION
In 1192 CE, the Second Battle of Tarain was the turning point in the Indian history. India had a
long history of foreign invaders; however, this time, India was invaded by new powerful rulers.
Most of the invaders came India and they merged with the Indian society. Even if we try to dif-
ferentiate between them, it is not possible. Muhammad Gori invaded and established his states
in India. Before Gori, Delhi was under Rajputs, Tomars, and Chauhans (Chahamanas) of Ajmer.
Chauhan king Prithviraj III was the last Chauhan ruler of Delhi. Delhi was located on the border
line of the Sindhu and Gangetic planes. Delhi controlled the large area of the north India. Many
rich Jain merchants lived in Delhi who constructed several temples. When the sultanate estab-
lished, they first established their capital in Lahore and later they shifted their capital to Delhi.
After becoming the capital of Sultanate, Delhi became continuous centre of power of Indian
subcontinent. Let us try to understand how these new powers established in India? Which type
of changes accrued in society?
ESTABLISHMENT OF DELHI SULTANATE

First, we need to understand what is the meaning of Sultanate? In Islamic world, kingdom was
known as Sultanate. After winning the Second Battle of Tarain, Muhammad Gori established his
rule in India. After 1192 CE, they continuously attacked north India. Muhammad Gori appointed
Qutbuddin Aibak as his representative in India. He was a Mamluk, which means slave in Arabic
language. In 1206 CE, Muhammad Gori was assassinated in Ghazni. Mamluk Qutbuddin Aibak

72 | Chapter 6 Emergence of New Power and Social Change
took over all the power and became the first sultan of Delhi. Aibak initiated the construction of
Qutub Minar, which was dedicated to famous Sufi saint Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiar Kaki. He
built two mosques: Adhai din ka Jhonpra in Ajmer and Quwwatul Islam Mosque in Mehrauli. The
literary meaning of Quwwatul Islam is Mighty of Islam. In 1210 CE, Aibak died and his son Aram
Shah became the sultan; however, in 1211 CE, Iltutmish assassinated him and became the sultan
of Delhi. Iltutmish was the son-in-law of Aibak. He finished the construction of Qutub Minar
and Quwwatul Islam mosque and built a reservoir in Mehrauli. This is known as Hauz-i-Shamsi.
Iltutmish divided his sultanate Iqta and official of Iqta was called Iqtadar. Iqta was the area
where the collected revenue were given as a salary for Iqtadar. He issued silver coins known as
Tanka and copper coins known as Jital. He formed the most famous and strongest group Turkan-
i-Chahalgani. This was constituted by 40 powerful Turkish nobles known as Chalisa. Iltutmish was
a very clever ruler, and his policies secured Delhi sultanate from Mongol leader Genghis Khan’s
attack. Iltutmish ruled from 1211 CE to 1236 CE.
After Iltutmish death, his daughter Raziya Sultana became the Sultan of Delhi. She was the
first and the last Muslim lady ruler in India. She had given charge of important office to Abyssinian
slave Jamaluddin Yakut. Her favour to the slave provoked other Turkish officers against him. She
was killed by his brother Bahram Shah. In 1266 CE, Ghiyas ud din Balban became the sultan of
Delhi. His real name was Bahruddin. He cursed the power of Turkan-i-Chahalgani. He faced con-
tinuous threat of Mongols and therefore, he established permanent military department known
as Diwan-i-Arz. He defeated Mongols and adopted a title Ulugh Khan. He died in 1286 CE.
Khilji Dynasty
Balban died in 1286 CE and conflict started between their Amirs. In 1290 CE, one of the Amir of
Balban, Jalal ud din Khilji became the successor of Balban. Jalal ud din Khilji was a weak ruler.
Mongols were continuously creating threat for Delhi sultanate but his policy against Mongols was
lenient. His nephew Ali Gurshap was not happy with his policies and in 1296 CE, he assassinated
his uncle. Juna Muhammad Khilji became the sultan of Delhi. He was as good as Alauddin Khilji.
He was the most powerful sultan of Delhi sultanate. He clearly separated his policies from religion.
He was aware of Mongol’s power, and therefore, he tried to establish permanent and strong army
for Mongols. For large standing army, he made many changes like he created new department for
revenue known as Diwan-i-Mustakhraj. This department was responsible for the enquiries about
the revenue areas and to collect revenues from them. He established another important depart-
ment. This was known as Diwan-i-Riyasat. Diwan-i-Riyasat had the responsibility to control price.
Diwan-i-Riyasat worked under Sara-i-Adl. This department fixed the prices and had strict surveil-
lance on the market and trade. They eliminated the middle man known as Dalal. He imposed 50%
agricultural production as a tax.
His standing army was one of his remarkable achievement. He reconstructed his army. His army
was based on Turkish model. He made divisions in his army and the lowest division of the army was
of decimal level. He was the first to recruit regular and permanent standing army in Indian history.

Unit I History | 73
PUNJAB
Delhi
13 N
01
03
99
02
13
13
12
-1
30
3
Ranthambhor
Chittor Kara
GUJARAT
Mandu BENGAL
Somanath 1305
96
12
Devagiri 13
11
ARABIAN BAY OF
AS
SEA BENGAL
AV
Warangal
1310-1311
D
S
YA
IYA
K AT
KA
HOY
Campaigns
SAL
Dwarasamudra
AS
13
11
Thanjavur
ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS
LAKSHADWEEP Madurai
PANDYAS
INDIAN OCEAN
Figure 6.1 Alauddin Khilji’s military campaigns in South Indian
He replaced poor quality horses with good quality imported horses from Central Asia and Persia.
Diwan-i-Arz was one department that maintained the soldier’s records. He introduced Dagh and
Chehra system. Dagh system was mainly related to horse. This was a practice of branding horses.
This practice was exercised to control corruption in army. Once a horse was branded, there was
no substitute for this horse and owner of the soldier was responsible for the maintenance of the
horse. Another system was Chehra system. In Chehra system, every detail of recruited soldiers were
recorded. These details were known as Huliya or Chehra. The Chehra record was maintained properly.

He paid salaries to his soldiers in cash. Alauddin Khilji expanded his sultanate. In his regime, he
fought many wars. The fort of Siri was built for his army. I think garrison town is a right word for
this fort. He fought four wars with Mongols and defeated them in all four wars. He won all the
battles of Jalandhar (1298 CE), Kili (1299 CE), Amroha (1305CE), and Ravi (1306 CE). He extended
his territories in the Indian subcontinent. He fought many wars such as Ranthambore (1296 CE),
Gujarat (1299 CE), Mewar (1303 CE), Jalore, and Devagiri (1306 CE–1307 CE). It was the most
remarkable military achievement of his military commander Malik Kafur. Malik Kafur fought many
wars in south India. Some of them were Devagiri and Baglana (1306 CE–1307 CE), Warangal
(1303), Dwarasamudra, Mabar, and Madurai. First time, the southern part of Indian Peninsula
came under sultanate in the rule of Alauddin Khilji. After Alauddin Khilji’s death, Qutb ud din
Mubarak Shah became the sultan of Delhi.
Tughlaq Dynasty
Khusrau Khan was last Khilji Sultan. In 1320 CE, Ghazni Malik became the sultan of Delhi. He was
the founder Tughlaq dynasty. He adopted the title Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. He found a new city
in Delhi known as Tughlaqabad. In 1325 CE, in an accident, Ghiyasuddin died. After his death,
Juna khan became the sultan of Delhi. He was well-known as Mohammad-bin Tughlaq. He was a
knowledgeable person of philosophy, logic, mathematics, and medicine. His regime was known
for experiment. He experimented with currency. He was the first ruler of the Indian history, who
introduced token. He introduced brass and copper coins as a token currency. His experiments
failed because of the forgery of coins. His second experiment was transferred to the capital. He
decided to transfer capital Delhi to Devagiri. He renamed Devagiri as Daulatabad. In his regime,
Mongols continuously attacked on Delhi. This was one of the reason for transferring the capital
from Delhi to Daulatabad. Another reason was that Daulatabad was located in the centre of
sultanate. For the administrative purpose, it was a good place for sultanate. He never built new
forts for army; when they vacated Delhi, he handed over it to his army. However, this decision
was unfortunate for him because Daulatabad was more hot place than Delhi, and after sometime,
he reverted his decision and transferred capital back to Delhi. He defeated the Mongols and was
confident about his military capabilities. He made a third mistake, when he planned to attacked
on Transoxiana. He increased his standing army. He failed in his plan and he faced heavy loss of
military because of the cold condition. After that loss in the end of his era, his policy became
his mistake. After loss of army and money, he decided to recover it by imposed tax on Doab
area. Due to his other imposed taxes in Doab, this time Daub faced famine. Peasants started to
revolt against these taxes, and then, he understood that his tax imposed policy was wrong. He
rolled back the tax policies and provided loan to peasants for their loss. During his regime, the
famous Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta visited India. His travelling account was known as Rihla.
His account gives us a different view about Mohammad-bin Tughlaq.
In 1351 CE, Mohammad-bin Tughlaq died. Firuz Shah Tughlaq became the sultan of Delhi. He
was religious person and became the sultan at the age of 45. When he became a sultan, he built

Unit I History | 75
a new city in Delhi that was Firozabad. He was the founder of some important cities of north
India: Fatehabad, Hisar, Firozpur, and Jaunpur. In 1368 CE, he rebuilt the two storeys of Qutub
Minar. These two storeys were damaged in lightening. This made biggest changes in Iqtadari
system and it became hereditary. This was the biggest mistake of Firoz Shah Tughlaq. After this
decision, Iqtadar became more powerful and Firoz Shah slowly lost his glory. He established a
department for poor and needy people that is known as Diwan-i-khairat. The department’s work
was to help poor and needy people. Another department was established by Firoz Shah Tughlaq
and he named the department of slaves as Diwan-i-Bandagan. It was an important department
because he had around 1,80,000 slaves in Delhi and those slaves were doing craft related work.
Diwan-i-Bandagan had the responsibility to take care of these slaves. Firoz Shah Tughlaq built
canals for irrigation. He built canals from Yamuna to the city of Hisar, Sutlej to the Ghaggar,
Ghaggar to Firuzabad, Mandvi and Sirmour Hills to Hansi (Haryana). These canals helped to
increase agricultural production in the surroundings of Delhi. He establish hospitals in Delhi.
These hospitals were known as Darul-Shifan, Bimaristan, or shifa-Khana. In the last years of his
regime, he faced rebellions in Bengal, Gujarat, and Warangal. In 1388 CE, Firuz Shah Tughlaq
died. Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah Tughlaq was the last ruler of Tughlaq dynasty.
Sayyid and Lodhi Sultans of Delhi

In 1398 CE, the Amir Timur of Chagtai invaded Delhi and Sultan Mahmud Shah Tughlaq fled out.
In 1414 CE, Khizr Khan claimed that he was the lieutenant of Timur and he was the nominee of
his territory. Khizr Khan became the sultan of Delhi. He was the founder of Sayyid dynasty. Sayyid
Sultans governed in limited area of surroundings of Delhi city. Other rulers of the Sayyid dynasty
were Mubarak Shah (1421 CE–1434 CE), Muhammad Shah (1434 CE–1443 CE), and Alam Shah
(1443 CE–1451 CE).
In 1451 CE, Afghan leader Bahlul Lodhi thrown Alam Shah and he became the sultan of Delhi.
Bahlul Lodhi found the Lodhi dynasty. Most of his time, he spent in fighting with Sharqi dynasty
and tried hard to re-conquer Jaunpur. In 1489, Bahlul Lodhi died and Nizam Khan became the
sultan of Delhi. He was the son of Bahlul Lodhi. He adopted the title Sikandar Shah. He found the
new city of Agra, and in 1504 CE, the capital of Sultanate transferred Delhi to Agra. He abolished
corn duties on trade. He patronised trade and commerce. He was a reputed poet and his pen
name was Gulruk. He was a patron of learning. He ordered to translate Sanskrit medicine works
into Persian. He controlled Afghan noble’s individualistic tendencies. He gave more emphasis on
accountability, and therefore, he ordered all nobles to compel their accounts and submitted to
state audit. His biggest achievement was conquest of Bihar. He introduced Gaz-i-Sikandari for
measuring the cultivated fields.
He died in 1517 CE. Ibrahim Lodhi became the Sultan of Delhi. He was an excellent warrior
but he was rash and impolitic in taking decisions and actions. He faced numerous rebellions from
1517 CE to 1526 CE. In 1526 CE, the first battle of Panipat was fought between Ibrahim Lodhi and
Babur. He was defeated by Babur and that was the end of the Delhi Sultanate.

Table 6.1 Sultans of Delhi
Name of dynasties and sultans of Delhi Time period

Mamluk dynasty 1206 CE–1290 CE
Qutbuddin Aibak 1206 CE–1210 CE
Shamsuddin Iltutmish 1210 CE–1236 CE
Raziya 1236 CE–1240 CE
Ghiyasuddin Balban 1240 CE–1287 CE
Khilji dynasty 1290 CE–1320 CE
Jalal ud din Khilji 1290 CE–1296 CE
Alauddin Khilji 1296 CE–1316 CE
Tughlaq dynasty 1320 CE–1414 CE
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq 1320 CE–1324 CE
Muhammad-bin Tughlaq 1324 CE–1351 CE
Firuz Shah Tughlaq 1351 CE–1388 CE
Sayyid dynasty 1414 CE–1451 CE
Khizr Khan 1414 CE–1421 CE
Lodhi dynasty 1451 CE–1526 CE
Bahlul Lodhi 1451 CE–1489 CE
Sikandar Lodhi 1489 CE–1517 CE
Ibrahim Lodhi 1517 CE–1526 CE
Source: NCERT Textbook, Class VII, Our Past II, chapter 3, The Delhi Sultans, pp:31
SOURCE OF DELHI SULTANATE

The Turkish ruler came India with a new tradition of history writing. This new type of history
writing was totally different from the previous history writing. Indian history writing tradition
was based on notion of four Yugas and these Yugas were based on the circular rotating sys-
tem. However, the Muslim tradition of history was different from the Indian tradition of his-
tory writing. Muslims used linear form of history writing. This new type of history writing was
called Tarikh/Tawarikh. The Tawarikh was written by learned men such as secretaries, admin-
istrators, poets, courtiers, and independent people. These persons were mostly those people
who were part of administration or related to sultans. When we used these Tawarikh accounts,
we must know one thing that most of these people were settled in the cities, and they were
hardly from villages; therefore, their accounts basically give the urban life insight. Most of these
people were directly or indirectly related to administration, and therefore, we have to be aware
that they may given us biased view. Some of those may be prejudiced. However, there is no
doubt that Tawarikh was a good source to understand history of the Delhi sultans. Some of
these Tawarikhs gave administrative advices for the ruler. These Tawarikhs were good source to
understand about a ruler; for example, Minhaj-i-Siraj’s chronicles gave full details about Raziya

Unit I History | 77
Sultan and he emphasised that Raziya was more capable and suitable candidate of Sultan than
his brothers. Another important Tawarikh was Ziauddin Barani’s Tarikh-i-FirozShahi. His Tarikh-
i-FirozShahi is a good source to understand the regime of Tughlaq sultans. These Tawarikhs
were written in Persian language. Persian language was the administrative language of the
Delhi sultans.
EMERGENCE OF EMPIRE: THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

The First Battle of Panipat was fought between Ibrahim Lodhi and Zahir ud din Muhammad
Babur. Babur won this battle, and with this victory, he decided to settle in India. Babur and
his successor were known as Mughals. Who are Mughals? Well, Mughals themselves represent
progeny of Genghis Khan and Timur. Baburnama was the biography of Mughal emperor Babur.
In Baburnama, Babur mentions that his mother was a descendant of Mongol leader Genghis
Khan. He died in 1227 CE. His father was a descendant of progeny of Amir Timur. Mughals never
identified them Mongols/Mughals because they never wanted themselves to be associated with
Genghis Khan’s massacre of uncountable people. They called themselves Uzbeks who were com-
petitors of Mongols in Central Asia. The Mughals wanted to settle in India. Let us understand their
journey to become the powerful rulers in the Indian subcontinent.
Babur (1526 CE–1530 CE)

Babur was the founder of Mughal empire in India. In 1504 CE, he captured Kabul and became
Ameer of Kabul. Ameer means king. However, it was temporary settlement of Babur. In 1525
CE, he started campaigns in India. In 1526 CE, in the First Battle of Panipat, he defeated the
Lodhi sultan Ibrahim Lodhi. He became the first Mughal king of Delhi sultanate. Agra became his
capital. After he captured Delhi, his problem was not solved because he faced continuous threat
from Rajput ruler. In the Battle of Khanwa (1528 CE), he defeated Rana Sanga. In the Battle of
Chanderi (1528 CE), he defeated Rajputs and established his strong hold on Delhi and Agra. In
1530 CE, Babur died. His son Humayun became the king after his death.
Humayun (1530 CE–1540 CE, 1555 CE–1556 CE)

In 1530 CE, Humayun became the ruler of Mughal kingdom, but he did one big mistake of his
life. According to his father’s will, the kingdom was equally divided among his brother. Afghans
continuously created problem for Humayun in Afghanistan. His brother Mirza Kamran weakened
his cause against the Afghan competitors. Sher Khan was taking advantage and rebelled against
Humayun. In the Battle of Chausa in 1539 CE and Battle of Kanauj in 1540 CE, Sher Khan
defeated Humayun repeatedly and he forced Humayun to leave for Iran. After 15 years of exile,
he re-conquered Delhi in 1555 CE with the help of Iranian Badshah Safavid Shah. In 1556 CE,
Humayun died in accident. After his death, at the age of 13, Akbar became the Mughal Badshah.

Akbar (1556 CE–1605 CE)

In 1556 CE, at the age of 13, Akbar became the Badshah of Mughal kingdom. Historian divided
his regime into three parts: (i) 1156 CE–1570 CE, (ii) 1570 CE–1585 CE, and (iii) 1585 CE–1605
CE. In the first part of his regime, he was only 13 years old. Bairam Khan was his political guard-
ian. In this period, he became independent from the influence of Bairam Khan and other family
members. He started matrimonial relationships with Rajputs. In 1562 CE, he married with the
daughter of Amber king. This was the start of a strong political alliance with Rajputs. Afghans cre-
ated problems for him with help of Mirza Hakim and the Uzbek Amirs. He revolted against Akbar.
However, Akbar suppressed his revolt. In 1562 CE, Akbar abolished pilgrim taz on Hindu Shrine.
Kabul
Srinagar
KASHMIR N
1586
Qandahar Lahore
PUNJAB
Panipat
Delhi
Amber Mathura
Agra
Ajmer Fatehpur Sikri
SIND
Allahabad
Chittor Ranthambhor
Patna
1568 1569
1574
MALWA BENGAL
GUJARAT
1561 1574
1572
GONDWANA
ORISSA
BERAR
AHMADNAGAR
ARABIAN BAY OF
SEA BENGAL
BIJAPUR GOLCUNDA
1685 1687
Figure 6.2 Mughal Empire under Akbar in 1605 CE

Unit I History | 79
In 1564 CE, he ordered to end the Jizya taxes on non-Muslims. In 1568 CE, he seized Chittorgarh,
the capital of Sisodiya’s dynasty. In 1569 CE, he seized Ranthambore. Sisodiya and Ranthambore
were powerful Rajput families. In 1571, he built a new city and this city was known as Sikri.
In 1570 CE, Akbar started discussion on religious issues with Ulamas, Brahmanas, Jesuit priests,
and Zoroastrians in Fatehpur Sikri. These discussions happened in Ibadat Khana. During of these
discussions, Akbar had developed the idea of universal peace. This idea was known as Sulh-i-kul.
During 1570 CE–1585 CE, Akbar organised successful military campaigns in Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal,
and Orissa. During 1585 CE–1605 CE, Akbar extended his empire Qandahar in north-west, Berar,
Khandesh, and Ahmednagar in South. In his last day of regime, he faced rebellion of Salim. Salim was
known as Jahangir. In 1605 CE, Akbar died and Jahangir became the Badshah of Mughal empire.
Jahangir (1605 CE–1627 CE)

During the regime of Jahangir, the military campaigns were continuing. The Mewar accepted
Mughal service. However, he was less successful against Sikhs, Ahoms, and Ahmednagar rul-
ers. He continued his father’s Sulh-i-kul policies and continued marital relationship with Rajputs.
Jahangir was well-known for justice. During his era, Nur Jahan became powerful and she was
the one of the influential person of the Mughal court. Jahangir was a great admirer of paintings.
Govardhan, Ustad Mushifiq, Kamal, and Fazl were known painters of Mughal court. Jahangir
developed some beautiful gardens such as Nishat Bagh, Chashma Shahi, Pari Mahal, Achabal
Gardens, and Verinag Bagh. In last days of his regime, his son Khurram rebelled against him. After
his death, Khurram became the Badshah. He was well-known as Shah Jahan.
Shah Jahan (1627 CE–1658 CE)

Shah Jahan became the Badshah in 1627 CE. He continued his campaigns in Deccan. In his
regime, regional powers started rebelling against Mughal power such as Khan Jahan Lodhi,
Ahmednagar, Bundelas, and Orchha. He defeated Khan Jahan Lodhi and launched campaigns
against Ahmednagar and Bundelas. He seized Orchha successfully but he lost north-west part of
the Indian subcontinent. He tried to seize Balkh but Uzbek successfully defended. Safavids con-
quered Qandahar. He built some most beautiful buildings in his regime such as Lal Qila (Delhi),
Jama Masjid (Delhi), Taj Mahal (Agra), and Tomb of Jahangir (Lahore). In 1632 CE, he finally
annexed Ahmednagar. In the last days of his regime, the war of succession was stated amongst
his four sons. Aurangzeb defeated his three brothers and killed them. Aurangzeb captured Shah
Jahan and jailed him in the fort of Agra.
Aurangzeb (1658 CE–1707 CE)

Aurangzeb won the war of succession and became the Badshah of Mughal empire. Aurangzeb
regime was full of rebellions. In north-east, Ahoms rebelled against Mughal empire. Aurangzeb

successfully defeated Ahoms in 1663 CE; however, in 1680 CE, they rebelled again. In north-
west Yusufzai became powerful and rebelled against Mughals. In Punjab, Sikhs rebelled against
Mughal Subahdar. Aurangzeb started campaign against them but he won temporarily against
them. Mughals were intervened in internal politics of Rathore clan of Rajputs of Marwar. Their
intervention provoked Marwar and they rebelled against Mughal empire. Shivaji, the Maratha
leader, was insulted by Aurangzeb in his court. Shivaji declared himself independent. He started
attacks on Mughals. Prince Akbar rebelled against Aurangzeb with the help of Deccan sultans and
Marathas. Aurangzeb sent his army against Deccan sultan. In 1685 CE, he conquered Bijapur, and
in 1687 CE, he conquered Golkonda. In 1698 CE, Aurangzeb personally involved in the campaign
against Marathas. Once, when he was engaged in the south, rebellions started in the north. Jats,
Sikhs, and Satnamis were the main rebellions in the north, and Ahoms started rebellion in north
east. He was continuously struggling against the rebellion and died in 1707 CE. In his regime, first
time southern part of Indian subcontinent came under Mughal empire. After his death, the war
of succession started amongst of his sons.
Table 6.2 Mughal Badshahs
Name of Mughal Badshah His regime

Babur 1526 CE–1530 CE
Humayun 1530 CE–1540 CE
1555 CE–1556 CE
Akbar 1556 CE–1605 CE
Jahangir 1605 CE–1627 CE
Shah Jahan 1627 CE–1658 CE
Aurangzeb 1658 CE–1707 CE
Source: NCERT textbook, Class VII, Our Past II, Chapter 4, The Creation of an Empire:
the Mughal Dynasty, pp. 54
MUGHAL EMPIRE ADMINISTRATION: ACCORDING TO AIN-I-AKBARI

The best source of Akbar’s policies was Akbar Nama. Akbar Nama was written by Abul Fazl.
Akbar Nama’s last volume was known as Ain-i-Akbari. In Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl gives the details
of Akbar policies and his administration. He explained that the empire was divided into subparts,
which they called them Subah and the administrator of Subah was called Subhedar. Subhedar
had political and military rights of the Subah. In every Subah, they had a finance minister known
as Diwan. It was Subehdar’s duty to maintain peace in province. To maintain law and order
in province, some officials helped them. These official are Bakshi (military paymaster), Sadr
(in charge of religious and charitable issues), Faujdar (military commanders), and Kotwal (town
police commander).
Akbar had a large army. He reformed not only his administration but also his military structure.
In Mughal army, different regional groups were recruited on large scale. They had no limitation

Unit I History | 81
on Turani nobles and included other groups such as Indian Muslims, Iranians, Afghans, Rajputs,
Marathas, and other regional groups. This process not only changed the warfare tradition but also
triggered social changes. They created an open market of professional warriors. Before Mughals,
the professional warriors were only Kshatriyas but Mughals opened it for all others and they
recruited soldiers without any discrimination.
He introduced new system in military known as Mansabdar. First, we have to understand what
is Mansabdari system. Every Mansabdar hold a Mansab meaning rank or position. The Mansab
includes three things: rank, salary, and military responsibility of Mansabdar. Rank and salary were
represented by Zat. The Zat defined the status of Mansabdar. If someone had high Zat means,
the noble had prestigious position in the court and had a large salary. In the regime of Akbar,
the highest Zat was 5000 and their number was 24; however, in the regime of Aurangzeb, it
was increased up to 79. The Mansabdar had military responsibility. Every Mansabdar required
maintaining specific number cavalryman. These cavalrymen called Sawar. The cavalrymen were
reviewed by the military officials from time to time and maintained their record. For their salary,
the Mughal administration had given them the right to collect revenue on particular areas. These
allotted areas are known as Jagirs. Mansabdar administered these Jagirs with the help of Muqtis.
These Jagirs were not permanent and the post of Jagirdars was a transferrable post. They can be
posted anywhere in the empire. In the regime of Akbar, the distribution of Jagirs was carefully
done and the Jagir revenue was equal to the salary of Mansabdar. In the last years of the regime
of Aurangzeb, situation changed. The actual revenue collection was less than granted sum. The
number of Mansabdars was increased dramatically. This difference created economic crisis in
Mughal empire, which is well-known as Jagirdari crisis.
Revenue was the main source of income of the Mughal empire. Agricultural production was
main source of revenue. The Mughals collected this revenue by both ways: cash and crops.
Mughals collected revenue from the rural elites. These elites were the headmen or local chief-
tains. Mughal chronicles used Zamindar word for those chieftains. Todar Mal was the revenue
minister of Akbar. Historian gives credit to Todar Mal to organise the revenue system. He carried
out surveys of cultivation. He collected the accounts of crop prices of the last 10 years. The tax
was fixed for each crop and collected in cash. The revenue system was known as Zabt. In some
areas, the Zamindar carried out influential political status. Basically, these Zamindars and peasants
were of same caste. In seventeenth century, these same caste peasants and Zamindari were allied
and rebelled against Mughal authority.
SOCIAL CHANGES DURING THE NEW EMERGED POWERS

Under the regime of Delhi sultanate and the Mughal dynasty, there occurred a social change. First,
the new ruling dynasties happened and were different from the previous ruling regimes. In dif-
ferent times, different tribes invaded in India, and after sometime, they merged themselves with
the Indian society. When the Turkish came in India, they brought their religion. They came with

a special identity and established their new state. They came and destroyed power symbols of
the existing political power. They did not need Brahmans favour for their state. This was the first
time that no importance was given for Brahmans in the state formation. The language of ruling
administration was changed. Further, Persian was the language of administration. Some section
of societies learned the new language and became a part of administrative, such as Khatris and
Kayastha. In the old system of governance, Brahmans were given more importance because they
had power to legitimise the ruler and they had command on language. Another important change
that happened in Indian society was in the military culture of Indian society. The kushti culture
of Mongol gave opportunity to other section of the society to become a part of army. Mughal
recruited soldiers without any discrimination; however, in old regime, only Kshatriyas had the
right to become a warrior. The Delhi sultans and Mughals built strong standing army, which pro-
vide permanent employment for the peasant class. This degrade the dominance of the Kshatriya
and a new class of war lords emerged in India.
Another important social change that happened because of Sufi and Bhakti movement. During
the period of 1200 CE to 1500 CE, Sufi saints were spread all over India. An Abul Fazl account gives
the detailed information about the Sufi saints. According to him, Sufis in India were divided into
14 different orders. Some of the important Sufis were Chishti, Naqshbandi, Qadiri, Suhrawardi,
Qalandaria, and Shattari.
The Chishti order was the oldest Sufi order in India. Khwaja Abdul Chishti of Herat was
the founder of Chishti order. Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti was the founder of Chishti order
in India. He was the most famous Sufi saint among Hindus and Muslims. Other famous Sufi
saints of Chishti were Shaikh Hamiduddin, Sheikh Qutubuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, Sheikh Fariduddin
MasudGanj-i-Shakar, and Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya. Shaikh NizamuddinAuliya principles were
based on love and humanity. He denied the royal patronage. Another great Chishti Sufi was
Shaikh Nasiruddin Mahmud. Nasiruddin Mahmud avoided the kings and their patronage. The
Chishti Sufis lived simple life. Their simplicity attracted the mass level of non-Muslims. They made
base of coexistence of all religions. They played important role to develop communal harmony.
The movement that created big social change was bhakti movement. Well, bhakti tradition
was different in different times but bhakti movement of 15th and 16th century was different from
the previous bhakti movements. This movement was known as Nirguna bhakti. The well-known
saints of Nirguna bhakti were Kabir, Guru Nanak, Raidas, Sena, Dhanna, Sadhana, Narahari, and
Dadu Dayal. These saints belong to different caste and most of them were non-Brahmans. Kabir
was one of the saint who clearly denied the Brahmana rituals. He strongly criticised the caste sys-
tem. He promoted monotheistic view. Another monotheistic saint was Guru Nanak. Monotheistic
saints started monotheistic movement. This movement triggered the social changes in Indian
society, especially in north India. This movement was attracting mass population of that time. This
movement was important because it was not promoting any religion but they promoted social
change. They promoted equality. Guru Nanak’s teaching was promoting a monotheists move-
ment in Punjab and later it takes shape of a religion. This new religion was later known as Sikhism.
This movement began a social change.

Unit I History | 83

➨ In 1192 CE, the Second Battle of Tarain was the turning point in the Indian history.
➨ Before Gorin came to Delhi, Delhi was under the Rajput rulers, Tomar and Chauhans
(Chahamanas) of Ajmer.
➨ Chauhan king Prithviraj III was the last Chauhan ruler of Delhi.
➨ When the sultanate established, they first established their capital in Lahore but later they
shifted their capital to Delhi.
➨ After the victory of the Second Battle of Tarain, Muhammad Gori established his rule in
India.
➨ Mamluk is an Arabic word, which means slave.
➨ Aibak initiated the construction of Qutub Minar and it was dedicated to famous Sufi saint
Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiar Kaki.
➨ Qutubuddin Aibak built two mosques: Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra in Ajmer and Quwwatul Islam
mosque in Mehrauli.
➨ The literary meaning of Quwwatul Islam is Mighty of Islam.
➨ Qutubuddin Aibak died in 1210 CE.
➨ Iltutmish became the sultan of Delhi in 1211 CE.
➨ In 1210 CE, Aibak died and his son Aram Shah became the sultan; however, in 1211 CE,
Iltutmish assassinated him and became the sultan of Delhi.
➨ He finished the construction of Qutub Minar and Quwwatul Islam mosque and built a reservoir
in Mehrauli. This known as Hauz-i-Shamsi.
➨ He issued silver coins known as Tanka and copper coins known as Jital.
➨ He formed the most famous and strongest group Turkan-i-Chahalgani. This was constituted by
40 powerful Turkish nobles who were known as Chalisa.
➨ After Iltutmish death, his daughter Raziya Sultana became the Sultan of Delhi. She was the first
and the last Muslim lady ruler in India.
➨ Raziya had given charge of important office to Abyssinian slave Jamaluddin Yakut.
➨ In 1266 CE, Ghiyas ud din Balban became the sultan of Delhi. His real name was Bahruddin.
He cursed the power of Turkan-i-Chahalgani. He faced continuous threat of Mongols, and
therefore, he established permanent military department known as Diwan-i-Arz. He defeated
Mongols and adopted a title Ulugh Khan. He died in 1286 CE.
➨ Alauddin Khilji created a new department for revenue known as Diwan-i-Mustakhraj.
➨ Diwan-i-Riyasat had the responsibility to control price.
➨ Diwan-i-Riyasat worked under SaraeAdl.
➨ Alauddin Khilji imposed 50% agricultural production as a tax.
➨ Diwan-i-Arz was the one department that maintained the soldier’s records.
➨ He introduced Dagh and Chehra system.
➨ Dagh system mainly related to horse. This was a practice in which horses are branding.

➨ In Chehra system, the details of every recruited soldiers were recorded. These details were
known as Huliya or Chehra.
➨ He fought four wars with Mongols and defeated them in all four wars. He won all the battles
of Jalandhar (1298 CE), Kili (1299 CE), Amroha (1305 CE), and Ravi (1306 CE).
➨ After Alauddin Khilji’s death, Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah became the sultan of Delhi.
➨ In 1320 CE, Ghazni Malik became the sultan of Delhi. He was the founder Tughlaq dynasty. He
adopted the title Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
➨ After his death, Juna khan became the sultan of Delhi. He was well-known as Mohammad-bin
Tughlaq.
➨ During his regime, the famous Morocco traveller Ibn Battuta visited India. His travelling account
is known as Rihla.
➨ In 1351 CE, Mohammad-bin Tughlaq died. Firuz Shah Tughlaq became the sultan of Delhi.
➨ Firuz Shah Tughlaq found the Fatehabad, Hisar, Firozpur, and Jaunpur cities.
➨ In 1368 CE, Firuz Shah Tughlaq rebuilt the two storeys of Qutub Minar.
➨ Under the rule of Firuz shah Tughlaq, Iqtadari system became hereditary.
➨ Department of slaves known as Diwan-i-Bandagan was established by Firuz Shah Tughlaq.
➨ He established hospitals in Delhi. These hospitals were known as Darul-Shifan, Bimaristan or
shifa-Khana.
➨ In 1398 CE, the Amir Timur of Chagtai invaded Delhi and Sultan Mahmud Shah Tughlaq fled
out.
➨ Sikandar Lodhi introduced Gaz-i-Sikandari for measuring the cultivated fields.
➨ In 1526 CE, the First Battle of Panipat was fought between Ibrahim Lodhi and Babur. He
defeated by Babur and that was the end of the Delhi Sultanate.
➨ These writings of histories were called Tarikh/Tawarikh. The Tawarikh was written by learned
men such as secretaries, administrators, poets, courtiers, and independent people.
➨ Minhaj-i-Siraj’s chronicles gave full details about Raziya Sultan and he emphasised that Raziya
was more capable and suitable candidate of Sultan than her brothers.
➨ Mughals themselves represent progeny of Genghis Khan and Timur. Baburnama was the biog-
raphy of Mughal emperor Babur.
➨ Babur mentions that his mother was a descendant of Mongol leader Genghis Khan. He died in
1227 CE. His father was a descendant of Amir Timur.
➨ Mughal called themselves Uzbeks. Uzbeks were competitors of Mongols in the Central Asia.
➨ In the Battle of Khanwa on 1528, Akbar defeated Rana Sanga.
➨ In the Battle of Chausa on 1539 CE and battle of Kannauj on 1540 CE, Sher Khan defeated
Humayun back to back.
➨ Akbar had developed the idea of universal peace. This idea was known as Sulh-i-kul.
➨ The administrator of Subah was called Subhedar. Subhedar had political and military rights of
the Subah.
➨ In every Subah, they had a finance minister known as Diwan.
➨ Mansabdar administered Jagirs with the help of Muqtis Mansabdar who hold a Mansab.

Unit I History | 85
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Discuss the establishment of Delhi sultan- 3. Discuss the Mughal empire under Akbar.
ate and its challenges. 4. Write a short note on
2. Explain the social change during the emer- (a) Mansabdari system
gence of new power with special reference (b) Jagirdari system
of Delhi sultanate and Mughal empire. (c) Iqtadari system
Objective Questions
1. The Second Battle of Tarain was fought in: 6. The literary meaning of Quwwatul Islam is:
(a) 1192 CE (a) Mighty of Islam
(b) 1193 CE (b) Mighty of Imam
(c) 1292 CE (c) Mighty of Ismail
(d) 1092 CE (d) Mighty of Iman
2. Chauhan king ________was the last 7. Qutb ud din Aibak died in:
Chauhan ruler of Delhi. (a) 1010 CE
(a) Prithviraj I (b) 1110 CE
(b) Prithviraj II (c) 1210 CE
(c) Prithviraj III (d) 1310 CE
(d) Prithviraj IV 8. Aram Shah was assassinated by:
3. The first capital of Delhi Sultanate was: (a) Aibak
(a) Delhi (b) Raziya
(b) Mewar (c) Balban
(c) Lahore (d) Iltutmish.
(d) Chittorgarh 9. Who formed the most famous and strong-
4. Mamluk word is related to: est group Turkan-i-Chahalgani?
(a) Hindi language (a) Balban
(b) Sanskrit language (b) Aibak
(c) Urdu language (c) Gori
(d) Arabic language (d) Iltutmish
5. Who initiated to build Qutub Minar? 10. Diwan-i-Riyasat worked under:
(a) Iltutmish (a) Faujdar
(b) Alauddin Khilji (b) Subhedar
(c) Balban (c) Mansabdar
(d) Qutb ud din Aibak (d) SaraeAdl.

11. Alauddin Khilji was imposed ________agri- (c) Military paymaster

cultural production as a tax. (d) Military soldier
(a) 20% 18. Mughals called themselves:
(b) 30% (a) Turanians
(c) 40% (b) Iranians
(d) 50% (c) Afghanis
12. Who introduced the system of Dagh and (d) Uzbeks
Chehra? 19. Diwan-i-Arz was related to:
(a) Jalal ud din Khilji (a) Bazar
(b) Balban (b) Price control
(c) Raziya Sultan (c) Birth control
(d) Alauddin Khilji (d) Military
13. Who introduced the Iqtadari system in India? 20. Qutub Minar was dedicated to famous Sufi
(a) Aibak
saint:
(b) Muhammad Tughlaq (a) Sheikh Hamiduddin
(c) Alauddin Khilji
(b) Sheikh Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki
(d) Iltutmish (c) Sheikh Fariduddin Masud Ganj-i-Shakar
14. Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah was related to: (d) Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya
(a) Mamluk dynasty
21. Turkan-i-Chahalgani means:
(b) Khilji dynasty (a) Group of 40 Turkish nobles
(c) Mughal dynasty (b) Group of 40 Afghan nobles
(d) Lodhi dynasty (c) Group of 40 Iranian nobles
15. Ghazni Malik was known as: (d) Group of 40 Hindustani nobles
(a) Sikandar 22. Uzbeks were competitors of Mongol’s in:
(b) Juna khan (a) Middle East Asia
(c) Bahruddin (b) North Asia
(d) Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (c) Central Asia
16. Ziauddin Barani’s account of history was (d) South Asia
known as: 23. Who was the founder of Diwan-i-Bandagan?
(a) Tarikh-i-Shahi (a) Iltutmish
(b) Tarikh-i-Akbari (b) Jalaluddin Khilji
(c) Tarikh-i-FirozShahi (c) Alauddin Khilji
(d) Tarikh-i-Tughlaq (d) Firuz Shah Tughlaq
17. Bakshi was a: 24. What is Mansab?
(a) Military commander (a) Faujdar or governor
(b) Bazar controller (b) Mansabdar or governor

Unit I History | 87
(c) Jagirdar or governor (c) Military commander

(d) Rank or position (d) Town police commande
25. Kotwal was:
(a) Providence commander
(b) Village commander

CHAPTER
Era of Rapid Changes 7

LEARNING OBJECTIvES
• Understand the changes happened in empires
• Explore the raising of local and economic powers such as Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad, Mysore,
and Maratha kingdom
• Be aware of the origin and decline of various Mansabdars, Subahdars, Jats, and Sikhs as a
strong power
• Know the entry of Portugal and Britishers in India and development and decline of their empires
• Identify the development of the empire of East India Company and later how it had been taken
over by British political powers
MUGHAL EMPIRE
Mughal empire was the greatest empire of its time but it started declining in the first half of 18th
century. There are many reasons behind this declination. Few reasons are rise of new powers,
European entry in Indian subcontinent, policies of Aurangzeb, and attacks of Middle eastern powers.
We can understand the reasons of declination of Mughal empire in few points:
1. Aurangzeb’s religious policy, and imposition of Jajiya on the basis of religion.

2. The south policy of Aurangzeb also enriched his power in the South and almost forgot the
northern part of his empire.
3. Corruption in military administration.
4. Selfishness of Mansabdars of Mughal empire.
5. Jats’ and Rajputs’ revolts during the period of Aurangzeb.
6. Over ambitiousness of Aurangzeb.
7. Rise of Maratha power.
8. Exploitative Jagirdari system.
9. Inner conflict of Mughal nobles: Turanians, Iranians, Afghans, and Indians.
10. Entry of European powers.

Unit I History | 89
After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal empire became very unstable. Due to the instability
of central power, a chain of changes started. These changes were rapid in nature. As we know
power has direct relationship with political structures and economic system, and if there is a slight
change in the power, some changes will surely be observed in politics and economics. When
the Mughal empire was falling towards its declination, the Indian sub-continent was also going
through some rapid changes. The main reason for these changes was the new raising of local and
economic powers. Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad, Mysore, and Maratha kingdom became the new
centres of powers.
Lahore
SIKHS
Panipat
Delhi
TS
JA Bharatpur A W A D H
Jaipur Agra Lucknow
Jodhpur
Gwalior
Murshidabad
GUJARAT MALWA
BENGAL
Bhopal
Baroda
S
A
H
Poona
T
A
ARABIAN BAY OF
R
SEA BENGAL
A
Hyderabad
D
M
A
B
A
R
External Boundary of
E
D
the Mughal Empire, 1700

Y
H
INDIAN OCEAN
Figure 7.1 External boundary of the Mughal Empire 1700 and

raising of new powers

90 | Chapter 7 Era of Rapid Changes
Bengal
Due to delineation of central powers, Murshid Quli Khan and Alivardi khan made Bengal free
from central Mughal empire. Murshid Quli khan was appointed as Nawab (deputy governor) of
Bengal. Although it was not that powerful post but Murshid Quail khan did thing very fast in
effective manner to control the total power of Bengal. He was on the footsteps of Awadh ruler.
He decreased the Jagirdars appointed by Mughal emperor. In order to reduce Mughal interven-
tion in Bengal administration, he transferred all Mughal Jagirdars to Orissa. He made major raise
in revenues of Bengal in order to reduce power of zamindars. Due to high revenue rates, small
zamindars came into debt and only bigger zamindars remained powerful. The formation of a
regional state in 18th century of Bengal led to considerable change amongst the zamindars.
The close connection between the state and bankers – noticeable in Hyderabad and Awadh as
well – was evident in Bengal under the rule of Alivardi Khan (r. 1740–1756). During his reign,
the banking house of Jagat Seth became extremely prosperous (NCERT textbook, Our Pasts II,
Chapter 10, pp. 145)
Hyderabad
Nizam-ul-Mulk (Asal Jah) was the founder of Hyderabad state. He was also a powerful member
of the court of Mughal emperor. Due to his powerful status in the emperor court, he got some
very important responsibilities. First, he got governorship of Awadh, then later he was given
Governorship of Deccan. This governorship made Asal Jah more powerful. Within very little time,
he got full control over the political and financial administration and became the actual ruler of
Deccan provinces. He made many changes in the administration of Deccan with permission of
Mughal emperor. He was very impressed by the skilled soldiers and administrators of north India;
therefore, he brought some of them to Deccan. The appointment of Mansabdars and grant them
Jagirs are one of the independent decision of Asal Jah.
Awadh
Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa’adat Khan was the founder of Awadh state. He was appointed as a Subahdar
of Awadh in 1724 but in very little time, he controlled the administration of Awadh. Awadh was
a very important region because it was situated in the middle of north India and Bengal trade
route. Apart from the responsibility as Subahdar, he also had responsibilities of financial and mili-
tary affairs of the Awadh province. As he was getting total control over Awadh, he has started
reducing Mughals appointed officers from the province. There was a managed way to control
financial administration in Awadh state. “The state depended on local bankers and Mahajans for
loans. It sold the right to collect tax to the highest bidders. These ‘revenue farmers’ (ijaradars)
agreed to pay the state a fixed sum of money. Local bankers guaranteed the payment of this con-
tracted amount to the state. In turn, the revenue-farmers were given considerable freedom in the

Unit I History | 91
assessment and collection of taxes. These developments allowed new social groups, such as mon-
eylenders and bankers, to influence the management of the state’s revenue system, something
that had not occurred in the past.”(NCERT, class textbook – our pasts II, page 144, chapter -10)
Mysore
During the delineation of Mughal empire, the region of Mysore raised as a powerful state of
south. Hyder Ali was the person in which Mysore got that powerful emergence. Hyder Ali was
born in an obscure family. In his early life, he started his career with a job in army. He was a petty
officer there. However, because of his intelligence, political strategies, determination and ability
to catch the opportunities, he become very powerful administrator of Mysore in 1771 to over
through Nanjaraja. To get full control over Mysore, he started reducing the power of rebellious
zamindars. He started to overtake the power of Bindur, Sunda, Sera, Canara, and Malabar. During
his entire political career, he was fully engaged in different wars. He fought with Maratha Sardars,
Nizams, and the British army. After his death in second Anglo-Mysore war (1782), his son Tipu
Sultan became the administrator of Mysore. He was a different type of ruler. He made some major
changes in Mysore during his time. He introduced a new calendar, new coinage system, and new
scales of weights and measures.
EMERGENCE OF NEW POWERS

Rajput
When the Mughal empire was on its peak, many Rajput kings were under the Mughal empire with
a little autonomy of their Watan Jagirs. They were allowed to enjoy their kingdoms but under
Mughal emperor. With the declination of Mughal empire, these Rajput kings attempted to take
full control over their regions. In these processes, the role of Ajit Singh (king of Jodhpur) was very
vital. He had the powerful effect in Mughal court and he tried to get profit from it. At that time,
the province of Gujarat and Malwa was very rich. Due to their richness, all the powerful Rajput
kings started claiming the Subahdar of that province. After the very hard work and strong political
strategies, Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur got the governorship of Gujarat and Sawai Raja Jai Singh of
Amber got the governorship of Malwa.
Maratha Kingdom
When Mughal empire was falling down, a new power, the Maratha kingdom, was rising. It was
very powerful kingdom in comparison to others. It was the only powerful kingdom of that time
that could fulfil the emptiness created by the declination of Mughal empire. It is important to
know that Mughal declination was a result of fearlessness and determination of few Maratha
administrators and Shivaji was one of them. Shivaji (1674–1680) established the powerful and
stable kingdom with the help of powerful warrior families such as Deshmukhs and Kunbis.

Shivaji challenged Mughals many times. The main strength of Shivaji administration was the policy
of Ashta pradhan, and it means eight ministers with different responsibilities.
Shivaji’s Ashta pradhan

1. Peshwa (Mukhya pradhan) – responsibilities of finance and general administration.
2. Majumdar (Amatya) – responsibility of revenue and finance.
3. Waqianavis (Mantri) – responsibility of home affairs.
4. Dabir (Sumant) – responsibility of foreign affairs.
5. Surnavis (Sachiv) – head of royal correspondence
6. Pandit Rao (Sadar) – responsibilities of religious affairs
7. Masahisa (Chief Justice) – responsibility of justice.
8. Sar-i-naubat (Senapati) – responsibilities of military
After the death of Shivaji, the family of Chitpavan Brahmanas (also called Peshwas) came
into power and Pune became the capital of Maratha kingdom. Peshwas gave Maratha empire
new heights. They developed a powerful army in very short period and they became strong
opponent of Mughals. During the that period (1720–1761), Maratha empire expanded greatly.
Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were the famous taxes possessed by Maratha empire from 1735 to
1740 Marhatha domination expanded into the provinces of Rajasthan, Punjab, Bengal, Orissa,
Karnataka, Tamilnadu, and Andhra Pradesh. In 1761, Marathas fought a war with the king of
Afghanistan. This is called third war of Panipat. Marathas were great fighters but they were skilled
administrators in their rule and new trade routes also emerged. Their financial administration was
also effectively managed.
Maratha Rulers
Shivaji (1674–1680)
Sambhaji (1680–1689)
Rajaram (1689–1700)
Tarabai (1700–1707)
Shahu (1707–1749)
Balaji vishwanath (1713–1720) first Peshwa
Maratha Confederacy
Bajirao I (1720–1740)
Balaji Bajirao (1740–1761)
Jats
Jats were basically agriculturists. They lived in the region of Delhi, Agra, and Mathura. The main
reason behind their entry in mainstream politics of that time was oppression by Mughal officials.

Unit I History | 93
They revolted in 1669 and 1688 under the powerful Jat zamindars. These revolts were not that
well managed and strategically sound in nature. Therefore, they were crushed by Mughals; how-
ever, after the death of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, Mughal empire fell down and they made
a powerful comeback. That was the time when Jat state of Bharatpur was set up. It was set up
by Churaman and Badan Singh. Jats became very powerful in very short period of time and they
started participating in court intrigues at Delhi but they achieved their highest glory under the
administration of Raja Suraj Mal (1759–1763). Suraj Mal expanded his kingdom over a large area
from Ganga in the East and Chambal in the South. After the death of Suraj Mal in 1763, Jats did
not get any powerful leader and this is the reason they were split up among many zamindars.
Sikhs
Sikhs were the member of Sikhs religion found by Guru Nanak in the end of 15th century. It
spread very fast in the region of Punjab. It made roots among the Jat peasantry and lower castes
of the Punjab. The credit of Sikhs transformation in fighting community goes to Guru Hargobind
(1606–1645). Sikhs became a strong power under the leadership of Guru Gobind Singh
(1664–1708). Guru Gobind Singh was the last guru of the Sikhs. In the time period of Guru
Gobind Singh, Sikhs formed a strong military force. Sikhs fought many times against Mughals,
especially Aurangzeb. The tradition of Guruship in Sikh came to an end with the death of Guru
Gobind Singh. After the death of Guru Gobind Singh, Banda Singh (Banda Bahadur) came in
power as a leader and not as a guru. He struggled against Mughal army for more than 8 years.
He died in 1715. After the death of Banda Bahadur, Sikhs got divided and declined. However,
attacks of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali gave Sikhs a new opportunity for powerful come-
back. From 1765 to 1800, Sikhs successfully controlled Jammu. Their military administration was
divided into 12 Misls (confederacies) and these 12 divided Misls became the main strength of
Sikhs. These Misls had equal rights, voices, and responsibilities. Very soon, this democratic nature
of Misls got demolished just because of some powerful chiefs. With the declination of Misls,
Sikhs power divided. The raise of Ranjit Singh brought good days for Sikhs. He was the chief of a
, Sukerchakia Misl. He was a strong, skilled, and determined soldier. He was a good administrator
too. In the end of 18th century under the leadership of Ranjit Singh, Sikhs captured Lahore and
Amritsar. Very soon, he controlled Kashmir, Peshawar, and Multan.
European Powers
India has very old trade relationship with Europe. This relationship had many trade routes in mid-
dle ages.
(i) India – Persian Gulf – Iraq – Turkey – Venice and Genoa.
(ii) India – Red sea – Alexandria (Egypt) – Venice and Genoa
(iii) India – Central Asia – Russia – Baltic

On these trade routes, there was monopoly of two groups of merchants and sailors. Arab mer-
chants and sailors had monopoly on Asian part of trade and Italian merchants and sailors had
monopoly on Mediterranean and European part. There was a well-managed trade system between
Asia and Europe. Tolls, duties, securities, and shelters all things used to work in a manner. Things
started changing after the raise of Ottoman empire, they captured Asia Minor and Constantinople
in 1453. Due to this change in power politics, Turkey got a total control on old trading routes
between Europe and Asia. On the other side, Venice and Genoa took a full control on the trade
between Europe and Asia. Both the region never gave enough space to western Europe to make
a trade to Asia. That was the time when new nation states were emerging in western Europe.
Those states were Spain and Portugal. Monopoly of Venice and Genoa and Turkish empire made
trade and spices very expensive for western Europe. This time western Europe was also facing
shortage of gold. These were the few reasons for the west European states to find new and safer
sea routes to Asia, especially India and Indonesia. First, Vasco da Gama of Portugal discovered a
new sea route between western Europe and India. It was just like to open a gateway for western
Europe to India.
Portugal Entry to India

Portuguese was the first who find the new sea trade route between Western Europe and India
so they got high profit for their achievement. They got monopoly on the new discovered route.
They established their trade offices on the coastal areas of Cochin, Goa, Diu, and Daman. In order
to establish their coastal settlements, they used force with trade but very soon they realised that
they cannot go far with this strategy. Although they had armed ships with them, they are very
few in numbers. Therefore, they started taking advantage of rivalries of Indian kings. In order to
start working on their new strategy, they intervened in the conflict of Calicut and Cochin. This
became the very successful step for Portugal. Very soon, they got full control on the western coast
of India. They captured Goa in 1510.
British East India Company

When Portuguese traders were getting rich by their Indian tours, British merchants were looking
greedily on their success. However, due to their weak naval position, they were not thinking to
challenge the monopoly of Portugal and Spain. In the end of 16th century, they started search-
ing new trade routes to India but did not get success. In these 50 years, they gathered more
sea power in order to get entry in Asia. Finally, in 1588, the defeat of Spanish armada gave the
golden opportunity to Britain. The famous British trade company East India Company was formed
in 1599. This was formed by the merchants and trades of Britain. Because of profitable trade
route of Western Europe and Asia, this company got exclusive privilege by Queen Elizabeth on
31 December 1600. This company also got royal charter. Expected bright future of this company
linked it with monarch, as queen Elizabeth became the shareholder of the company. The company

Unit I History | 95
reached Asia in 1601, and they sailed their ships to the coast of Indonesia. They reached India
in 1608, they made their entry from the coast of Surat and Gujrat. In the leadership of Captain
Hawkins, East India Company made a way to Jahangir’s court. The company got Mansab of 400
and a Jagir. However, Mughal court was very influenced by Portuguese; due to this influence,
East India Company suffered in their initial years. To get total monopoly on the trade of India,
Portuguese and East India Company fought many times against each other at different places.
East India Company defeated Portuguese in 1612 and 1614. These victories made things easy
for East India Company. Mughals get impressed by the naval power of East India Company and
started thinking to use it in their favour as they were very weak in naval powers. This quality of
East India Company led them to get royal Farman to open factories on different places on west
coast. However, it was just a start; very soon, East India Company became more demanding to
Mughals. They send Sir Thomas Roe to Mughal court to get some more rights in order to establish
their trade in India. East India Company took the advantage of weak Mughal naval powers, and
they gave threats to Mughals for harassing Indian sea merchants in red sea. These pressure did a
tremendous work in the favour of East India Company. They got an imperial Farman to trade and
establish factories in all parts of the Mughal empire. After this, Portuguese became angry, and in
1620, naval battles started between both. Finally, East India Company won and their hostilities
came to end in 1630. In next 30–35 years, Portuguese lost all their settlements in India except
Goa, Daman, and Diu. On the other side, East India Company and Dutch Company fighting over
the trade of Indonesia. The war between East India Company and Dutch Company had begun in
1654, which ended in 1667. In the end of this battle, East India Company gave all their claims of
Indonesia and Dutch Company gave up their claims of India but it took almost 30 years to expel
the Dutch from India completely. By the end of 1765, Dutch lost their last possession in India. In
the next few decades, East India Company took over a very large portion of India. They applied
the same strategy that was applied by Portuguese in their initial stage in India. They took advan-
tage of internal disputes of Indian kings. They started work to take over powerful Indian regions
such as Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. They were developing these coastal cities as the centre
of trade for their profits. As per some sources in 1612, the East India Company made a big profit
of 10,00,000 Euro and this process of making high profits never stopped till the entry of crown
rule in India. Very soon, East India Company realised that the future of company is not that bright
and sustainable without getting political power in India and company began their political career
with the battle of Plassey in 1757. In this battel, East India Company and Nawab of Bengal, Siraj
ud-daulah was standing in the front of each other. In the end, Siraj ud-daulah got defeated from
the company. In 1764, Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-daulah, and Shah Alam II allied to fight with com-
pany, and they clashed with company’s army in the famous battle of Buxar in 1764. Company
made a powerful victory. Further, this victory had established the supremacy of company. This vic-
tory gave company the total control over Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, and Awadh. East Indian Company
used their dual system of administration policy in Bengal after the battle of Buxar. According to
this policy, company started using the powers of Diwan and Deputy Subahdar. Due to the treaty of
Nizam-ud-daulah and company, company got the right to nominate Diwan and Deputy Subahdar.

The work of Diwan was to collect revenues from state and the work of Deputy Subahdar to con-
trol the Nizamat (police and judicial powers). By this dual system of administration, company got
supreme power in Bengal without any responsibility.
Ind
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Figure 7.2 Territory under British control in mid-eighteenth century
French East India Company

French East India Company was formed by the group of French traders and merchants in 1664. It
did not make an impact on European–Indian trade till 1720. In 1720, French East India Company
reorganised itself. After their reorganisation, French East India Company came in the competi-
tion with East India Company of Britain. French Company established their factory on east coast

Unit I History | 97
of India near Calcutta and Pondicherry. In the later period, French Company started some more
factories in east and west coasts. In between, French East India Company took control over
Mauritius. French East India Company had some limitation as it was mainly dependent on French
government. The share holder of this company wanted fast profit and they did not support com-
mercial strategies of company. Government meddling in company matters made things very dif-
ficult for the company. In 1742, there was a war that broke out between France and England.
This war was happening in Europe but the flame of this war easily reached India and the Anglo-
French conflict begun. It took 20 years to resolve this conflict. French Company made high profit
from their possessions in India. Especially, in Hyderabad, French Companies were very successful.
French Company also made profit from another east coast factory.

➨ Mughal empire was the greatest empire of its time but it started declining in the first half of
the 18th century.
➨ We can understand the reasons of declination of Mughal empire in few points:
■
Aurangzeb’s religious policy and imposition of Jajiya on the basis of religion.
■
The south policy of Aurangzeb to enrich his power in south and almost forgot the north
part of his empire.
■
Corruption in military administration.
■
Selfishness of Mansabdars of Mughal empire.
■
Jats’ and Rajputs’ revolts during the period of Aurangzeb.
■
Over ambitiousness of Aurangzeb.
■
Raising of Maratha power.
■
Exploitative Jagirdari system.
■
Inner conflict of Mughal nobles: Turanians, Iranians, Afghans and Indians.
■
Entry of European powers.
➨ Due to delineation of central powers, Murshid Quli Khan and Alivardi Khan made Bengal free
from central Mughal empire. Murshid Quli Khan was appointed as Nawab (deputy governor)
of Bengal.
➨ Nizam-ul-Mulk Asal Jah was the founder of Hyderabad state. He was also a powerful member
of the court of Mughal emperor.
➨ Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa’adat Khan was the founder of Awadh state. Although he was appointed
as a Subahdar of Awadh in 1724, in very little time, he controlled the administration
of Awadh.
➨ During the delineation of Mughal empire, the region of Mysore raised as a powerful state of
south. Hyder Ali was the person in which Mysore got that powerful emergence.
➨ After the very hard work and strong political strategies, Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur got the
governorship of Gujarat and Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber got the governorship of Malwa.

➨ It is important to know that Mughal declination was a result of fearlessness and determination
of few Maratha administrators, Shivaji was one of them.
➨ Shivaji (1674–1680) established the powerful and stable kingdom with the help of powerful
warrior families such as Deshmukhs and Kunbis.
➨ The main strength of Shivaji administration was the policy of Ashta pradhan, which means
eight ministers with different responsibilities.
Shivaji’s Ashta Pradhan
1. Peshwa (Mukhya pradhan) – responsibilities of finance and general administration

2. Majumdar (Amatya) – responsibility of revenue and finance
3. Waqianavis (Mantri) – responsibility of home affairs
4. Dabir (Sumant) – responsibility of foreign affairs
5. Surnavis (Sachiv) – head of royal correspondence
6. Pandit Rao (Sadar) – responsibilities of religious affairs
7. Nyayadhish (Chief Justice) – responsibility of justice
8. Sar-i-naubat (Senapati) – responsibilities of military
➨ Jats were basically agriculturists. They lived in the region of Delhi, Agra, and Mathura. The
main reason behind their entry in mainstream politics of that time was the oppression by
Mughal officials.
➨ The credit of Sikhs’ transformation in fighting community goes to Guru Hargobind (1606–1645).
➨ Sikhs became a strong power under the leadership of Guru Gobind Singh (1664–1708). Guru
Gobind Singh was the last guru of the Sikhs.
➨ European powers – India has very old trade relationship with Europe. This relationship had
many trade routes in middle ages.
1. India – Persian Gulf – Iraq – Turkey – Venice and Genoa.
2. India – Red sea – Alexandria (Egypt) – Venice and Genoa
3. India – Central Asia – Russia – Baltic
➨ Portuguese was the first who found the new sea trade route between Western Europe and
India, and therefore, they got high profit for their achievement. They got monopoly on that
new discovered route.
➨ The war between East India Company and Dutch Company had begun in 1654, which ended
in 1667. In the end of this battle, East India Company gave all their claims of Indonesia and
Dutch Company gave up their claims of India, and it took almost 30 years to expel the Dutch
from India completely.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Why Mughal Empire declined? Explain the 3. How Portuguese established their trade
causes of its declination. relation with India?
2. Explain the raise of Maratha kingdom.

Unit I History | 99
4. How East India Company became the 6. Discuss the raise of Mysore and Awadh.
supreme trade company in India?
5. How French East India Company estab-
lished? What type of conflicts it had with
British East India Company?
Objective Questions
1. Who imposed Jajiya? (a) Burhan-Ul-Mulk Sa’adat Khan
(a) Aurangzeb (b) Haidarali
(b) Akbar (c) Asal Jah
(c) Jahangir (d) None of these
(d) None of these 7. What was the responsibilities of Subahdar
2. What do you understand by Jajiya? of Awadh?
(a) It was a religious tax (a) Financial and military affairs
(b) It was a military tax (b) Home affairs
(c) It was a zamindar tax (c) Foreign affairs
3. Which one of the following is the main 8. When did Tipu Sultan become the adminis-
reason of the decline of Mughal empire? trator of Mysore?
(a) Death of Aurangzeb (a) 1771
(b) Jats’ revolt (b) 1775
(c) Rajputs’ revolt (c) 1782
(d) None of these (d) 1790
4. Which of the following was the post of 9. What was the meaning of Shivaji’s Ashta
deputy governor of Bengal? pradhan?
(a) Nawab (a) Eight ministers
(b) Zamindar (b) Prime minister
(c) Subahdar (c) Home minister
(d) None of these (d) Judiciary system
5. Who was the founder of Hyderabad state? 10. Which of following responsibility a Peshwa
(a) Nizam-ul-Mulk Asal Jah had in Shivaji’s administration?
(b) Burhan-ul-Mulk (a) Finance and General Administration
(c) Haidarali (b) Revenue
(d) None of these (c) Foreign Affairs
(d) Religious Affairs
6. Who was appointed as Subahdar of Awadh
in 1972?

11. Who was in the opposition of Marathas in (a) Availability of gold and spices
the third war of Panipat? (b) Rich culture
(a) Afghani (c) Availability of cotton and jute
(b) Mughal (d) None of these
(c) Turk 18. When Portugal did capture Goa?
(d) Mongol (a) 1510
12. Under which of the following leaders, Jats (b) 1605
achieved their highest glory? (c) 1720
(a) Suraj mal (d) 1754
(b) Todar mal
19. Name the first representative of East India
(c) Jai Singh Company who went to Mughal court?
(d) None of these (a) Captain Hawkins
13. Which one of the following was the reason (b) Thomas Joe
of Jats revolt? (c) Thomas Cook
(a) Exploitation by Mughal officials (d) Captain Joe
(b) Jajiya 20. Which of the following battles is known
(c) Ambition of power as political career opening battle for East
(d) None of these India Company?
14. Who was the founder of Sikh religion? (a) Battle of Plassey
(a) Guru Nanak (b) Battle of Buxar
(b) Guru Gobind Singh (c) Third battle of Panipat
(c) Guru Hargobind (d) None of these
(d) None of these
21. What was the role of Diwan in Bengal
15. Which one of the following guru was the administration?
last guru of Sikhs? (a) Collect revenues
(a) Guru Gobind Singh (b) Take care of foreign affair
(b) Guru Nanak (c) Manage military
(c) Guru Hargobind (d) None of these
(d) None of these
22. What was the role of Deputy Subahdar
16. How Sikhs maintained their military in Bengal administration during Nizam
administration? period?
(a) They divided it into 12 Misls (a) Control police and judicial powers
(b) They centralised it (b) Manage military administration
(c) On the basis of Mansabdar (c) Manage financial administration
17. Why western European countries got
attracted towards Asia?

CHAPTER
Nationalist Movement
and Social Reforms 8
LEARNING OBjECTIVES
• Understand the oriental tradition towards the society and the education and its criticism
• Know the reasons for emergence of reform movements
• Explore the various movements such as Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, and Prarthana Samaj
• Identify the reform movements among the Muslims, Sikhs, and Parsis
• Recognise the various phases of national movement in India
INTRODuCTION
The chapter deals with a colonial period when India was subjugated to British control, and now,
British power has started interfering in Indian society that culminated into restructuring of the
society. The reasons of British involvement in the society and changes introduced by them will
be explored and the reaction of natives to these changes will also be noted. Further, the rise of
national consciousness among Indian masses resulting in nationalist movement will be traced.
The conquest of India by the British during 18th and 19th centuries had exposed some serious
weaknesses and drawbacks of Indian social institutions. As a consequence, several individuals
and movements sought to bring about changes in the social and religious practices with a view
of reforming and revitalising the society. These efforts were collectively known as Renaissance,
which means revival and re-birth. Further, these developments in the Indian society were labelled
as Indian renaissance.
‘The sun never sets on the British Empire’.
It is a strong phrase that comments on illustrious history of Great Britain as a coloniser of many
parts of the world in the age of imperialism. The process of colonisation that begins with political
conquest of colony involves economic control in the next phase and further impacts every aspect
of peoples’ lives in the colony such as their culture, work, and education because bruisers believed
it as ‘White man’s Burden’ to civilise the inferior, ignorant native of colony. India being a colony
of Great Britain witnessed it all.

102 | Chapter 8 Nationalist Movement and Social Reforms
Here, we will explore the implications of British colonisation on the Indian education and
society.
ORIENTAL TRADITION
The early image of India in the West was that of past glory crafted by the Aryans, who are
the distant kin of the Europeans, accompanied by an idea of degeneration of once magnificent
Aryan civilisation, and thus, there was an urge to know Indian culture and tradition, which was
reflected in endeavours of scholars like Sir William Jones who was a linguist and junior judge at
the supreme court set up by a company in Calcutta. He studied Indian languages to restore the
forgotten culture and legal system by translating ancient Indian texts. His interests were shared by
many other English officials in Calcutta, such as Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed,
who had translated Sanskrit and Persian texts into English. These Englishmen had together set up
the Asiatick Society of Bengal (1784) and started a journal called Asiatick Researches. This was the
beginning of orientalist tradition that led to the founding of institutions such as Calcutta Madrassa
(1781) by Warren Hastings and Hindu College in Banaras (1791) by Jonathan Duncan; these
colleges are meant for the promotion of study of Indian languages and scriptures. Orientalists
believed that this would help British to learn from Indian culture, win a place in heart of ‘natives’,
and help Indians rediscover their heritage and lost glories of the past. This will make British as the
guardians of Indian culture as well as their masters.
Warren Hastings was an enthusiastic supporter of orientalists (those with scholarly knowledge
of the language and culture of Asia) who promoted orientalism as policy of governance. The
knowledge of Indian society will assimilate the British rulers into the subject society for more
efficient administration. This political vision was manifested in the establishment of Fort William
College at Calcutta in 1800 by Lord Wellesley to train civil servants in Indian languages and tradi-
tion to acquaint them with customs and laws of the land under control for efficient governance.
Criticism of Orientalism
However, not all Englishmen were supportive of oriental vision of learning who understood Eastern
literature to be non-serious and light hearted and the knowledge of East was full of errors and
unscientific in thought. Thus, to pour in efforts for encouragement of Indian languages, culture to
merely win hearts of natives was seen wrong rather than useful; further, practical efforts such as
scientific and technical advances of West should have been made familiar to Indians. These ideas
are part of Anglicist vision forwarded by its profounder such as James Mill and Thomas Babington
Macaulay.
Macaulay declared that ‘a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native
literature of India and Arabia’, thereby advocating an education in the European literature and
sciences; this education was inculcated through the medium of English language for the Indians
because no branch of eastern knowledge was comparable to that of West. He was driven by his

Unit I History | 103
ambition to transform indolent Indian into a ‘Brown sahib’; in other words, transforming each
Indian into European in life and thoughts although they remain Indian in colour and blood. In
his famous Education Minute of 1835, he presented a strong case for the introduction of English
education in place of vernacular education. These minutes became basis for English Education Act
of 1835, which decided on English as a medium of instruction for higher education, prohibition
on promotion of Oriental institutions, and use of English textbooks in school education.
By far, the reasons for British interest in educating Indians could be traced to the moral duty
of the civilised British to educate the uncivilised natives of colony as part of its imperial mission
being undertaken in all of its colonies alike and a tool to train minds to accept the foreign rule.
The prominent use of English language and Western ideas in education, thereby lies in the fact
that product of English education, the truthful honest brown sahibs trained in morality, ethics
would have acted as a coterie of native people incorporated in structure of colonial rule act-
ing as intermediaries between Englishmen and the natives by taking subordinate public services
thus, making the administration smooth and convenient. However, this was not the only practi-
cal benefit of new system of European learning. Now, the economic interests were looked after
as evident from Wood’s Despatch of 1854, which proposed that wider population should have
‘useful and practical knowledge’ in order to become good workers who are capable of develop-
ing vast resources of the empire and also become good consumers valuing the superior quality
of British goods.
There were three major agencies responsible for the spread of modern education in India.
Foreign Christian missionaries with proselytising spirit to spread Christianity after the charter act
of 1813. British government was the principal agent for engineering network of schools and
colleges for secular education; progressive Indians such as Rabindranath Tagore, Dayananda
Saraswati, Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Keshab Chandra Sen.
This heralded the beginning of Western system of education that had changed the meaning
and context of the Indian education.
IMPLICATION OF BRITISH COLONISATION ON SOCIETY

The Indian society in the first half of the 19th century was caste ridden, decadent, and rigid. It fol-
lowed certain practices that were not in sync with humanitarian feelings or values; however, they
were still being followed in the name of religion. Therefore, a change was needed in the society.
Hereby, the changes in the society and their causes will be revealed.
Cause of Change
When the British came to India, they introduced the English language as well as certain modern
ideas. Exposure to these modern ideas such as liberty, social and economic equality, fraternity,
democracy, and justice had a tremendous impact on the Indian society; these ideas gave birth
to a new social and cultural awakening. Exposure to Western thoughts and ideas was a result of

European learning. New forms of communication such as books, novels, and pamphlets, which
were cheaper and accessible, had replaced manuscripts and were significant factors in bringing
about a change in the Indian society.
Reasons for Emergence of Reform Movements

Some questions arise regarding the emergence of reform movements. Were these reforms a result
of the impact of the West? Were they a response to challenges posed by colonialism? What were
their ‘indigenous’ roots? There are no simple answers to this, as there were multiple reasons for
the growth of these movements in this specific period. Dissemination of English education among
the high castes, development of vernacular languages, improved communications, and expansion
of print culture helped in their spread. Moreover, fears of conversions to Christianity due to the
spread of polemical tracts and preaching by professional missionaries strengthened the urge for
reforms from within. Christian missionaries were entering the sphere of services such as educa-
tion, hospitals, orphanages, and schools in a significant way, creating further anxieties among the
Hindus. Simultaneously, there was a need felt by Hindu social reformers to seek changes in Hindu
customs and British policies.
Atmiya Sabha and Brahmo Sabha/Samaj

The central figure of this cultural awakening was Raja Ram Mohan Roy. He is known as the ‘father
of the Indian Renaissance’. In December 1821, he started the first Indian newspaper named
Sambad Kaumudi, which literally mean the ‘moon of intelligence’; this newspaper was edited,
published, and managed by the Indians.
To fight against evil customs, he found Atmiya Sabha in 1815, which was forerunner of Brahmo
Samaj.
The first major landmark of these movements began in Bengal with Raja Ram Mohan Roy
(1772–1833), who found the Brahmo Samaj (community of men who worship brahma) in 1828.
He was the central figure of the early socio-religious reforms, and he has been referred to as the
‘Father of Modern India’ because he supported other social, educational, and political reforms. He
defended Hinduism from missionary attack; he also stated that Christianity was laced with super-
stitions and errors. He was against polytheism, idol worship, Brahman priests, and their rituals
and women’s subordination. He was the greatest exponent for the liberation of women, opposed
polygamy, Sati, and child marriages; further, he supported the right of inheritance of property by
daughters. Through his sustained efforts, he made Governor General, Lord William Bentinck, to
pass the famous regulation no. XVII in December 1829, which declared the practice of ‘Sati’ as
illegal (self-immolation of widows on the funeral pyres of their dead husbands).
After Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s death on September 27, 1833, Brahmo Samaj languished for
some time as they lacked a dynamic leadership. It became the responsibility of Debendranath
Tagore to infuse a new life and to give the theist movement a definite form and shape.

The Brahmo Samaj split at various times in the course of the 19th century. There were increasing
conflicts within the Samaj between the conservatives or cultural nationalists on the one hand
and the ‘liberals’ or modernisers on the other, who split into two camps by 1866. The conserva-
tives were led by Debendranath Tagore. On the other hand, it was Keshab Chandra Sen who had
much more progressive ideas. He was against the caste system and supported inter-caste mar-
riages. He took the movement out of the limited elite circles of Calcutta literati into the district
towns of east Bengal. Under the leadership of Sen, the newly started Brahmo Samaj of India had
a triumphant career. The inclusion of women as members and the adoption of a moderate pro-
gramme of social reform formed a new feature of the rejuvenated society. It was chiefly due to
its efforts that the government passed the Brahmo Marriage Act of 1872, which abolished early
marriage of girls and polygamy, and sanctioned widow remarriages and inter-caste marriages for
those who did not profess any recognised faith such as Hinduism and Islam. With the passing of
the Act that effectively declared that Brahmos were not Hindus and not subjected to Hindu law;
Keshab Chandra Sen’s Brahmo Samaj of India underwent a split between radicals and moderates,
especially over the status of women. Sen, leading the moderate faction, turned away from social
change, and instead embraced the study and reform of religion. Successive ideological rifts weak-
ened the movement, confining it to a small elite group.
This organisation, as the first platform of New India, proved to be the precursor of the subse-
quent social reform movements started by M. G. Ranade and others; further, the political move-
ment launched by the Indian National Congress.
Prarthana Samaj
The Prarthana Samaj was established in Bombay by Dr Atmaram Pandurang (1825–1898) in 1876
with the objective of rational worship and social reform. The two great members of this Samaj
were Shri R. C. Bhandarkar and Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade. They devoted themselves to the
work of social reform such as inter-caste dining, inter-caste marriage, widow remarriage, and
improvement in the quality of life of many women and deprived classes.
Although Prarthana Samaj was powerfully influenced by the ideas of Brahmo Samaj, it did
not insist upon a rigid exclusion of idol worship and a definite break from the caste system.
It did not regard the Vedas as divine or believe in the doctrine of transmigration of the human soul
and incarnation of God. Its central idea was one positive belief in the unity of God. The reforms
it sought were to come gradually, not cataclysmically, and this made it relatively more acceptable
to the larger society. For example, while supporting widow remarriage, it did not lead in this cam-
paign. The Samaj opened branches in Pune, Surat, Ahmedabad, Karachi, Kirkee, Kolhapur, and
Satara. Its activities also reached South India and by early of the 20th century, 18 of its branches
existed in the Madras Presidency. However, the Samaj was successful in creating various institu-
tions such as free reading rooms, libraries, schools, orphanages, and programmes for ‘untouch-
able’ uplift, though it never directly attacked orthodox Hinduism and Brahmanism.

There was a rift in the Samaj in 1875, when Dayananda Saraswati with his Arya Samaj vis-
ited Gujarat. A section of the Prarthana Samaj leaders, who were led by S. P. Kelkar, were
attracted towards Aryan ideology and broke away from the Samaj. Although they later returned
to the Prarthana Samaj, it marked the beginning of a different kind of religious politics in
Western India.
Arya Samaj
The Arya Samaj was found in 1875 by Dayananda Saraswati (1824–1883) in Bombay; however,
its most visible and significant impact was felt in Punjab and the United Provinces. Dayananda’s
motto was ‘Back to the Vedas’, the most ancient of Hindu texts. He claimed that any scientific
theory or invention, which was thought to be of modern origin actually derived from the Vedas.
He not only disregarded the authority of the later scriptures like the Puranas but also had no hesi-
tation in declaring them to be the writings of selfish and ignorant men. It appears that Dayananda
was trying to project Hinduism also as a ‘religion of the book’, as followed in Christianity and
Islam. Satyarth Prakash was his most important book.
Dayananda Saraswati
A network of schools and colleges for boys and girls was established throughout northern India
to promote the spread of education. Dayanand Anglo-Vedic School of Lahore, which soon devel-
oped into a premier college of Punjab, set the pattern for such institutions. Instruction was
imparted through Hindi and English on modern lines. The Arya Samaj drew many leaders, militant
Hindus, and nationalists, including Lala Hansraj, Pandit Guru Dutt, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Swami
Shraddhananda (started Gurukul near Haridwar in 1902).
While upholding Vedas as the true bearers of knowledge, the Arya Samaj could not escape the
rationalism of the present age, and it appropriated the Western intellectual discourse of reason
and science. This was clearly reflected in the field of education, where one school supported a
more traditional system, while another section recognised the value of English education and was
inclined to a more liberal programme.
As part of their community and nation making rhetoric, the Arya Samaj launched the pro-
grammes of Sangathan and Shuddhi. Shuddhi was a proselytisation movement that involved the
reconversion of those who were lost to the religions of Christianity, Sikhism, and Islam. The Arya
Samaj also became intensely involved in the cow protection movements and the advocacy of
standardised Hindi in preference to Urdu in the late 19th century, moving decisively from reform-
ism to revivalism. The Arya Samaj’s stridency against Christianity and Islam and their belief in the
superiority of ancient Hinduism was often reflected in their writings. This to an extent was the
genesis of what later came to be known as Hindutva, a Hindu nationalism based on identification
with Hindu culture.

Ramakrishna Mission and Swami Vivekananda

The weakening of the Brahmo Samaj in Bengal in the 1870s was followed by the emergence of
Ramakrishna–Vivekananda movement in the 1880s.
Gadadhar Chattopadhyaya (l836–1886) was a poor Brahmin priest who later came to be
known as Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. He dedicated his life to God. He believed that there were
many roads to God and the service of man was the service of God because man was the embodi-
ment of God. Hence, sectarianism had no place in his teachings.
Narendra Nath Datta (l863–1902) later known as Swami Vivekananda was the most devoted
pupil of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa who carried the message of his Guru Ramakrishna all over the
world, especially in America and Europe. He emerged as the preacher of neo-Hinduism. He con-
demned the social evils and proclaimed the essential oneness of all religions. He took part in the
Parliament of Religions held in Chicago in 1893 and made an impact by his learned interpretations.
Young Bengal Movement

It was a radical movement for the reform of Hindu Society started in the Hindu college. Its leader
was Henry Vivian Derozio, a teacher of the Hindu College. He was of mixed parentage as his
father was a Portuguese and his mother was an Indian. In 1826, at the age of 17, he joined the
Hindu College as a teacher and taught there till 1831. He inspired his followers and students to
question all authorities. His followers were known as the Derozians. They cherished the ideals of
the French Revolution (1789 A.D.) and the liberal thinking of Britain. They condemned religious
rites and the rituals, and pleaded for eradication of social evils, importance of female education,
and improvement in the condition of women. The Young Bengal Movement continued even after
Derozio’s dismissal and his sudden death. Although deprived of leadership, the members of this
group continued preaching radical views through teaching and journalism.
Theosophical Society
Theosophical Society was found by Madam H. P. Blavatsky, a Russian Lady, and H. S. Olcott, an
American Colonel in New York in 1875. The society was greatly influenced by the Indian doctrine of
karma. The Society was introduced to India in 1879 and its headquarters were set up at Adyar near
Madras in 1886. Mrs Annie Besant joined the society in 1888 and helped in popularising it further.
The society did commendable work in the field of education as it opened the Central Hindu College
at Varanasi in 1898, which she later handed over to Madan Mohan Malaviya. He developed that col-
lege into the Banaras Hindu University. She and her associates advocated the revival and strength-
ening of the ancient religions of Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism. They helped to impart to
the educated Indians a sense of pride in their own country. Thus, Annie Besant’s movement was a
movement led and supported by Westerners who glorified Indian religious and philosophical tradi-
tions. This helped Indians to recover their self-confidence. Although the Theosophical Movement

did not enjoy mass popularity, its work under the leadership of Annie Besant for the awakening of
the Indians was remarkable. She contributed a great deal to the development of national spirit in
Indians. One of the many Mrs Besant’s achievements in India was the establishment of the Central
Hindu School. Annie Besant made India her permanent home and took a prominent part in Indian
politics. ‘The needs of India are, among others, the development of a national spirit and an edu-
cation founded on Indian ideas and enriched, not dominated by the thoughts and culture of the
West’. She always supported Home Rule for Indians and established a Home Rule League in 1916
to spread the message of self-rule. She described her mission in these words: ‘The Indian work
is first of all the revival, the strengthening and uplifting of the ancient religions. This has brought
with it a new self-respect, and pride in the past; belief in the future, and as an inevitable result, a
great wave of patriotic life, the beginning of the rebuilding of a nation’.
Reform Movements among the Muslims

Movements for socio-religious reforms among the Muslims emerged late. Most Muslims feared
that Western education would endanger their religion as it was un-Islamic in character. The
Mohammedan Literary Society, established by Nawab Abdul Latif in 1863, was one of the earliest
institutions that attempted to spread modern education. The most important socio-religious move-
ment among the Muslims came to be known as the Aligarh Movement. It was organised by Syed
Ahmad Khan (1817–1899). Syed Ahmad advised Muslims to embrace Western education and take
up government service.
In 1862, he found the Scientific Society to translate English books on science and other sub-
jects into Urdu. He also started an English-Urdu journal through which he spread the ideas of
social reforms. His initiatives established the Mohammedan Oriental College that later developed
into the Aligarh Muslim University. It helped to develop a modern outlook among its students.
This intellectual movement is called the Aligarh Movement, which was largely responsible for the
Muslim revival that followed. It provided a focal point for the scattered Muslim population in dif-
ferent parts of the country. It gave them a common fund of ideas and a common language called
Urdu. A Muslim press was developed for the compilation of works in Urdu.
There were several other socio-religious movements that helped the national awakening of the
Muslims in one way or the other way. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad had found the Ahmadiyya Movement
in 1899 under which a number of schools and colleges were opened imparting modern educa-
tion. This movement emphasised the universal and humanitarian spirit of Islam.
Reform Movements among Parsis

Religious reform began among the Parsis in Mumbai in the middle of the 19th century. In 1851, the
Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha or Religious Reform Association was found by Naoroji Furdoonji,
Dadabhai Naoroji, S. S. Bengalee, and others. They started a journal Rast Goftar for the moderni-
sation of the social customs of the Parsis.

Religious Reform among Sikhs

Religious reform among the Sikhs was started with foundation of the Khalsa College at Amritsar
in 1892 through the efforts of the Singh Sabhas (1870). This college and other schools set up as
a result of similar efforts promoted Gurumukhi, Sikh learnings, and Punjabi literatures as a whole.
After 1920, when the Akali Movement rose in Punjab. The chief objective of this movement was
to improve the management of the Gurdwaras or Sikh Shrines that were under the control of
priests or mahants who treated them as their private properties. In 1925, a law was passed that
gave the right of managing Gurdwaras to the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee.
NATIONALIST MOVEMENTS (1870–1947)

The Indian national movement is an historical example of a wide mass movement witnessed by
modern society where the state power was seized by a prolonged popular struggle on a moral,
political, and ideological level instead of a single historical moment of revolution witnessed else-
where in the world. The Indian national movement can be categorised into three phases: 1885–
1905, 1906–1916, and 1917–1947.
The organised political life of India was witnessing a major change; in other words, after 1857,
associations controlled by landed plutocracy like British Indian association in Calcutta was gradu-
ally being replaced by new associations dominated by middle class professionals. For example,
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (in 1870), Madras Mahajana Sabha (1884), the Indian association (1876),
and many more. This new politics in the latter half of the 19th century was new in demands of
national significance, such as Indian representation in legislative council, separation of executive
and judicial functions of the government, racist arms act in 1878 (disallowing Indians to possess
arms), Draconian Vernacular Press Act in 1882 (censoring newspapers and confiscating printing
presses if anything objectionable against British rule was published), and Ilbert Bill in 1883, which
was opposed by whites (bill was proposed to establish equality by allowing trial of Europeans or
British offenders by Indian district magistrates and session judges in small towns, as was done in
presidency towns).
First Phase (1885–1905)

Amidst all this, Indian National Congress (INC) was born in 1885 at national convention compris-
ing 72 delegates in Bombay under presidency of W. C. Banerjee. Its objective was to develop and
consolidate sentiments of national unity, and thus, every year a session was held in different parts
of country with a new president not to be chosen from the same region. These sessions were
conducted democratically and in a way of a parliament. A. O. Hume, a retired British civil servant
supposedly played a crucial role in the foundation of INC. English saw INC, a legitimate forum
for venting out native grievances and prevent any future opposition against Her Majesty like
1857 revolt, and thus, they thought that it can be used as a safety valve. On contrary, Congress

leaders hoped to use Hume as a lightning conductor who acted as a mediator to remove mutual
jealousies of regional leaders and prevent the unfriendly attentions and suspicions of the British
authorities towards INC.
The early congress in the first 20 years had a very moderate political style, wherein moderates
were developing public awareness about unjust nature of British rule and they were criticising the
direct drainage of wealth impoverishing India in the form of salaries, savings, pensions, payments
to British troops in India, and profits of the British companies. This was the economic critique
of colonialism propounded by Dadabhai Naoroji (through his book Poverty and Un-British Rule
in India), M. G. Ranade, and R. C. Dutt as ‘drain theory’ in economic nationalism. Moderates
demanded participation in legislative assembly, Indianisation of civil services, reduction in military
expenditure and tax burden through constitutional methods in the form of prayers and petitions
because they believed in British sense of justice and fair play. The only demand of the Congress
granted by the British was the expansion of the legislative councils by the Indian Councils Act of
1892. However,, major demands of moderates remained unfulfilled that resulted in a new reac-
tion against colonial rule resorting to a path passive resistance, that is, direct and belligerent con-
frontation in the place of moderate’s politics of mendicancy. This was extremist trend.
Within congress, this was a radical faction emerged in opposition to ideologies of moderates
and believing in Swaraj or self-rule. The prominent leaders were Lal (Lala Lajpat Rai known as Lion
of Punjab), Bal (Bal Gangadhar Tilak known as Lokmanya Tilak), and Pal (Bipin Chandra Pal).
Tilak raised a very famous slogan ‘freedom is my birth right & I shall have it’ to encourage
people to fight for Swaraj.
Second Phase (1906–1916)

Partition of Bengal, 1905
The Partition of Bengal was announced by Lord Curzon (viceroy) in two provinces on 4 July 1905.
The new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam included the whole of Assam and the Dacca,
Rajshahi, and Chittagong divisions of Bengal with headquarters at Dacca. Although Curzon
justified his action on administrative lines, partition divided the Hindus and Muslims in Bengal.
This became the immediate cause for the rise of extremism and led to the anti-partition agita-
tion all over the country culminating into the Swadeshi Movement that intensified the National
movement.
Swadeshi movement
The Swadeshi Movement involved programmes such as the boycott of government services,
courts, schools and colleges, and foreign goods, promotion of Swadeshi goods, and promotion
of national education through the establishment of national schools and colleges. It was both a
political and economic movement. The Swadeshi Movement was a great success. In Bengal, even
the landlords joined the movement. The women and students took to picketing. Students refused

using books made of foreign paper. The government adopted several tough measures. It passed
several acts to crush the movement. The Swadeshi volunteers were beaten badly. The cry of
Vande Mataram was forbidden. Schools and colleges were warned not to allow their students to
take part in the movement or else their aids would be stopped. Some Indian government employ-
ees lost their jobs. Extremist leaders Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal, and
Aurobindo Ghosh were imprisoned and deported. However, the extremists were successful in
organising an all-India political movement, viz. the Swadeshi Movement.
Formation of the Muslim League (1906)

In December 1906, Muslim delegates from all over India met at Dacca for the Muslim Educational
Conference. Taking advantage of this occasion, Nawab Salimullah of Dacca proposed the setting
up of an organisation to look after the Muslim interests. The proposal was accepted. The All-India
Muslim League was finally set up on December 30, 1906. Like the Indian National Congress,
they conducted annual sessions and put their demands to the British government. Initially, they
enjoyed the support of the British. Their first achievement was the separate electorates for the
Muslims in the Minto-Morley reforms.
Moderates wanted Swaraj to be achieved through constitutional methods instead of boycott,
these differences led to a split in the Congress between moderates and extremists at the Surat
session in 1907. This is popularly known as the famous Surat Split.
Lucknow Pact (1916)

During the 1916 Congress session at Lucknow, two major events occurred. The divided Congress
became united. An understanding for joint action against the British was reached between the
Congress and the Muslim League and it was called the Lucknow Pact. Both the organisations
demanded dominion status for the country.
Revolutionary movements
In the first half of the 20th century, revolutionary groups sprang up mainly in Bengal, Maharashtra,
Punjab, and Madras. The revolutionaries were not satisfied with the methods of both the moder-
ates and extremists. Hence, they started many revolutionary secret organisations. For example,
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association and Ghadar Party.
Third Phase (1917–1947)

In 1917, a committee was set up under the president-ship of Sir Sydney Rowlett to look into the
militant nationalist activities and Rowlett act was passed in 1919 empowering British government
to detain any person without trial. This act was called Black Act. In 1919, Government of India Act
was passed bitterly known as Montague-Chelmsford Reforms wherein the central legislature was

made bicameral with two chambers: council of state (upper house) and legislative council (lower
house) and diarchy or dual government was introduced in provincial executives.
This is the final phase marked by advent of M. K. Gandhi who became the undisputed leader of
the National movement. His principles of nonviolence and Satyagraha were employed against the
British Government. He began his experiments with Satyagraha against the oppressive European
indigo planters at Champaran in Bihar in 1917. In the next year, he launched another Satyagraha
at Kheda in Gujarat in support of the peasants who were not able to pay the land tax due to the
failure of crops. In 1918, Gandhi undertook a fast unto death for the cause of Ahmedabad’s mill
workers, and finally, the mill owners conceded the just demands of the workers. The local move-
ments at Champaran, Kheda, and Ahmedabad brought Mahatma Gandhi closer to the life of the
people and their problems at the grass-roots level. Consequently, he became the leader of the
masses.
An all-India Hartal was organised on 6 April 1919. In Punjab, there was an unprecedented sup-
port to the Rowlatt Satyagraha. Facing a violent situation, the Government of Punjab handed over
the administration to the military authorities under General Dyer. He banned all public meetings and
detained the political leaders. On 13th April, the Baisakhi day (harvest festival), a public meeting
was organised at the Jallianwala Bagh (garden). Dyer marched in and without any warning opened
fire on the crowd. There was a nationwide protest against this massacre and Rabindranath Tagore
renounced his knighthood as a protest. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre gave a tremendous impetus
to the freedom struggle.
Meanwhile, the Muslims in India were upset over the British attitude against Turkey in World
War 1 and launched the Khilafat Movement. Mahatma Gandhi was particularly interested in bring-
ing the Hindus and the Muslims together to achieve the country’s independence. Subsequently,
the Khilafat movement was merged with the Non-Cooperation movement launched by Mahatma
Gandhi in 1920. It was approved by the INC at the Nagpur session in December, 1920. The pro-
grammes of the non-cooperation movement were surrender of titles and honorary positions,
resignation of membership from the local bodies, boycott of elections held under the provisions of
the 1919 Act, boycott of courts, government schools, and colleges, foreign goods, establishment
of national schools, colleges, and private panchayat courts, and popularising swadeshi goods and
khadi. It was the real mass movement with the participation of different sections of Indian society
such as peasants, workers, students, teachers, and women. It witnessed the spread of nationalism
to the remote corners. The whole movement was abruptly called off on 11th February 1922 by
Gandhi following the Chauri Chaura incident in the Gorakhpur district of UP where an angry mob
set fire to the police station at Chauri Chaura and 22 policemen were burnt to death.
The suspension of the non-cooperation movement led to a split within Congress in the Gaya
session of the Congress in December 1922. Leaders like Motilal Nehru and Chittaranjan Das
formed a separate group within the Congress known as the Swaraj Party on 1 January 1923.
The Act of 1919 included a provision for its review after a lapse of 10 years. However, the
review commission was appointed by the British Government two years earlier of its schedule in

1927 known as Simon Commission after the name of its chairman Sir John Simon. All its seven
members were Englishmen with no Indian member in it. In 1928, when the Commission reached
Bombay, a general Hartal was observed all over the country. Everywhere it was greeted with black
flags and the cries of ‘Simon go back’. The report of the Simon Commission published in 1930
stated that the constitutional experiment with diarchy was unsuccessful, and the report recom-
mended the establishment of autonomous government as its replacement. This became the basis
for enacting the Government of India Act of 1935.
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–1934)

The annual session of the Congress was held at Lahore in December 1929 presided over by
Jawaharlal Nehru where the Poorna Swaraj resolution was passed and gave a call to launch the
Civil Disobedience Movement. The Congress had also observed January 26, 1930 as the Day of
Independence.
On 12th March 1930, Gandhi began his famous March to Dandi. After marching a distance of
200 miles on 6th April, the Civil Disobedience Movement was launched by breaking the salt laws.
Roundtable conference
The British government adopted the strategy of talking to different political parties by conven-
ing the roundtable conferences. The first roundtable conference was held in November 1930 at
London, which was boycotted by the Congress. On 8 March 1931, the Gandhi–Irwin Pact was
signed. As per this pact, Mahatma Gandhi agreed to suspend the civil-disobedience movement
and participate in the second roundtable conference in September 1931 at London. Gandhi par-
ticipated in the conference but returned to India disappointed as no agreement could be reached
on the demand of complete independence and on the communal question. In January 1932, the
civil-disobedience movement was resumed.
Poona Pact was agreed in 1932 wherein 148 seats in different provincial legislatures were
reserved for the depressed classes in the place of 71, as provided in the communal award. The
third roundtable conference came to an end in 1932 and the congress again did not participate
in it.
The British Government made an announcement on 8 August 1940, which came to be known
as the ‘August Offer’ envisaging that after the World War II, a representative body of Indians
would be set up to frame the new constitution. The British Government in its continued effort to
secure Indian cooperation sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India on 23 March 1942. This is known as
Cripps Mission. The main recommendations of Cripps were as follows: the promise of Dominion
Status to India, protection of minorities, setting up of a constituent assembly in which there would
be representatives from the Princely States along with those of the British Provinces, provision for
any Province of British India not prepared to accept this constitution, either to retain its present
constitutional position or frame a constitution of its own.

The major political parties of the country rejected the Cripps proposals. Gandhi called Cripps’
proposals as a ‘Post-dated Cheque’. They did not like the rights of the Princely States either to
send their representatives to the constituent assembly or to stay out of the Indian Union. The
Muslim League was also dissatisfied as its demand for Pakistan had not been conceded in the
proposal.
Quit India Movement (1942–1944)

The failure of the Cripps’ Mission and the fear of an impending Japanese invasion of India led
Mahatma Gandhi to begin his campaign for the British to quit India. The All-India Congress
Committee met at Bombay on 8 August 1942 and passed the famous Quit India Resolution. On
the same day, Gandhi gave his call of ‘do or die’. This movement paved the way for India’s free-
dom. It aroused among Indians the feelings of bravery, enthusiasm, and total sacrifice.
Cabinet Mission (1946)

In March 1946, Lord Atlee made a historic announcement in which the right to self-determination
and the framing of a constitution for India were conceded. Consequently, three members of the
British Cabinet—Pethick Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps. and A. V. Alexander—were sent to India.
This is known as the Cabinet Mission. Provision was made for three groups of provinces to possess
their separate constitutions, proposed the formation of a Union of India, and envisaged for setting
up an Interim Government.
Consequently, elections were held in July 1946 for the formation of a constituent assembly and
an interim government was formed under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru on 2 September 1946.
Mountbatten Plan (1947)

On 20 February l947, Prime Minister Atlee announced the definite intention of the British
Government to transfer power to responsible Indian hands by a date not later than June 1948.
Thus, to affect the transference of that power, Atlee decided to send Lord Mountbatten as Viceroy
to India. After extensive consultation, Lord Mountbatten put forth the plan of partition of India on
3 June 1947. The Congress and the Muslim League ultimately approved the Mountbatten Plan.
The British Government accorded formal approval to the Mountbatten Plan by enacting the
Indian Independence Act on 18 July 1947.

➨ The Englishmen Henry Thomas Colebrook and Nathaniel Halhed, who had translated Sanskrit
and Persian texts into English, had together set up the Asiatick Society of Bengal (1784).
➨ Calcutta Madrasa (1781) was established by Warren Hastings, and Hindu college in Banaras
(1791) was established by Jonathan Duncan.

➨ Warren Hastings was an enthusiastic supporter of orientalists (those with scholarly knowledge
of the language and culture of Asia) who promoted orientalism as policy of governance.
➨ Macaulay declared that ‘a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native
literature of India and Arabia’.
➨ The central figure of cultural awakening was Raja Ram Mohan Roy. He was known as the
‘father of the Indian Renaissance’. In December 1821, he started the first Indian newspaper
called Sambad Kaumudi, literally meaning the ‘moon of intelligence’; this newspaper was
edited, published, and managed by Indians.
➨ The first major landmark of reforms movements began in Bengal with Raja Ram Mohan Roy
(1772–1833), who found the Brahmo Samaj.
➨ The Prarthana Samaj was established in Bombay by Dr Atmaram Pandurang (1825–1898) in
1876 with the objective of rational worship and social reform.
➨ The Arya Samaj was found in 1875 by Dayananda Saraswati (1824–1883) in Bombay, but its
most visible and significant impact was felt in Punjab and the United Provinces.
➨ The weakening of the Brahmo Samaj in Bengal in the 1870s was followed by the emergence
of Ramakrishna-Vivekananda movement in the 1880s.
➨ Theosophical Society was found by Madan H. P. Blavatsky, a Russian Lady, and H. S. Olcott, an
American Colonel, in New York in 1875.
➨ During the 1916 Congress session at Lucknow, the divided Congress became united.
➨ On 20 February l947, Prime Minister Atlee announced the definite intention of the British
Government to transfer power to responsible Indian hands by a date not later than June 1948.
This is called Mountbatten Plan.
Check Your Progress

1. Discuss the oriental tradition towards soci- 4. Discuss about the various phases of
ety and education and how this orienta- national movement in India.
tion can be criticism. 5. Explain about the following movements:
2. Why did reform movements emerge dur- (a) Brahmo Samaj
ing British period? (b) Arya Samaj
3. Critically elaborate about the reform move- (c) Prarthana Samaj
ments among the Muslims, Sikhs, and (d) Theosophical Society
Parsis.

Objective Questions
1. Who set up Asiatick Society of Bengal in (c) 1955
1784? (d) 1966
(a) Henry Thomas and Nathaniel Halhed 7. Who is known as father of the Indian
(b) Annie Besant Renaissance?
(c) Lord Elbert (a) Raja Ram Mohan Roy
(d) Lord Macaulay (b) Rabindranath Tagore
2. The Hindu college in Banaras was estab- (c) Dayananda Saraswati
lished by: (d) Ambedkar
(a) Warren Hastings 8. What is the name of the first Indian
(b) Jonathan Duncan newspaper?
(c) Henry Thomas (a) Sambad Kaumudi
(d) Lord Macaulay (b) Punjab Kesari
3. The Calcutta Madrasa was established by: (c) Nav Jagran
(a) Warren Hastings (d) None of these
(b) Jonathan Duncan 9. Brahmo Samaj was found by:
(c) Henry Thomas (a) Ram Mohan Roy
(d) Lord Macaulay (b) Dayananda Saraswati
4. Orientalists means (c) Rabindranath Tagore
(a) people who have faith in knowledge (d) None of these
of Asia. 10. Prarthana Samaj was established in:
(b) people who have faith in Western (a) Bombay by Dr Atma Ram Pandurang
knowledge. (b) Calcutta by Tagore
(c) people who have no faith in Asian (c) Bengal by Dayananda Saraswati
knowledge. (d) None of these
(d) None of these
11. Arya Samaj was established by:
5. Who declared that ‘a single shelf of a good (a) Dayananda Saraswati
European library was worth the whole (b) Tagore
native literature of India and Arabia’? (c) Ram Mohan Roy
(a) Macaulay (d) Vivekananda
(b) Lord Wellesley
(c) Jonathan Duncan 12. Ramakrishna Mission is associated with:
(d) Henry Thomas (a) Swami Vivekananda
(b) Swami Dayananda Saraswati
6. Wood’s Despatch came in existence in:
(c) Gopal Krishna Gokhale
(a) 1854 (d) None of these
(b) 1953

13. H. P. Blavatsky and H. S. Olcott was associ- 15. On 20 February l947, Prime Minister Atlee
ated with: announced the definite intention of the
(a) Ramakrishna Mission British Government to transfer power to
(b) Theosophical society responsible Indian hands by a date not
(c) Arya Samaj later than June 1948. This is known as:
(d) Non-orientalist Education Committee (a) Mountbatten Plan
(b) Marle Minto Plan
14. In which session, the divided Congress
(c) Lord Dalhousie Plan
become united:
(d) None of these
(a) Lucknow Session
(b) Calcutta Session
(c) Bombay Session
(d) None of these

CHAPTER
India after
Independence 9
LEARNING OBjECTIVES
• Understand the challenges faced by India after independence
• Know the drafting of the constitution of India
• Explore the process of state formation in India
• Be aware of the formation of Indian Foreign Policy
• Realise where India is after 70 years of Independence
INTRODUCTION
On 15 August 1947, India became independent after a long freedom struggle with the British.
India got independence at the midnight of 15 August 1947. This independence was itself a chain
of long struggle and incidences. These incidents not only changed the geographical boundaries
of Indian subcontinent but also changed the life of the people who lived in here for hundreds of
years. We all know that India is one of the oldest civilisation in the world; however, the new form
of state is different from the governance of Mughal empire and other kingdoms and regional
states’ governance system.
OLDEST CIVILISATION IN THE FORM OF A NEW AND DIVIDED NATION

We all know that British empire itself was a complex structure of governance. Some states were
directly governed by Britishers and others were governed by alliances with local princely states.
Let us see a picture of British India and try to understand their ruling system:
Two colours yellow and pink are used in this map. Yellow areas are directly ruled by Britishers
and pink areas are ruled by regional kingdoms or princely states under British treaties. At the time
of independence, around 565 princely states were ruled under Britishers. Further, during that
time, the British government gave the right to the princely states to choose what they want. This
means whether they want to be merged themselves either as India or Pakistan or they want to
become an independent princely state.
We first understand how Hindustan got divided into two nations: India and Pakistan. It is a
long story, and therefore, we discuss it here briefly. In 1942, a biggest change happened in the

U.S.S.R
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MADRAS ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS
LACCADIVE (INDIA) STATES (INDIA)
INDIAN CEYLON OCEAN

MALDIVES
Figure 9.1 India provinces and princely states before 15 August 1947
Indian history and that was Muslim League; they presented two-nation theory and these two
nations are Hindus and Muslims. They presented these two religions as two nations, and clearly,
they stated that it was not possible for them to live together in the newly independent country
because Muslims are in minority and Hindus are in majority. They could not see more opportuni-
ties to progress their community. Their customs are different, and therefore, it was not possible
to live together. Many things were done in this period. We cannot blame someone because many
factors were caused due to this situation. The fundamentalists of both Hindus and Muslims played
a role in dividing Hindustan in India and Pakistan. It is really painful situation for millions of people
who migrated from India to Pakistan and Pakistan to India. The severally affected area by partition

120 | Chapter 9 India after Independence
is Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Bengal. Especially, Punjab is the most affected area of parti-
tion, where lakhs of people not only migrated but also killed. Indian partition is the world’s most
unfortunate incident of the 20th century.
The communal riots were the biggest problem for the newly constituted nation. How to resolve
this issue was the biggest challenge to our freedom fighters. The most painful thing was that
these riots created mistrust in both communities. A large number of people migrated from West
Pakistan and East Pakistan. Their settlement was the biggest issue for the government of India.
Most of the migrated people were settled in Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, and other Northeastern states. This was the start of challenges
for Indian states.
At the time of independence, India had 565 princely states. British government when announced
the independence of India, they created many problems for the newly constituted government.
British parliament passed the Indian Independence Act 1947 and British India partitioned into the
two new independent dominions: India and Pakistan. On 20 February 1947, British prime minister
Clement Attlee announced that British government will grant full self-government for British India
by June 1947. This was the start of the challenges of the Indian government. The independence
act clearly stated that British India divided into two new sovereign nations: India was the domin-
ion of Hindus and Pakistan was the dominion of Muslims. The British government was not clear
about the status of princely states, and therefore, they decided that after June plan they will
decide on princely states. In June, governor general of British India, Lord Mountbatten, defined
the fate of the Indian princely state; that is, the states can decide whether they want to come with
India or Pakistan or they can maintain their independent status of the princely states. The question
is that why Britishers did this? Why they gave princely states the right to decide on their fate? The
British government announced that they were not directly governed by the Britishers rather they
were engaged in the treaties with them. These treaties were based on friendship, and therefore,
the British government respected their friends and gave them the right to choose what they want.
This right with princely states was the biggest problem for the newly constructed government.
Why? If we see British India map, we can understand that situation clearly. Yellow colour presents
princely states in that map. These princely states spread all over India. The problem was that if
these states were present as an independent state, then what will happen? It is really hard for any
government to govern the country in this type of scattered form. Another thing is that the will of
these princely states’ people. Most of the princely states do not want to lose their independent
status and they want to access their resources freely. However, the main question was what about
the people of India. Those people who sacrificed their lives, and their families for Independent
India. Reject the unlawful governance of these princely states. After that decision, they had the
right to be a free state; it was creating problems for Indian states because at the time of independ-
ence, there were 565 princely states in India and after sometime of independence, these states
expressed the voice of their public. It created a difficult condition for newly constituted India.
The government of India gradually merged these princely states in India through treaties or by

force or referendum. At the time of 1947–1948, around 560 princely states chose either India or
Pakistan. Five princely states did not want to join either India or Pakistan, and they wanted their
independent status, such as Jammu and Kashmir, Junagarh, and Hyderabad. Some of the princely
states such as Travancore, Bhopal, and Hyderabad announced themselves independent. The State
of Hyderabad went forward and appointed their trade representatives in European countries.
Hyderabad had also tried to the negotiate with Portuguese for Goa to give them on lease or sell
them for access to the sea. Another state Travancore has pointed out their strategic importance
to western countries and offered thorium in excess for recognition. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and
V. P. Menon tried hard to integrate princely states and they did this cleverly in step-by-step pro-
cess. Hyderabad integration in India happened with some force. The other princely states were
integrated through the instrument of accession.
In this process, only one person played the most important role. If that person does not
co-operate with the government of India, maybe princely state integration would not happened
like this. Lord Mountbatten had played important role in United India. Mountbatten had good
relationships with princely states and his influence pushed princes to join Indian domain. Lord
Mountbatten declared that the British government will grant dominion status only to India and
Pakistan. The princely states should join either India or Pakistan; if they did not join either India
or Pakistan, they will serve as a part of the British crown. The British government was not willing
to grant any other princely states to dominion status and they were not a part of the British com-
monwealth. Mountbatten had personal dialogues with these princely states and convinced them
that joining India was beneficial for them. His personal efforts as the head of state were remark-
able in ensuring that princely states happily joined the Indian states.
After all, India’s independence from the British rule in 1947, there were some of the areas that
were continuously ruled under French and Portuguese government. France controlled Pondicherry,
Karaikal, Yanam, and Mahe, and Portugal controlled Goa, Daman, Diu, Dadra, and Nagar haveli.
On November 1954, French government transferred four enclaves to India, and finally, in 1962,
French parliament in Paris ratified a treaty with India. However, the integration of Goa was not
easy. In 1947, British empire was dissolved and the Portuguese had hold on some parts of the
country. Basically, these were three districts Daman, Dadra, and Nagar Haveli and Diu collectively
called Goa. The Portuguese rule lasted until 1954, when Dadra and Nagar haveli enclaves were
free and the rest of the territories were free from the Portuguese control in December 1961.
At the time of independence (in 1947), there was another challenge, that is, Indian population
was large. It was almost 345 million. This population was divided into various forms such as caste,
religion, and language. India was a country of diversity, and we saw that in everything such as
language, food, dress, and profession. The question is that how to make it possible when they live
in one nation? Without unity, how development is possible and this was another challenge. At the
time of independence, largest population lived in villages. A large population was involved in agri-
culture and agriculture depends on the mansion. The non-farmer economy was fully dependent
on agriculture; if rains were not well and crops failed, they affected carpenter, barbers, weavers,

tool makers, and other service groups. They get paid annually after the crops were ready. In urban
areas, situation was different. Workers lived in crowded slums and little access to education and
health care. In the period of 200 years, colonial era of the Indian economy dramatically changed.
How a new nation sustained when they had massive poverty and most of the population was
dependent on agriculture? It was necessary for the new government to change the previous
strategies and focus on unity and development for all. It is necessary to increase agricultural pro-
duction and promoting new industries for development. Development had the power to change
the society and resolve many differences of the society. After independence, Indian government
started focusing on developmental agenda for better future.
ACCEPTANCE OF NEW FORM OF GOVERNANCE AND RULE OF LAW

We saw in which type of governing system were practicing in India. In British rule, one of a new
thing was introduced; in India, it was the rule of law. Why rule of law was so important and
what are the differences in the rule of law and previous ruling system? Those are good questions.
We all know that there was no governance system that worked without rules and regulations.
The previous governing system also had rules and regulations but these rules and regulations
are changeable and they depended on rulers’ attitude. These rules are not in written form and
changed the situation. First time in India, Britishers introduced the rule of law where everyone is
equal in front of the law. There is no discrimination in the rule of law. This introduction of a new
type of system that really created a new experience in the country where society were divided into
many sections. Britishers set legal system in India and it is a long series of acts were introduced
by the British government from time to time. In the modern era, every nation has their written
constitution that was based on their needs. Britishers introduced the legal system and formed a
government and in this process, two acts played important roles. These acts were Government of
Indian Act 1919 and Government of India Act 1935. These acts gave a shape to Indian governing
system. These acts were passed by the British according to their requirement. When the British
government announced the Indian independence, one of the biggest questions were how new
dominion country could work and which type of governing system was suitable for India?
At the end of 1946, it was clear that British India will be divided into two dominion states:
India and Pakistan. British government transferred power to some selected people, and they are
representatives of mass people. If we see the Indian Independence act 1947, it clearly states that
the Constituent Assembly was divided into India and Pakistan. The sovereign power transferred
each of new assembly. These assemblies helped to enable draft and enact a new constitution for
their separate states. In December 1946, ‘Constituent Assembly’ were held in New Delhi. Who
are these constituents? Who selects them? These constituents were those who elected in the last
legislative assembly and representatives of different sections of society and princely states. The
combined constituents’ assembly had 389 members, wherein 296 members were from British
India and 93 members were from princely Indian states. Election of these members was held in

July–August 1946 in all over British India. Out of 210 seats of general categories, congress won
199 seats. Congress won some seats in reserve categories also; for example, 3 out of the 4 seats
in Punjab, 3 seats out of the 78 Muslim seats, and 3 seats from Delhi, Ajmer-Merwara, and Coorg.
The total tally of congress was 208 out of 296 seats. The Muslim League won 73 seats out of
the 78 Muslim seats, which mean that they won most of the seats of the reserved category. The
journey of independent India began on 9 December 1946; on this date, Constituent Assembly of
India’s first session held in Delhi. This was a historic day in the Indian history because this meeting
is held for deciding constitutional framework for people of India and government of India.
In the first session of Constituent Assembly, only 207 members attended. The Muslim League
tried to stop convening of the assembly, but they failed to do this. Further, the Muslim League
decided to stay away with their 76 Muslim members from the Constituent Assembly but Congress
elected Muslim members to join the session. On 11 December 1946, the present members of
Constituent Assembly elected Dr. Rajendra Prasad as the permanent chairman of Constitution
Assembly; later, he was designated as the President of the Assembly. The third session held from
28 April to 2nd May 1947 but Muslim League stayed away from this session also. On 3rd June
1947, Lord Mountbatten announcement determined not only the future of India but also the
future of millions of people who lived in the British India. Mountbatten plan announced and
made it clear that British India was divided into two sovereign dominion states: India and Pakistan.
This was the really painful situation for the people of India but they did not have an option. On
15 august 1947 at midnight, India became independent. The Constituent Assembly separately
reconstituted for Pakistan and India, and the members of Indian Constituent Assembly reduced to
299. After 15 august 1947, the Constituent Assembly became a sovereign body. We know that
Constituent Assembly responsible for not only framing for the constitution but also for making the
ordinary law. Let us see some of the tables that help us to understand how Constituent Assembly
worked (refer Table 9.1 and Table 9.2).
Table 9.1 Sessions of the constituent assembly
Session Date
First Session 9 to 23 December 1946
Second Session 20 to 25 January 1947
Third Session 28 April to 2 May 1947
Fourth Session 14 to 31 July 1947
Fifth Session 14 to 30 August 1947
Sixth Session 27 January 1948
Eight Session 16 May to 16 June 1949
Ninth Session 30 July to 18 September 1949
Tenth Session 6 to 17 October 1949
Eleventh Session 14 to 26 November 1949

Table 9.2 Important committees and their chairmen
Name of the committee Chairman

Committee on the Rules of Procedure Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Steering Committee Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Finance and Staff Committee Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Credential Committee Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer
House Committee K. M. Munsi
Ad hoc Committee on the National Flag Dr. Rajendra Prasad
State Committee Jawaharlal Nehru
Committee on the Functions of the Constituent Assembly G. V. Mavalankar
Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities Vallabhbhai Patel
and Tribal and Excluded Areas
Minorities Sub-Committee H. C. Mookherjee
Fundamental Rights Sub-Committee J. B. Kripalani
North-East Frontier Tribal Areas and Assam Excluded& A. V. Thakkar
Partially Excluded Areas Sub-Committee
Union Power Committee Jawaharlal Nehru
Union Constitution Committee Jawaharlal Nehru
Drafting Committee B. A. Ambedkar
The work of Constituent Assembly is organised into five stages: first, all committees were asked to
present reports on the basic issues. Second, B. N. Rau (the constitutional adviser) prepared an initial
draft of the constitution on the basis of committees’ reports and researched on other countries’ con-
stitution. Third, Drafting Committee presented a detailed draft constitution and then published for
public discussion and comments. Fourth, the draft constitution discussed in Constituent Assembly
and amendments proposed on the basis of discussions and suggestions. Fifth, after long discus-
sion and amendments, the final draft of the constitution was adopted on 26 January 1950. On 26
January 1950, India became the Republic of India. Let us see a picture of Constituent Assembly.
There were some of the features that we have to know about them. One feature of the constitu-
tion was the adoption of universal adult franchise. Franchise means the right to vote. Constitution
fixed minimum age of franchise was 21. All Indian males and females who are above 21 had the
right to vote in state- and national-level elections. This was a revolutionary step in India because
previous British government did not give the right for the Indians to choose their own leaders.
If we look at other countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom, they had been
granted a franchise in stages. The granted right of the vote with gender discrimination, they first
gave the right to vote for men, and then, after a long struggle of women, they gave them right
to franchise. However, after a long discussion on the issue of the franchise, Indian Constituent
Assembly agreed to grant the right to vote to all Indian citizens without any discrimination of
caste, class, gender, or education.

Figure 9.2 Session of Indian Constituent Assembly

Source: NCERT Textbook, Class VIII, Our Past III Part II, Chapter 12, India after Independence, pp. 162
The division of power between the Central government and the State government was a major
issue on The Constituent Assembly. Some of the members were in favour of strong center but
other members felt that the provinces should have greater freedom and autonomy. These types
of arguments created conflict situation on this issue. Finally, The Constituent Assembly resolved
this issue by the division of the subject. They provided three lists of the subject: union list with the
subject of taxes, defence, and foreign affairs; these would be the exclusive responsibility of the
central government. State list with a subject of education and health would be the responsibility
of state government. The third list was concurrent list included those subjects whose responsibil-
ity is of both state and center such as agriculture and forest. The concurrent list includes those
subjects in which both the state and the center would have the joint responsibility.
Another major debate was concerned with language. Many of members of Constituent
Assembly favoured that English language should be removed from India with the British rule. They
argued that the English language should be replaced by Hindi language but non-Hindi speaking
people opposed. They have a different view on language and T. T. Krishanamachari warned the
Constituent Assembly that if they imposed Hindi language on people, they would be separated
from India. Finally, all members of Constituent Assembly compromised that Hindi would be the
‘official language’ of India and English language would be used in the services, the courts, and for
communication between one state and another state.
Our constitution was a masterpiece of work and it was possible because of the great contribu-
tion of many Indians in forming it. Some of the Indians had a remarkable role in the drafting of
Indian constitution. One amongst them was Dr. B. A. Ambedkar, Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar, was
the Chairman of the Drafting Committee, and under his supervision, the document of constitu-
tion finalised. The Drafting Committee has finalised the draft of the Indian constitution. In his

Constituent Assembly speech, Dr. Ambedkar pointed out that the it is important that the political
democracy had to be accompanied by social and economic democracy in our country. For the
removal of inequality such as upper and lower caste or rich and poor, giving the right to vote
would not automatically lead. We have political equality; however, in economic and social life,
we have inequality, and the change will not happen through the political equality. Our constitu-
tion recognised the principle of one man, one vote, and one value but in our economic and social
life, this does not happen because of our economic and social structure continuously denying the
principle of one man and one value. Let us see a picture of Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar in Drafting
Committee discussion.
Figure 9.3 Dr Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar

STATE FORMATION AND THEIR PROBLEMS

At present, there are 29 states in India. Most recently, after a long struggle, the Andhra Pradesh
state was divided into two new states: Telangana and Andhra. How these states are formed is a
good question? In order to try to understand the state formation procedure in India, we have to
go back in the 1920s. The main party of freedom struggles, that is, the Indian National Congress,
had promised to the different linguistic groups that after independence, each of linguistic groups
would have their own province. Independence comes with the partition and India had been
divided on the basis of religion. The result of this partition was paid by the killing of more than a

million people in Hindu–Muslim riots. The government did not want any other types of partition
or division of India that could trigger mass-level riots.
Both the Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, and deputy Prime Minister of India,
Vallabhbhai Patel, were against the creation of linguistic states. The government of India cleared
that they only support and promote the thought ideas that help the growth of nationalism and
everything that throws obstacles in its way were rejected. The government of India rejected the
idea of creating linguistic states. There were some linguistic groups who wanted to create their
own state such as Marathi-speaking, Kannada-speaking, and Malayalam-speaking groups. In
Madras Presidency, some Telugu-speaking districts started the strongest protests for their own
state. In the general election of 1952, Nehru faced a strong protest with black flags and shouting
slogans ‘We want Andhra’. In October 1952, the situation dramatically changed when veteran
Gandhian leader Potti Sriramulu started a hunger strike in the support of Telugu people’s demand.
Potti Sriramulu’s hunger strike attracted much more supporters for the demand of Andhra. It is
observed through bandhs and hartals in many towns of Madras Presidency.
Figure 9.4 Potti Sriramulu

After 58 days of hunger strike on 15 December 1952, Potti Sriramulu died. Potti Sriramulu’s death
triggered the demand of Andhra. The protest widespread in Madras Presidency and forced the
government of India to form a new Andhra state. On 1 October 1953, Andhra Pradesh was the
first state formed on linguistic basis. The formation of Andhra Pradesh triggered the demands
of other linguistic states such as Marathi, Gujarati, Oriya, Kannada, Tamil, and Malayalam.

The government of India set up a State Reorganisation Commission. The commission submitted
their report in 1956 and recommended the redrawing of districts and provincial boundaries on the
linguistic basis such as Assamese, Bengali, Oriya, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, and Telugu.
The formation of states was based on linguistic communities. The north region of India was
largely Hindi speaking. This region is broken into several states such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh. In 1960, the Bombay Presidency were divided
into Maharashtra and Gujarat. Gujarat formed on the basis of Gujarati-speaking community and
Maharashtra formed on the basis of Marathi-speaking community. In 1966, Punjab province was
divided into two states: Punjab and Haryana. Punjab for Punjabi-speaking people and Haryana
U.S.S.R
N
AFGHANISTAN JAMMU
AND
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MALDIVES
Figure 9.5 The States of India Republic in 1975

for Haryanvi/Hindi-speaking people. In 1975, most of the states were formed on language basis.
Look at the following map and try to understand the formed states of Indian Union.
The linguistic basis is not the only way to form a state in India; later, the formation of states changed
such as the formation of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, and new constitute Telangana state.
These states are formed on a different basis like development (Table 9.3 and Table 9.4).
Table 9.3 Indian states till 2010
S.No. Name of the state Date of formation

1 Andhra Pradesh 1 November 1956
2 Arunachal Pradesh 15 August 1947
3 Assam 15 August 1947
4 Bihar 1 April 1936
5 Chhattisgarh 1 November 2000
6 Goa 30 May 1987
7 Gujarat 1 May 1960
8 Haryana 1 Nov 1960
9 Himachal Pradesh 25 January 1971
10 Jammu and Kashmir 26 October 1947
11 Jharkhand 15 November 1947
12 Karnataka 1 November 1956
13 Kerala 1 November 1956
14 Madhya Pradesh 1 November 1956
15 Maharashtra 1 November 1960
16 Manipur 21 January 1972
17 Meghalaya 21 January 1950
18 Mizoram 20 February 1987
19 Nagaland 1 December 1963
20 Odisha 1 April 1936
21 Punjab 1 November 1966
22 Rajasthan 1 November 1956
23 Sikkim 16 May 1975
24 Tamil Nadu 26 January 1950
25 Tripura 12 January 1972
26 Uttar Pradesh 26 January 1950
27 Uttarakhand 9 November 2000
28 West Bengal 1 November 1956
Note: Andhra Pradesh state was divided into Telangana and Andhra on 2 June 2014. Now, India
has 29 states.

Table 9.4 Union territories and their date of formation
S.No. Name of Union Territory Date of formation

1 Andaman and Nicobar 1 November 1956
2 Chandigarh 1 November 1956
3 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 11 August 1961
4 Daman and Diu 23 May 1987
5 Lakshadweep 1 November 1956
6 National Capital Territory of Delhi —
7 Puducherry 1 July 1963
NOTION OF DEVELOPMENT AND THEIR PLANNING

In 1947, India became the Independent country but India saw the painful partition. At the time of
independence, the British handed over a fractured country that suffered from multiple challenges
such as poverty, hunger, and unemployment. It is a new start for India as a new nation. The prime
Figure 9.6 Jawaharlal Nehru at Bhilai Steel Plant


duty of the new government of India is to build a modern technical and industrial base for uplift-
ing Indians out of poverty. The government of India set a Planning Commission that helped in
designing policies according to economic needs of India and execute them properly. India chose a
mixed economy model. In the mixed economy model, both the public and private have the right
to involve in the economic fair. For the rapid development, the planning commission borrows
10-year plan from contemporary USSR and modified it as the five-year plan. The first five-year plan
was introduced in 1951 and it gets completed in 1956. The first five-year plan basically focused
on agriculture and some other reforms. After completion of the first five-year plan, they focused
on heavy industries.
Figure 9.7 Ongoing construction work on Gandhi Sagar Bandh, Chambal river Madhya
Pradesh
The second five-year plan was formulated in 1956. The completion of second five-year plan was
completed in 1961. This five-year plan was strongly focused on building heavy industries such as
large dams and steels. These sectors developed under the state control. Next few decades, the
state regulation on economy was guided by economic policies. Many people strongly supported
these policies but there were some vocal critics also present. There are some critics who put
inadequate emphasis on agriculture. Others point out the negligence of primary education and
environmental implications of economic policies. There are both negative and positive aspects of
the five-year plans and we cannot deny their importance in India’s development. List of five-year
plans are given in Table 9.5.

Table 9.5 Five-year plans
Five-year plan Time period

First plan 1951–1956
Second plan 1956–1961
Third plan 1961–1966
Fourth plan 1969–1974
Rolling plan 1978–1980
Sixth Plan 1980–1985
Seventh plan 1985–1990
Annual plan 1990–1992
Eight plan 1992–1997
Ninth plan 1997–2002
Tenth plan 2002–2007
Eleventh plan 2007–2012
Twelfth plan 2012–2017
SOVEREIGN INDIA AND THEIR SEARCH OF INDEPENDENCE FOREIGN

POLICY
India gained freedom after almost two years later of the Second World War. The United Nation
was formed on 24 October 1945. The international governing body was in its infancy stage. In
the last phase of Second World War, there were ideological differences between USA and USSR.
In the 1950s and 1960s, there was an emergence of cold war between USA and USSR. The whole
world was divided into two poles: one is USA and another is USSR both the countries formed
their military alliances in all over the world and they tried to attract newly independent third world
nation. It was a challenging situation for Indian state during that period. If they became allied
with any one of these military alliances, then that means they live in the shadow of these super
powers and surrender their sovereignty.
Jawaharlal Nehru was the first prime minister and foreign minister of independent India.
Jawaharlal Nehru cleared the foreign policy issue and decided that India should not join any of these
military alliances. India developed peaceful relationships with all countries of the world. Nehru who
is a hardcore supporter of non-alignment movement shaped Indian foreign policy in non-alignment
format. India, Indonesia, Egypt, Yugoslavia, and Ghana try to form non-alignment group for the
third world countries. These countries have not joined any military group. Some of these countries
played an active role in mediating between the soviet and American alliances, for example, India.
These countries tried to prevent the war because many of non-aligned countries got involved in
wars. In the 1970s, a large number of third world countries joined the non-alignment movement
and this movement provided them a stage to present their opinions and views in front of the world.

INDIA AFTER 70 YEARS

On 15 august 2016, India celebrated the 70th year of independence. Seventy years of independ-
ence is really an achievement for India and Indians. In the journey of last 70 years, India faced so
many challenges during this period. India got involved in five unexpected wars with their neigh-
bouring countries. Further, we faced terrorism in Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, and some parts of
the northeast state. There are many achievements and failure in the states of India. Let us analyse
these on the basis of the present situation. At the time of independence, many foreign observers
had felt that India could not survive as a single country. It will be a break in many parts but India
is still united and world’s biggest democracy. Some others felt that India became a military state
or a monarchy but after the emergency of 1975, Indian democracy became more powerful. India
got involved in five wars with their neighbouring countries; however, after partition, no major
territorial divisions happened. Last, the most important thing is that for the last 70 years of inde-
pendence, India faced so many challenges but it is still united and still progressive.
After all remarkable achievements, India still have challenges; for example, after 70 years of
independence, Dalits face discrimination and violence against them. There are some parts of rural
India where caste-based discrimination still continues and they are not allowed to access water
sources, temples, and other public places. Our constitution is based on and follows the idea
of secularism but there are many examples of religious clashes in many states. The differences
between rich and poor are wider and economic development benefited only for some selective
sections of society and others continue to live below the poverty line. In urban areas, situation
also not so good because of previous years’ unbalanced economic development. Employment
and better facilities in urban centres attract the people of the rural area and this is reason for the
huge-level migration happened in rural and urban centres. Environmental pollution is another
problem of contemporary time. We are saying that the Republic of India is failed but we have lots
of things to do for the better life of the people of India.

➨ India got independence at the midnight of 15 August 1947.
➨ In 1942, a biggest change happened in the Indian history. Muslim League presented two-
nation theory and these two nations are Hindus and Muslims.
➨ The affected areas of partition are Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Bengal.
➨ India had 565 princely states when the British government announced the independence of
India.
➨ British parliament passed the Indian Independence Act 1947 and British India partitioned into
the two new independent dominions of India and Pakistan.
➨ At the time of independence, India had 565 princely states.
➨ On 20 February 1947, British prime minister Clement Attlee announced that British govern-
ment should grant full self-government for British India by June 1947.

➨ At the time of 1947–1948, around 560 princely states chose either India or Pakistan. Five
princely states did not want to join either India or Pakistan, and they wanted their independent
status continuous like other states such as Jammu and Kashmir, Junagarh, and Hyderabad.
➨ Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon tried hard to integrate princely states and they did
this cleverly in step by step process.
➨ Lord Mountbatten declared the British government to grant dominion status only to India and
Pakistan. Further, the princely states were ordered to join either India or Pakistan if they did
not join either India or Pakistan, they will serve as a part of the British crown.
➨ France controlled Pondicherry, Karaikal, Yanam, and Mahe and Portugal controlled Goa,
Daman, Diu, Dadra, and Nagar haveli.
➨ On November 1954, French government transferred four enclaves to India and in 1962; finally,
the French parliament in Paris ratified a treaty with India.
➨ Britishers set legal system in India and it is a long series of acts that were introduced by the
British government from time to time.
➨ In December 1946, ‘Constituent Assembly’ were held in New Delhi.
➨ In combined constituents assembly, we had 389 members, wherein 296 members from British
India and 93 members from princely Indian states.
➨ Out of 210 seats of general categories, Congress won 199 seats. Congress won some seats in
reserved categories also such as 3 out of the 4 seats in Punjab, 3 seats out of the 78 Muslim
seats, and 3 seats from Delhi, Ajmer-Merwara, and Coorg. The total tally of Congress was 208
out of 296 seats.
➨ The Muslim League won 73 seats out of the 78 Muslim seats; this means that they won most
of the seats of reserve category.
➨ In the first session of Constituent Assembly, only 207 members attended. The Muslim League
tried to stop convening of the assembly but they failed to do this.
➨ The Muslim League decided to stay away with their 76 Muslim members from the Constituent
Assembly but Congress elected Muslim members to join the session.
➨ On 11 December 1946, the present Constituent Assembly members elected Dr. Rajendra
Prasad to the permanent chairman of Constitutional Assembly, and later, it was designated as
President of the Assembly.
➨ The Constituent Assembly separately reconstituted for Pakistan and India, and the members of
Indian Constituent Assembly were reduced to 299.
➨ After a long discussion and amendments, the final draft of the constitution was adopted on
26 January 1950. On 26 January 1950, India became the Republic of India.
➨ Constitution fixed the minimum age of franchise as 21.
➨ Franchise means the right to vote.
➨ Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee, and under his supervi-
sion, the document of constitution finalised.
➨ The planning commission borrowed 10-year plan from contemporary USSR. and modified it as
the five-year plan.

➨ The first five-year plan was introduced in 1951 and it was completed in 1956.
➨ The second five-year plan was formulated in 1956.
➨ The United Nation was formed on 24 October 1945.
Check Your Progress

1. Describe the challenges faced by India 4. Write a short note on making of the
after independence. Constitution of India.
2. What is two-nation theory? Describe the 5. Write a short note on Indian foreign policy.
role of two-nation theory in the partition 6. Describe the process of the formation of
of India. the state in independent India.
3. Write a short note on Constituent Assembly.
Objective Questions
1. Lord Mountbatten plan was announced 5. ___________’s death triggered the demand
on: of Andhra.
(a) 3 June 1946 (a) Mahatma Gandhi
(b) 3 June 1947 (b) Jawaharlal Nehru
(c) 3 June 1948 (c) Dr Radhakrishnan
(d) 3 June 1945 (d) Potti Sriramulu
2. The two-nation theory was presented by: 6. The first state formed on the basis of lan-
(a) Kauai League guage was:
(b) Muslim League (a) Kerala
(c) Freedom League (b) Kannada
(d) None of these (c) Andhra Pradesh
3. How many princely states were present at (d) Tamil Nadu
the time of Indian Independence? 7. India became the Republic of India on:
(a) 545 (a) 26 January 1930
(b) 560 (b) 26 January 1947
(c) 565 (c) 26 November 1949
(d) 575 (d) 26 January 1950
4. What is the name of British Prime Minister 8. The National Capital territory of Delhi was
at the time of Indian Independence? formed in:
(a) Admant Attlee (a) 1912
(b) Sletmand Attlee (b) 1935
(c) Norman Attlee (c) 1947
(d) Clement Attlee (d) None of these

9. The chairperson of the Drafting Committee (c) Right to freedom

of Constituent Assembly was: (d) Right to vote
(a) Dr Rajendra Prasad 16. What is the minimum age of Right to vote
(b) Jawaharlal Nehru in 1950?
(c) B. R. Ambedkar (a) 18 years
(d) Vallabhbhai Patel (b) 19 years
10. The time period of Rolling plan was: (c) 20 years
(a) 1975–1977 (d) 21 years
(b) 1978–1980 17. The five-year plan of Planning Commission
(c) 1982–1984 was inspired from:
(d) 1990–1992 (a) UK
11. The state of Bombay presidency was (b) USA
divided into: (c) RSA
(a) Karnataka and Maharashtra (d) USSR
(b) Maharashtra and Goa
18. Pondicherry, Karaikal, Yanam, and Mahe
(c) Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh were the colony of:
(d) Gujarat and Maharashtra (a) Dutch
12. The chairman of Union Power Committee (b) France
was: (c) German
(a) Vallabhbhai Patel (d) British
(b) Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer
19. Which one of the following was not con-
(c) M. N. Music trolled by Portuguese?
(d) Jawaharlal Nehru (a) Goa
13. Andhra Pradesh was divided into Telangana (b) Daman
and Andhra on: (c) Diu
(a) 02 April 2011 (d) Madras
(b) 02 March 2013 20. The second five-year plan is well-known
(c) 02 June 2014 for:
(d) 02 February 2015 (a) Agricultural production
14. Bihar was formed on: (b) Trade expansion
(a) 1 April 1936 (c) Roads and railways
(b) 15 August 1947 (d) Heavy industries and large dams
(c) 1 October 1953
(d) 1 November 1956
15. Franchise means:
(a) Right to speech
(b) Right to property

UNIT II
Geography
Chapter 1 Solar System

Chapter 2 Earth in Solar System
Chapter 3 Globe
Chapter 4 Environment
Chapter 5 Air
Chapter 6 Water
Chapter 7 Agriculture
Chapter 8 Resources
Chapter 9 Human Environment
M02_CTET_SOCIAL-SCI01_SE_XXXX_CH01.indd 137 11/4/2016 11:23:13 AM

Geography: An
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
The word geography is coined from two Latin words ‘Geo’ (Earth) and ‘Graphy’ (illustration). We
can define geography as a discipline related to the study of Earth, although various scholars of
different times had diverse opinions and definitions about this discipline. However, they agreed
to a point that Geography studies earth as a human residence. In a broader sense, it can also be
defined as the discipline that deals with the relation of human being and its atmosphere. Here,
atmosphere needs to be understood first, where atmosphere is referred to the physical and cul-
tural atmosphere of human being.
DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY

Geography can be divided into three main branches, namely physical geography, human geog-
raphy, and economic geography. These branches are further divided into various sub-branches.
1. Physical geography: physical geography is related to physical environment and its activities
that occur due to the change in physical environment of earth. Physical geography has the
following different sub–branches:
(a) Geomorphology: It is a branch of Geography that studies the formation of surface of

the earth. It can also be defined as studies of topography, as it studies landforms of earth.
As it is related to topography, it is also related to the studies of matters that make the
surface of earth. Therefore, it includes the study of matter found on the surface of earth.
It also studies the inner and outer forces that affect the surface of earth.
(b) Climate science: This branch of geography deals with the integration and structure of
atmosphere. It also studies the energy and acquiring changes of atmosphere and is nearly
related to meteorology. Climate Science studies the effect of climate on human being and
climate of different places on earth.
(c) Oceanography: Oceanography is the subject that studies about sea. It is not only deals
with the study of sea levels but also deals with the study of different sea characteristics
such as temperature, salinity, volume, and so on.

140 | Unit II Geography
(d) Biogeography: Biogeography studies the relation of organisms and plants with their
environment, and it also includes the study of plants and animals.
2. Human geography: Human geography is also an important branch of core geography.
Human Geography is related to the study of activities on earth. It includes the study of human
groups and their cultural features. This branch of geography has different sub–branches,
which are discussed below.
(a) Population geography: Population growth and its distribution is the main focus of
Population geography.
(b) Cultural geography: It studies the action and process of different cultures in the context
of specific region of human environment. It believes that all the cultures are the result of
mutual interaction of human and its environment.
(c) Domiciliation geography: The area of study of domiciliation geography is distribution
of human residence and the relation to their environment. We can divide the domicilia-
tion geography into rural and urban geography.
(d) Political geography: It is an important branch of human geography. It studies the politi-
cal organisation of different places and their relation with geographical facts. It also stud-
ies the role of geographical conditions and elements in politics. A new branch of political
geography deals with public election. It is called election geography.
3. Economic geography: Many geographers believe economic geography is an important and

primary branch of human geography. This branch of Geography studies the economic activi-
ties of humans. It also deals with the effect and role of physical element and economic devel-
opment. It has multiple sub-branches.
(a) Agriculture geography: It studies the effect of natural and geographical elements on
development of agriculture. Agricultural activities such as cultivation of animals and crops
are also the area of study of this branch.
(b) Industrial geography: Similar to agricultural geography, industrial geography is also a
sub-branch of economic Geography that studies the relation of industrial activities and
geography.
(c) Transportation geography: It is related to the study of transportation system. It deals
with issues, problems, challenges, and possibilities in the development of transportation.
(d) Resources: It is an important branch of economic geography. It deals with area wise dis-
tribution of recourses. The assessment of potential resources and need of their protection
is also the main area of its study.
(e) Geography of development: It is a very new sub-branch of economic geography. It is
related to the exploration of economic development.

CHAPTER
Solar System 1
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Become familiar with solar system
• Become aware about the various planets in our social system along with their characteristics
• Develop understanding about our planet ‘The Earth’
• Explore about the position and characteristics of moon
INTRODUCTION
Sun is the base of our solar system, and the planets of the solar system revolve around it continu-
ously in different speeds. All the planets have their respective moons except Mercury and Venus.
Solar system consists of not only planets but also millions of asteroids, rocks, and so on. The grav-
ity of Sun is the foremost power in our solar system.
The formation of planets and other things available in our solar system are constructed during
the formation of Sun. Initially, there were gases and dust particles that formed the Sun, and later,
it spread all over. Then, gradually, it became the cause of the formation of various planets. The
age of our solar system is approximately four to six billion years.
Scientists believe that our solar system is formed with gas, dust and such other particles (solar
nebula). Because of the collapsing of nebula due to gravity, it started spinning faster and compressed
into a disc. Whatsoever was spread around was pulled inside and Sun was formed. Rest of the par-
ticles collided together and formed planets, moons, and so on. The wind of Sun pushed the lighter
objects away and the heavier ones remained in innermost level, and those were small and hard.
It is important to understand that there are no boundaries in space. In our solar system, the
entire planets orbit around the Sun. Neptune is the outermost planet that orbits and revolves
around 30 astronomical units from the sun. Astronomical unit is calculated as follows:
One astronomical unit = Distance between Sun and Earth (149 million km)
As discussed earlier, we have one star, that is, the sun and eight planets in our solar system.
However, interestingly, we can see Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn with naked eyes

142 | Chapter 1 Solar System
or without any additional instruments like telescopes, but for Uranus and Neptune, we need
telescopes to see them.
All planets of our solar system can be categorised into two types, namely rocky (terrestrial)
and gaseous planets. Rocky planets include Mercury, Earth, Venus, and Mars. These all have
similar composition such as Earth, whereas gaseous planets include Jupiter, Uranus, Saturn,
and Neptune, in which Jupiter and Saturn carries highest amount of hydrogen and helium.
There are four planets that have rings around them and these are Jupiter, Uranus, Saturn,
and Neptune.
PLANETS
The galaxy that we live in is named as ‘Milky Way’, and it has many planets of different nature,
shape, and size. Currently, there are eight planets in our solar system including Earth. As of now,
Earth is the only planet that supports life from microorganisms to human beings. In this chapter,
we will explore about these planets.
Mercury
It is the nearest planet to the Sun. It can be seen clearly in the sky two hours before sunrise. It is
the smallest planet in our galaxy and has no satellite. It has the following special characteristics:
1. It has a magnetic field.

2. It has lesser density, even less than water.
3. It has extremely hot days and very cool nights.
4. It has temperature difference of approximate 560°C.
Venus
It is the nearest planet of earth. Brightness is the special characteristic of this planet. It is also
known as the evening star and morning star. It revolves clockwise, which is different from other
planets, as they revolve anticlockwise. It does not have any satellite.
Mars
It is also known as red planet, as it is red in colour. The main reason behind its redness is the pres-
ence of iron oxide on its surface. It has two poles like earth, that is, North Pole and South Pole. It
is bent at an angle of 25°, and hence, it has climate change cycle like Earth. It completes a circuit
on its axis in 24 hours, and it takes 687 days to complete one circumambulation of Sun, where for
Earth it is 365 days and it is called a year.

Unit II Geography | 143
Jupiter
It is the largest planet of the solar system. It takes 10 hours to rotate on its axis and it takes 12
years to complete one circumambulation of Sun.
Saturn
It is the second largest planet of the solar system. It seems like a yellow star. It has seven bracelets
around it. The biggest satellite of this planet is Titan, which is second largest satellite of the solar
system.
Uranus
It is the third largest planet of the solar system. It has a temperature of –215°C. It was discovered
by William Herschel in the year 1781. There are nine bracelets around it, in which five are alfa,
Beta, gamma, delta, and epsilon. It rotates from east to west on its axis. Here, Sun rises in the
west and sets in the east. All its satellites rotate opposite of the rotation of Earth’s satellite. The
biggest satellite of this planet is Titania.
Neptune
It was discovered in 1846 by German astronomer Johann Galle. In the new solar system, it is the
farthest planet from the Sun. It appears green. Cold methane cloud rotates around it. It has more
than one satellite, among them satellite Triton is important. It is 17 times larger than the earth.
Uranus
Mars
Venus
SUN Mercury Saturn

Earth
Neptune
Jupiter
Figure 1.1 Solar system

EARTH IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Similar to other planets, Earth is also a member of solar system. Apart from these planets, there
are multiple objects in our solar system such as natural satellites, asteroids, comets, and so on.
Planets do not have their own light. All planets revolve on their axis. It is important to note that
all planets revolve west to east on its axis, except Uranus and Venus.
The nearest star of Earth is Proxima Centauri, which is the member of Alfa century star family,
which is 4.22-light year away from the earth. In its shape and appearance, it is similar to Venus.
Shape and Size of Earth

People believe that the shape of Earth is round, but in reality, it is not a complete round. It is oblate
spheroid in shape. The diameter of earth on equator is approximately 12,762 km and the polar
diameter is of 12,713.6 km.
Moon (Natural Satellite)

Moon is the satellite of Earth. It rotates on its axis along with its rotation on the orbit round the
Earth. Its axis makes an angle of 58.48° with the axis of earth. Its axis is approximately parallel to
the earth. It has a radius of 3480 km, and its mass is 1/8 of the earth. During the rotation, when
it is closer to the earth, it is known as perigee, and the distance between the Earth and moon is
356,000 km, and when it is farthest, it is called apogee with a distance of 407,000 km. It completes
an orbital rotation in 29.53 days, which is called one synodic month. With respect to the star time,
its completion on orbit is called a star month. Mons Huygens is the highest mountain of the moon.
If in one calendar month, there are two full moons, then the second moon would be called
blue moon, which happens in less time than usual, that is, 31 days. It happens usually in two or
three years. Last time in year 2012, it was seen, and in the year 2018, it would be seen again, and
if in one year, the blue moon happen twice or more, it would be considered as the blue moon
year. Therefore, 2018 will be a blue moon year.
DWARF PLANETS
Pluto is one of the examples of dwarf planet. It was discovered in the year 1930 by Clyde Tombaugh.
In 2006 International Astronomical Union (IAU) Prague conference, it was categorised as dwarf
planet (Bone Graha), because it was not following the criteria of a planet. Its size is smaller than the
moon, it is crossing the orbit of Neptune, and its orbit was not circular. Its new name is 134340 Pluto.
Another such planet is Ceres. It was discovered by Giuseppe Piazzi, and its new name is 1 Ceres.
ASTEROIDS
Between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, there are small celestial bodies that rotate around the Sun, and
these are called asteroids. According to astronomers, when a star or planets after completion of their

age explodes, asteroids are formed. Sometimes these asteroids come into the atmosphere of earth
and collide with its surface forming big digs or pits. One such example is Lonar Lake in Maharashtra.
Asteroids can be very large and can be 940 km across. The smallest asteroid found was only
20 feet. It is important to know that there is no fixed shape and size of asteroids. They are irregu-
lar in shape, and most of them are enclosed in dust.
Asteroids can be categorised into three types. First is Type-C (carbonaceous). These are greyish
in colour. These are made up of clay and stones. Type-S (silicaneous) asteroids are greenish and
reddish in colour. These are made up of nickel iron and silicate materials. Type-M is reddish in col-
our. These are also known as metallic asteroids. These are constructed with nickel iron. All these
asteroids dwell in different level of belts, such as type-C dwell in the mail belts of outer region,
type-S dwell in the inner belt of asteroid and type-M dwell in the middle groin of the belt of steroid.
COMETS
There are millions of heavy bodies on the exteriors of solar system, which are called comets.
Basically, these are combinations of gases and dusts. These can be seen in the sky with a bright
long tail. These can be seen when they move towards the Sun, which make them observe like
shooting stars. The rotational time of the comet is called Halley, which is 76 years. Last time, it
was seen in the year 1886 and in the year 1962.
METEOROIDS
Meteoroids are seen in the sky as a shining line that shine for a moment and extinct. These are
the tiny parts of comets and asteroids.
CONSTELLATION
Constellations are units that divide the sky to identify the position of stars. These were named on
many mythological characters. There are 88 identified constellations in total. Constellations may
be rectangular slices consisting stars within it. In simple words, constellation is defined as organ-
ised group of stars that provide a shape or pattern in the sky.
Table 1.1 Different types of constellations and their Indian names
Constellations Indian name of the constellations

Ursa major (great bear) Saptarishi
Ursa minor (little bear) Dhruva matsya
Scorpio Vrischika
Aries Mesh
Taurus Virsh
(contd)

Table 1.1 (Contd)
Constellations Indian name of the constellations

Gemini Mithun
Cancer Kark
Leo Singha
Virgo Kanya
Libra Tula
Sagittarius Dhanu
Capricorn Maker
Aquarius Kumbh
Pisces Meen
Orion (hunter) Mriga
Draco (dragon) Kaleya

➨ Sun is the base of our solar system, and the planets of the solar system revolve around it con-
tinuously in different speeds.
➨ Scientists believe that our solar system is formed with giant, gas, and dust (solar nebula).
➨ The wind of Sun pushed the lighter objects away and the heavier ones remained in innermost
level, and those were small and hard.
➨ Neptune is the outermost planet that orbits and revolves around 30 astronomical units from
the sun.
➨ Astronomical unit is calculated as follows: one astronomical unit = Distance between Sun and
Earth (149 million km).
➨ We can see Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn with naked eyes or without any addi-
tional instruments like telescopes, but for Uranus and Neptune, we need telescopes to see
them.
➨ All planets of our solar system can be categorised into two types, namely rocky (terrestrial) and
gaseous planets.
➨ Currently, there are eight planets in our solar system including the Earth, where Mercury is the
nearest to sun and Neptune is the outermost planet.
➨ It is important to note that except Uranus and Venus, all planets revolve from west to east on
its axis.
➨ The diameter of earth on equator is approximately 12,762 km and the polar diameter is of
12,713.6 km.
➨ Moon is the natural satellite of earth.
➨ Pluto is one of the examples of dwarf planet.

➨ Between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, there are small celestial bodies that rotate around the
sun, and these are called asteroids.
➨ Asteroids are three types (broadly): Type-C, Type-S, and Type-M.
➨ Constellations are units that divide the sky to identify the position of stars.
Check Your Progress

1. What is geography? 8. How many planets are there in our solar
2. What do you understand by physical system? Explain with their characteristics.
geography? 9. Explain some important characteristics of
3. What is the geomorphology? moon.
4. What is the importance of economic 10. What are dwarf planets? Explain with

geography? Discuss the sub-branches of example.
economic geography. 11. What is the difference among asteroids,
5. What do you understand by human geog- comets, and meteoroids?
raphy? How is it different from physical 12. What are constellations? Explain with

geography? examples and their Indian names.
6. What you do understand by solar system?
7. Why Pluto was pushed out from the
planets list?
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following planet is known as (b) Venus
‘saanjh ka tara ya bhor ka tara’? (c) Jupiter
(a) Venus (d) Neptune
(b) Mars 4. Largest planet of the solar system is:
(c) Jupiter
(a) Jupiter
(d) Saturn (b) Pluto
2. Which one of the following planet revolves (c) Venus
clockwise? (d) Earth
(a) Venus 5. Which one of the following planet is
(b) Jupiter known as yellow star?
(c) Mars
(a) Saturn
(d) Earth
(b) Mars
3. Which one of the following planet has (c) Pluto
climate change process like earth? (d) Neptune
(a) Mars

6. ____________ planet is called red planet. (b) Sun’s closer and farthest distance from
(a) Mars Earth
(b) Saturn (c) Mars closer and farthest distance from
(c) Pluto Sun
(d) Uranus (d) Neptune closer and farthest distance
from Sun
7. _____________ has nine bracelets around
it. 13. What is a blue moon?
(a) Uranus (a) Second full moon of a calendar month
(b) Saturn (b) First full moon of a calendar month
(c) Neptune (c) Third full moon of a calendar month
(d) Mars (d) First full moon of the calendar year
8. ____________ has four bracelets named 14. What is a synodic month?
Alfa, Beta, Gamma, and Delta. (a) Complete orbital rotation of moon
(a) Uranus (b) Complete orbital rotation of Earth
(b) Neptune (c) Earth’s complete rotation of Sun
(c) Pluto (d) Mars complete orbital rotation
(d) Jupiter 15. What is the new name of Pluto?
9. Green planet of the solar system is (a) 134340
__________. (b) 145201
(a) Neptune (c) 145232
(b) Jupiter (d) 214568
(c) Pluto 16. Comets are made of:
(d) Uranus (a) Dust and gases
10. What is the shape of earth? (b) Highly dense gases only
(a) Oblate spheroid (c) Gold and silver
(b) Circular (d) Rocks
(c) Oval
17. Pluto is no more in the list of planet of our
(d) Ellipses solar system, because
11. Which one of the following is the nearest (a) it crosses the orbit of Neptune.
star of the Earth? (b) it is too cold.
(a) Proxima centauri (c) it has very big amount of methane on
(b) Alpha centauri its surface.
(c) Ross 248 (d) it is far from Sun.
(d) Gliese 445 18. What is Mons Huygens in reference to
12. Perigee and apogee are the terms used for: moon?
(a) Moon’s closer and farthest distance (a) Highest mountain of moon
from Earth (b) Highest mountain of Jupiter

(c) Highest mountain of Mars (a) Lonar lake, Maharashtra

(d) Highest mountain of Neptune (b) Wular Lake, Kashmir
(c) Sambhar Lake, Rajasthan
19. Which one of the following lakes in Indian
(d) Dal Lake, Kashmir
is made by an asteroid collide?

CHAPTER
Earth in Solar System 2

LEARNING ObjECTIVES
• Understand the origination and formation of Earth
• Be aware of the composition of Earth
• Explore the internal formation of earth, which is categorised into three different layers: the
crust, the mantle, and the core
• Understand the rocks and their various forms
• Familiarise the volcanoes and earthquakes
INTRODUCTION
The earth is the only planet with conducive environment to sustain life. It is continuously changing
inside and outside. The earth is not same as it was millions of years ago or let us say thousands of
years ago. We know that Indian plateau is sliding towards the north, Himalaya’s height is increas-
ing every year, earthquakes and volcanoes are changing the shape of landforms of the earth and
all these processes are perpetuating from the time the earth came into existence. What are the
reasons of such incidents and activities? To understand this, we have to understand the formation
of earth from inside and outside. For this, let us understand the composition of earth.
COMPOSITION OF EARTH (IN PERCENTAGE)

1.1%
1.1%
1.9% Iron
2.4% 0.5% Oxygen
Silicon
13% Magnesium
35%
Nickel
Sulphur
15%
Calcium
Aluminium
30% Other elements

Some important facts about Earth

Age—4.6 billion years
Mass—5.972 × 10 (power 24) l
Volume—1.083 × 10 (power 24) l
Average density—5,514 kg/l
Shape—Oblate Spheroid
Surface area—51,00,66,000 sq. km
Equatorial diameter—12,756 km
Polar diameter—12,713.6 km
Average surface temperature—14.c. Highest is 58.c (Libya) and lowest is 89.c (Antarctica)
Highest land point—mt. Everest (Nepal) 8,850 m
Deepest ocean point—Mariana trench (Pacific Ocean) 11,033 m
Speed of rotation around sun—29.8 km/s
Distance from sun—152 million km (at aphelion) and 147 million km (at perihelion)
Earth was also formed almost at the same time when sun became a star; that is, 4.6 billion
years ago. The sun is formed when nebula collapsed due to gravity. It started to spin faster and
condensed into dust. Largely, all materials were gone into the centre and the sun was formed.
The remaining particles that were available in the dust collided together to form various bodies
and earth is one of them (refer Chapter 1, Solar System).
If we trace the history of the earth, we will know that it had been divided into four eras:
Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. The first three are called Precambrian. Archaean
is the time when the first life on the earth came into existence. The Phanerozoic can also be
understood in three eras: Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.
It is important to understand that the earth is surrounded by air that gets thicker as we go away
from the surface (approximately 160 km). However, the atmosphere is found at 600 km above
from the earth. Troposphere is the lowest layer of atmosphere and is always in motion. Sunlight
heats the body of the earth that causes rain (systematic process). The atmosphere is about 48 km
above from troposphere. The current moving in the outer core of the earth generates magnetic
field. This magnetic field is getting weak and it has been weakened 10% since 19th century.
INTERIOR OF EARTH
The earth is a combination of different layers, for example, an onion. All these layers have different
constituents and properties. The knowledge of interior formation of earth is made by three sources.
First, the unnatural forces, the variations of density, pressure, and temperature on different levels
tell us that the earth is not the same inside; there is a variation in its chemical and physical proper-
ties and conditions on different levels. This proves that the earth has different levels upside down.
Second, the theories about the formation of the earth given by T.C. Chamberlin, James Jean, and

152 | Chapter 2 Earth in Solar System
Laplaas, who argued that the earth had different layers. Third, the natural sources such as volca-
noes and earthquakes that provide a lot of information about the internal formation of earth. The
seismic waves provide a lot of information to the geologists to study the internal activities. Till now,
the studies have provided the following information about the internal formation of the earth and
have categorised it in three different layers: the crust, the mantle, and the core.
1. Crust: It is the outermost layer of the earth. Its thickness varies on different surfaces of
the earth. Similarly, according to the IUGG (International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics)
beneath the ocean, its average thickness is about 5 km. However, under the continents, it is
about 30 km; in the area of prime mountain ranges, it is 70–100 km thick. On the basis of the
seismic waves, the crust further divided into two sub-divisions: the upper crust and the lower
crust. In the upper crust, the speed of P wave is around 6.1 km/s, while in the lower crust, it
is 6.9 km/s. The density of the upper crust is 2.8, while the density of the lower crust is 3.0.
Further, the variation of density is the result of different pressures on these two sub-layers and
this discontinuity of density is called ‘Conrad discontinuity’.
2. Mantle: The speed of seismic waves increases suddenly on the base of crust. In the lower
crust, the wave P speed increases from 6.9 km/s to 7.9 km/s. In this way, there is a discon-
tinuity between the lower crust and the upper mantle. It was discovered by A. Mohorovicic
in 1909, and thus, it is called Moho discontinuity. From Moho discontinuity to the depth of
2,900 km, the mantle exists. Mantle is 83% of the earth volume and 68% of its mass. On the
basis of the seismic waves, the IUGG has divided the mantle into three parts: from Moho dis-
continuity to 200 km depth, 200 km to 700 km depth, and from 700 km to 2,900 km depth.
The discontinuity of density of upper and lower mantle is called Repetti discontinuity.
3. Core: The core of the earth ranges from 2,900 km to 6,371 km at the centre of the earth.
On the basis of the lower mantle, the speed of P waves increases suddenly and it reaches
to a speed of 13.6 km/s. This variation represents the variation of density of rocks from
5.5 to 10.0, which causes a discontinuity called Gutenberg–Weichert discontinuity. From the
Gutenberg–Weichert discontinuity to the centre of the earth, the core is subdivided into two
parts: Inner Core and Outer Core.
The outer core ranges from 2,900 km to 5,150 km. The S Waves do not enter into this
region; therefore, it is thought to be in liquid state with a density of 10.0. The Inner Core
ranges from 5,150 km to 6,371 km, which is in solid or plastic state with a density of 13.6.
There is a variation of density in outer and inner core and this continuity is called Lehmann
discontinuity. The volume of core is 16% of the total volume of the earth, but it is 32% of the
total mass of the earth. The inner part of the core is formed from iron and nickel.
There is an imaginary line known as axis. Earth spins on it from North Pole to the South Pole. It
also orbits the sun. The time it takes to complete a rotation on axis is 23.439 h, whereas it com-
pletes one orbit of sun in 365.26 days. Axis on which the earth rotates around the sun is called
ecliptic plane. Its implication is that the north and south blemishers keep changing its position
depending on the position of the earth towards the sun.

Lithosphere
Crust crust and
0–100 km upper most
thick Asthenosphere mantle
Mantle
Mantle
2,900 km
Liquid
Outer Core
core
Inner 5,100 km
core Solid
6,378 km
Figure 2.1 Interior of the earth
ROCKS
All the elements on the crust that are non-metallic whether soft like clay or solid like granite are
called rocks. The rocks can be solid such as the sandstone or granite or soft such as clay or sand.
They can be pervious such as chalk and limestone or impervious such as slate and granite. In gen-
eral term, rocks are the collections of minerals. However, some rocks are formed by one mineral
such as sandstone, limestone, and marble; others could be the mixture of different minerals such
as granite, quartz, feldspars, and mica, which are the combinations of three or four minerals. On
the crust of the earth, there are 110 elements from which only 8 are primarily constituents of the
earth’s crust.
On the basis of these formations, the rocks are divided into following three categories:
1. Igneous rocks: During the volcanic eruption, the melted magma comes from the interior of
the earth and spreads over the surface. When the magma cools and solidifies, it is changed
into igneous rocks. After the origin of the earth, these were formed first, and therefore, these
are also called primary rocks. These types of rocks cannot be penetrated, and therefore,
these are less affected by the chemical reactions and remain for a very long time. They are
affected by the physical and dynamic destructions and decomposition. It is a grained shape,
solid-state rock. Fossils are not found in these rocks. The metamorphic and sedimentary rocks
are directly and indirectly formed by these rocks. Some examples of these rocks are basalt
and granite. The Deccan plateau is composed of basalt rocks. There are two types of igneous
rocks: the intrusive rocks and extrusive rocks. If the erupted magma comes on the surface and
cools down, it is called extrusive rocks, for example, basalt rocks. However, when the magma

cools down deep inside the earth at a long time span, it is called intrusive rocks, for example,
granite. Some of the examples of igneous rocks are Aravalli Range, Chota Nagpur Plateau,
Plateau of Ranchi, and Caves of Ajanta. Most of the minerals such as silver, gold, iron, nickel,
cordite, and plutonium are found in the igneous rocks.
2. Sedimentary rocks: The rocks get affected by the physical and chemical changes overtime
and they get crushed and changed into small particles called sediments, for example, sand.
When these small parts get collated at one place, they form as sedimentary rocks. Most of
the fossils and mineral oils are found in these rocks. The sedimentary rocks are extended
over 75% of the surface, while in the formation of the crust, they have 5% contribution.
The sedimentary rocks are useful in many ways. The limestones and sandstones are used in
the construction of buildings, limestones and other soils are used in steel industries, and the
limestones are also used in cement production.
3. Metamorphic rocks: Due to high temperature and pressure or with the effect of both and
with the reaction of high temperature vapour and water, the sedimentary and igneous rocks
change into metamorphic rocks. These processes change the texture, mineral composition,
quality, and colour of the igneous and sedimentary rocks (Refer Table 2.1). The metamorphic
rocks are the harder and very solid than the other rocks. They lack the fossils: however, ample
amount of diamonds, mica, and quartz are found in these rocks.
Magma
Metamorphic rock Igneous rock
Sedimentary Sediments
rock
Figure 2.2 Formation of metamorphic rocks

Table 2.1 Examples for the formation of metamorphic rocks
Type of rock Original rock Metamorphic rock

Igneous Granite Gneiss
Igneous Basalt Hornblende
Sedimentary Limestone Marble
Sedimentary Coal Graphite coal
Sedimentary Sandstone Quartzite
Sedimentary Shale/clay Slate, mica schist
VOLCANO
A volcano is a vent or hole in the surface of the earth, which is related to the interior of the earth,
and through which, the hot gases, lava, ashes, and vapour erupt from the interior of the earth.
The lava comes out of the vent and collected around the vent; further, it creates the volcanic
cone. When this cone gets larger, it becomes a volcanic mountain. At the top and centre of the
mountain, a hole is found and it is called volcanic vent. This vent is connected to the interior
of the earth through a narrow way, which is called a volcanic pipe. When this vent gets larger,
it is called volcanic crater. When it becomes even larger due to eruption or other reasons, it is
called Caldera.
Gases and ash

Crater
Vent
Lava
Crust
Magma
Mantle
chamber
Figure 2.3 A Volcano
Types of Volcanoes
On the basis of activity, volcanoes are classified as active volcano, dormant volcano, and extinct
volcano. Active volcanoes are such volcanoes that constantly erupt dust, smoke, vapour, gas,

ashes, rock blocks, lava, and other elements. There are more than 500 active volcanoes in the
world. Dormant volcanoes are such volcanoes that have not erupted in the near past but can
erupt anytime. Extinct volcanoes are such volcanoes that have not erupted in a historical period
and they are unlikely to erupt in the future.
On the basis of eruption, volcanoes are classified as central eruption and fissure eruption.
When the volcano erupts with an explosion from the central vent, it is called central eruption.
These are located at the boundaries of destructive plateaus. Due to the internal activities in the
crust, rocks are cracked; further, through these cracks, the lava comes from the earth that is called
fissure eruption. Through the lava, which comes out of fissure eruption, the lava plateaus were
created. There are four major volcanic areas in the world. The circum-Pacific belt, mid-continental
belt, mid-Atlantic belt and interplant volcanism.
Some of the famous volcanoes in the world
Table 2.2 Some famous volcano of the world

Name of the volcano Name of the country
Cotopaxi Ecuador
Mount Etna Italy
Popocatepetl Central Mexico
Krakatoa Indonesia
Mount Mayon Philippines
Sakurajima Japan
Mount Merapi Indonesia
Ulawun Papua New Guinea
EARTHQUAKE
Earthquake is the vibration or wave of the surface. The place where the wave starts is called focus
of the earthquake and where they are felt at first are called epicentre of the earthquake. The
branch of Science that records and studies the seismic waves through seismograph machine is
called seismology. The focus of earthquake produces large energy called elastic energy. There are
different kinds of waves that originates during the earthquakes. These waves are called seismic
waves. Primarily, they are categorised as follows:
1. Primary or Compression or P waves: These are high speed waves that can travel at a
speed of 8–14 km/s. They differ in speed in different area of density. They are like sound
waves that can run through gases, liquids, and solids.
2. Transverse waves: These waves are like water or light waves. They are called transverse
waves because the particles move at right angles to the rays. They are also called second-
ary waves because they appear after the primary waves. They have a less speed than the

primary waves that is approximately 4–6 km/s. They cannot run through liquids, therefore,
they become extinct in oceans.
3. Surface or long waves: They have a speed of 3 km/s; they travel around the earth and they
are called long waves. They are most dangerous waves because they travel both on land and
water. The distribution of earthquakes is same as the volcanoes.

➨ Earth is also formed almost at the same time when the sun became a star, that is, 4.6 billion
years ago.
➨ If we trace the history of the earth, we will know that it had been divided into four eras:
Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic.
➨ It is important to understand that the earth is surrounded by air that gets thicker as we go
away from surface (approximately 160 km).
➨ The knowledge of interior formation of the earth is composed of three sources.
■ The unnatural forces, the variations of density, pressure, and temperature on different levels
tell us that the earth is not the same inside.
■ The theories about the formation of the earth given by T.C. Chamberlin, James Jean, and
Laplaas, who argued that the earth have different layers.
■ The natural sources such as volcanoes and earthquakes provide a lot of information about
the internal formation of the earth.
➨ The internal formation of the earth is categorised into three different layers: the crust, the
mantle, and the core.
➨ Crust is the outermost layer of the earth. Its thickness varies on different surfaces of the earth.
➨ The speed of seismic waves increases suddenly on the base of the crust. In the lower crust, the
wave P speed increases from 6.9 km/s to 7.9 km/s. In this way, there is a discontinuity between
the lower crust and the upper mantle.
➨ The core of the earth ranges from 2,900 km to 6,371 km at the centre of the earth.
➨ The Outer Core ranges from 2,900 km to 5,150 km.
➨ There is an imaginary line known as axis. Earth spins on it from North Pole to the South Pole.
➨ The time it takes to complete a rotation on axis is 23.439 h, whereas it completes one orbit of
sun in 365.26 days.
➨ All the elements on the crust that are non-metallic whether soft like clay or solid like granite
are called rocks.
➨ During the volcanic eruption, the melted magma comes from the interior of the earth and
spreads over the surface. When it is settled and gets cold, it changes into Igneous Rocks.
➨ The rocks get affected by the physical and chemical changes overtime and they get crushed
and changed into small particles called sediments, for example, sand. When these small parts
get collated at one place, they form as sedimentary rocks.

➨ Due to the high temperature and pressure or with the effect of both and with the reaction of
high temperature vapour and water, the sedimentary and igneous rocks change into meta-
morphic rocks.
➨ A volcano is a vent or hole in the surface of the earth that is related to the interior of the earth
and through which the hot gases, lava, ashes, and vapour erupt from the interior of the earth.
➨ On the basis of activity, volcanoes are classified as active volcano, dormant volcano, and extinct
volcano.
➨ Earthquake is the vibration or wave of the surface. The place where the wave starts is called
focus of the earthquake and where they are felt at first are called epicentre of the earthquake.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Discuss the composition of the earth. 5. What is a metamorphic rock? Explain its
2. Explain the interior of earth with the help transformation cycle with examples.
of its diagram. 6. Explain the process of volcano eruption.
3. What is an igneous rock? 7. What do you understand by active volca-
4. What do you understand by sedimentary noes? Give some examples.
rock? Explain its formation with examples. 8. Why earthquake occurs?
Objective Questions
1. Which one of the following element (c) Tension between the middle crust and
has major part in the composition of the upper crust of earth
the earth? (d) None of these
(a) Iron 4. What is Moho discontinuity?
(b) Oxygen (a) Tension between the lower crust and
(c) Silicon the upper mantle
(d) Aluminium (b) Tension between the crust and the
2. What is the average surface temperature mantle
of the earth? (c) Tension between the mantle and the
(a) 14 core
(b) 21 (d) Tension between the lower mantle
(c) 32 and the upper core
(d) 19 5. What is the full form of IUGG?
3. What is Conrad discontinuity? (a) International Union of Geodesy and
(a) Tension between the upper crust and Geography
the lower crust of the earth (b) Indian union of geodesy and
(b) Tension between the earth and the Geography
moon

(c) International Union of Geometric and (c) Limestone

Geology (d) Mica
(d) Indian Union of Geometric and 12. Which one of the following is the best
Geology example of sedimentary rocks?
6. The innermost part of the earth is called: (a) Limestone
(a) Core (b) Gneiss
(b) Mantle (c) Basalt
(c) Crust (d) Granite
(d) G point 13. What is volcanic crater?
7. How sedimentary rocks transform into (a) A circular depression around a vol-
metamorphic rocks? canic cent
(a) High temperature and pressure (b) The storage unit of magma
(b) Only chemical reaction (c) Pipe of volcanic eruption
(c) Climate (d) Centre of volcano
(d) Sunlight 14. Which of the following types of rocks con-
8. What is the original form of marble? tain good quantity of gold and silver?
(a) Limestone (a) Igneous rocks
(b) Basalt (b) Sedimentary rocks
(c) Granite (c) Metamorphic rocks
(d) Sand stone (d) None of these
9. How igneous rocks are formed? 15. Fossils are found in ________ rocks.
(a) Due to the cooling of the magma (a) sedimentary
(b) Chemical reaction of sand (b) igneous
(c) Extreme seismic pressure (c) metamorphic
(d) Friction between two sedimentary (d) All of these
layers 16. Limestone and sandstone are the best
10. Most of the fossils and minerals are found example of:
in the ________ rocks. (a) Sedimentary rocks
(a) sedimentary (b) Igneous rocks
(b) igneous (c) Metamorphic rocks
(c) metamorphic (d) Granite rocks
(d) intrusive 17. What is Repetti discontinuity?
11. Which one of the following is the best (a) The discontinuity of density of upper
example of intrusive igneous rock? and lower mantle
(a) Granite (b) The discontinuity that divides core of
(b) Limestone the earth into two parts

(c) Abrupt increase of P wave and S wave (b) Abrupt slower downing of P and
velocities S waves
(d) None of these (c) Discontinuity created by friction of P
and S waves
18. What is Gutenberg-Weichert discontinuity?
(d) Discontinuity that divides core from
(a) It is a discontinuity that divides core of
upper mantle
the earth into two parts
(b) Friction between the upper mantle 20. What is ring of Pacific?
and the lower mantle (a) Active volcano’s ring around Pacific
(c) Friction between the lower crust and Ocean
the upper mantle (b) Ring of mountains around Pacific
(d) Discontinuity that divides crust from Ocean
upper mantle (c) Biodiversity of Pacific Ocean
(d) None of these
19. What is Lehmann discontinuity?
(a) Abrupt increase of P wave and S wave
velocities

CHAPTER
Globe 3
LEARNING ObjECTIVES
• Learn about the concept of globe
• Understand the various imaginary lines that help us to identify the different aspects of the
world with the help of globe
• Know the concept of latitudes and longitudes
• Explore the motion of Earth along with its inclination on its axis
• Familiarise the time zone system
INTRODUCTION
Globe is a three-dimensional, spherical, scale model of Earth. It is derived from the Latin word
globus, which means mass or sphere. There are different kinds of globes like celestial globe,
which represents the positions of stars in the sky.
Geography is the science of location and maps. The location is presented relatively and this
process is called relative location. In geography, we use two basic methods to locate a place; they
are latitudes and longitudes and these are the imaginary lines on Earth.
Latitudes
Imaginary lines parallel to the equator is called latitudes. Equator is also a latitude that divides the
earth into two equal parts: northern part and southern part. The value of equator is 0°. The earth
is divided from 0 to 90° latitude. The 23½° latitude is also known as Tropic of Cancer that falls in
the northern part and when the same degree falls in the southern part, it is known as Tropic of
Capricorn; however, 66½° northern latitude is called Arctic circle and 66½° southern latitude is
called Antarctic circle. Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn denote the boundaries of areas
where the sun’s rays fall directly.

162 | Chapter 3 Globe
80°N North Pole
60°N
40°N
20°N
Equ
ato
r
20°S
Figure 3.1 Latitudes
Longitudes
The longitudes are divided into two parts by prime meridian (denoted by 0° longitude): eastern
and western. It passes through Greenwich near London. The earth is divided from 0° to 360° lon-
gitudes. All longitudes meet at the northern and southern poles. Longitudes join at all the places
of that particular longitude. The longitude 180° is International Date Line, which is not a straight
line, and it is deliberately drawn in a zig-zag manner to save the country from partition, which
passes through Pacific Ocean. The date of the western part of countries of this line is ahead of
the eastern part of countries. This is the reason for a person who travels from east to west will
North Pole
90O N
75O N
de
Gre ttiitu
enw La
ich 60O N
30 O W
45 O
E
W
O
90
75 E
45O N
15 O
0 OW
O
60 E
15 OW
30O W
45O E
cer
Tropic 30O N Can
of Longitude
of
15O N
Equator(0O)
Line
n
Tropic 15O S Capricro
of
30O S
45O S
Figure 3.2 Meridians

lose one day; while a person who travels from west to east will gain one day. The value of one
longitude is 4 min; therefore, towards east, the time increases, and towards west, it decreases.
MOTIONS OF THE EARTH

Earth has two motions: one on its axis and the other around the sun. The first motion on its axis is
called daily rotation, while the second one around the sun is called yearly motion. Because of the
motion on its axis, Earth rotates from west to east; further, it takes 24 h to complete the rotation,
and therefore, there are days and nights. Along with the motion on its axis, it also rotates around
the sun; this takes 365.25 days and this is the reason we have a leap year after every fourth year.
Further, 0.25 days represent one quarter. When we combine four quarters after every fourth year,
Spring
N.P. Equinox
(21 March)
S.P. Autumn
Summer in the Winter in the
Northern Hemisphere Northern Hemisphere
Summer Solstice SUN Winter Solstice

(21 June) (22 December)
Winter in the Summer in the

Southern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere
Autumn
Equinox
(23 September)
Spring
Figure 3.3 Direction of Revolution of Earth
add one day extra in February, and therefore, February has 29 days in a leap year. This motion also
causes change in the season. Since the axis on which Earth rotates is oval in shape, the distance
of Earth from Sun is different on different times of the year.
EARTH’S INCLINATION ON ITS AXIS

Earth is inclined at 23½° on its axis, and because of this feature, the amount of sun’s rays will
differ on place and time. When sun’s rays fall directly, we feel warm and when they fall askew, we
feel cold. Summarily, the seasonal change is felt due to the inclination and yearly rotation of Earth.
The abovementioned motion of Earth creates the following four situations:
1. Karka Sankranti: On 21 June, sun’s rays fall directly on Tropic of Cancer, and this day is the
longest day in Northern hemisphere.

2. Makar Sankranti: On 22 December, sun’s rays fall directly on Tropic of Capricorn and this
day is the longest day in Southern hemisphere.
3. Equinox: On this day, the sun’s rays fall directly on Mediterranean, and therefore, days and
nights are equal all over the world.
4. Autumn Equinox and Vernal Equinox: On 23 September and 21 March, the days and
nights are equal all over the world.
From 23 September to 21 March, the sun’s rays fall more on Southern hemisphere, and there-
fore, it remains day for six consecutive months. From 21 March to 23 September, the sun’s rays
fall more on Northern hemisphere, and therefore, it remains days for six consecutive months.
Solar Eclipse
When the moon comes between the Earth and the sun, it creates a situation that blocks the sun’s
rays and casting its shadow on Earth and this is called solar eclipse. It always happens only dur-
ing new moon phase. The eclipse in which some of the part of the sun is covered by the moon is
called partial solar eclipse.
Lunar Eclipse
When Earth comes between the moon and the sun and blocking the sun’s rays from reaching
the moon, it creates a situation called lunar eclipse. It always happens in full Moon; however,
The vertical line

from the earth’s
orbital plane
North Pole
Tro 23½°
Ca pic of
nce
r
Eq
uat
or
66½° The plane of the
Tro earth’s orbit
p ic o
fC
apr
ico
rn
South Pole
Figure 3.4

this situation does not happen regularly because there is 5° difference in orbit path of Earth and
moon. In a year, a maximum of three lunar eclipses, either full or partial, can happen.
HEAT ZONES OF THE EARTH

In many parts, every sphere of the earth has been divided on the basis of temperature, which is
called zone. These zones are as follows:
1. Tropical zone: 30° North and South of equator is considered as tropical zone. The sun falls
on head twice in a year. This part of the earth is always hot.
2. Sub-tropical zone: From 30° to 45° of North and South of equator is taken as sub-tropical
zone. In a year, for few months, the temperature is high, while for few months, it is low.
3. Temperate zone: This zone falls at 45°–66° northern and southern latitude. The sun never
falls on head in this zone, and hence, the climate is always cool.
4. Polar zone: This zone falls at 66°–90° latitude zone, where the temperature is always very
low. It causes the poles to freeze.
North Pole
66½°N
Frigid Zone
A rc
t i c C i rc l e
North T
empera
te Zone
Tropic o
f Cancer 23½°N
Torrid Zo
n e
Equator
0°
Tropic o
f Capricorn
South
Tempe
rate Zo 23½°S
ne
Antarctic Circl
e
Frigid Zone
66½°S
South Pole
Figure 3.5 Heat zones of Earth

No
rth
Po
le
s
Axi
Circle of illumination
Equ
ato
r
So
uth
Po
le
Figure 3.6 Day and Night
TIME ZONE AND STANDARD TIME

“I was in Hawaii on eight of November, when I called at my home in India my mom said it is 7th
November. I was surprised.” The abovementioned statement talks about the difference of time
zones across the world. It is not very easy to understand the concept of time zone. It is very
interesting to know that the very idea of standard time zone comes in existence because of the
development of transportation system, which has moved from land transport to air transport.
People started travelling more and world has become smaller. An international conference was
held in Washington, DC, in 1884 to standardise the time around the world. Further, the standard
time zone is divided into 24 zones.
Greenwich Mean Time is the most well-known time zone. Moreover, the other time zones
are all based on this mean time as it has been accepted as standard time zone. It was done
because there was a need for a prime meridian location to manage navigation, international
trade, and so on. Therefore, Greenwich Meridian has become a base line for the time across
the world.
The world is divided into 24 time zones. Every zone has 15°. Every degree is equal to 4 min and
the difference of two time zones is 1 h.
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is the standard time used in defining time at various zones;
local time within a time zone is defined as a difference from the UTC. The difference is represented
either UTC− or UTC+ along with number of hours and minutes.

International date line

Atlantic
P a c i fi c Ocean
Meridian of Greenwich
Indian
Ocean
Number of hours Greenwich Number of hours of greenwich

1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 +10 +11 +12 –11 –10 –9
Figure 3.7 Time zone

➨ Globe is a three-dimensional, spherical, scale model of Earth.
➨ The celestial globe represents the positions of the stars in the sky.
➨ The location in geography is presented relatively and this process is called relative location.
➨ In geography, we use two basic methods to locate a place; they are latitudes and longitudes,
which are the imaginary lines on Earth.
➨ Imaginary lines are parallel to equator and are called latitudes.
➨ Equator is also a latitude that divides the Earth into two parts and these are northern part and
southern part.
➨ Value of equator is 0°.
➨ The longitudes is divided into two parts: eastern and western by prime meridian (denoted by
0° longitude).
➨ Earth is divided from 0° to 360° longitudes.
➨ The value of one longitude is 4 min; towards east, it increases, while towards west, it decreases.
➨ Earth has two motions: one on its axis and the other round the Sun.
➨ Earth is inclined at 23½° on its axis; due to this feature, the amount of sun’s rays will differ on
place and time.
➨ Every sphere of the earth has been divided on the basis of temperature, which is called zone.

➨ Greenwich Mean Time is the most well-known time zone. Moreover, the other time zones are
all based on this mean time as it has been accepted as the standard time zone.
➨ The world is divided into 24 time zones. Every zone has 15°. Every degree is equal to 4 min and
the difference between two time zones is 1 h.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is a globe? 6. What is the difference between solar
2. What do you understand by latitudes? Give eclipse and lunar eclipse?
examples of some important latitude lines. 7. Discuss about Earth’s inclination on its axis.
3. What do you understand by longitudes? 8. Explain in one line:
How it divides world in different time (a) Polar zone
zones? (b) Sub-tropical zone
4. Describe the yearly and monthly motion of (c) Temperate zone
Earth. (d) Tropical zone
5. Explain the heat zones of Earth.
Objective Questions
1. The region, where sun rays fall directly. 5. Which of the following denotes zero
(a) Equator latitude?
(b) Tropic of Cancer (a) Equator
(c) Tropic of Capricorn (b) Tropic of Capricorn
(d) 15° Southern sphere (c) Tropic of Cancer
(d) Greenwich line
2. Which longitude line is called International
Date Line? 6. Imaginary lines that are parallel to equator
(a) 180° is called:
(b) 90° (a) Latitude
(c) 23½° (b) Longitude
(d) 90½° (c) International Date Line
(d) None of these
3. What is Arctic Circle?
(a) 66½ northern latitude 7. Which of the following divides Earth into
(b) 66½ southern latitude two parts: east and west?
(c) 23½ northern latitude (a) Greenwich line
(d) 23½ southern latitude (b) Equator
(c) Tropic of Capricorn
4. What is Antarctic Circle?
(d) None of these
(a) 66½ northern latitude
(b) 66½ southern latitude 8. The 23½° northern latitude is called:
(c) 23½ northern latitude (a) Tropic of Cancer
(d) 23½ southern latitude (b) Tropic of Capricorn

(c) Equator (c) Partial solar eclipse

9. The 23½° southern latitude is called: 15. The world is divided into __________ time
(a) Tropic of Capricorn zones.
(b) Tropic of Cancer (a) 24
(c) Equator (b) 18
(d) None of these (c) 12
(d) 8
10. Which one of the following explains ‘Karka
16. Every time zone covers
Sankranti’?
(a) 15° and 60 min
(a) Longest day in Northern hemisphere
(b) 20° and 45 min
(b) Shortest day in Northern hemisphere
(c) 10° and 15 min
(c) Longest day in Southern hemisphere
(d) 45° and 10 min
(d) Shortest day in Southern hemisphere
17. What is the difference between two time
11. Which one of the following day is known
zones?
as Makar Sankranti?
(a) One hour
(a) Longest day in Southern hemisphere
(b) Half an hour
(b) Longest day in Northern hemisphere
(c) 24 hours
(c) Shortest day in a year
(d) 12 hours
(d) Longest day of the year
18. The place Greenwich is popularly known
12. Which of the following is the best explana- for:
tion of the word equinox? (a) International Date Line
(a) The days and nights are equal all over (b) International climate line
the world (c) England date line
(b) Long days and short nights (d) None of these
(c) Long nights and short days
(d) None of these 19. The time value of one longitude is
(a) 4 min
13. When the moon comes between the earth (b) 5 min
and the sun, it is called: (c) 30 min
(a) Solar eclipse (d) 60 min
(b) Partial solar eclipse 20. When some part of sun is covered by the
(c) Lunar eclipse moon, it is known as:
(d) Moon eclipse (a) Partial solar eclipse
14. When Earth comes between the moon and (b) Lunar eclipse
the sun, it is called (c) Solar eclipse
(a) Solar eclipse (d) Moon eclipse
(b) Lunar eclipse

CHAPTER
Environment 4
LEARNING OBjECTIvES
• Understand the concept of environment and atmosphere
• Explore the composition and various layers of atmosphere
• Engage with the process of atmospheric circulation
• Explore about human environment, manmade environment, and human–environment
interaction
INTRODUCTION
Air is an essential part of our life. We have to do many activities such as eat and drink to survive.
Similarly, we breathe every second to live, and for it, air is very important. It is possible to survive
few days without food, but not without breathing. To breathe, air is needed, and therefore, we
need to understand atmosphere and climate in detail. Atmosphere is the mixture of gases. This
mixture consists of life-giving gases such as oxygen (for humans and animals) and carbon dioxide
(for plants). For exploring these gases and atmosphere, we have to understand the concept of
environment.
ENvIRONMENT
We are surrounded by many objects such as living and non-living things, constructions, as well
as natural components. These constitute the environment. Simply, we can say that environment
is a combination of natural and man-made phenomenon. There are many components of envi-
ronment and we can majorly categorise them into three parts: natural, manmade, and humans.
Natural environment is divided into four major parts:
1. Atmosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Lithosphere
4. Biosphere

Atmosphere
The term atmosphere emerged from two Greek words atmos, which means vapour, and spha-
ria (sphere). Atmosphere can be understood as a layer of gases surrounding our planet. The major
gases available in our atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. Atmosphere func-
tions as a shield and protects and saves us from ultraviolet rays, cosmic rays, and so on that are
coming from the solar system. It is important to know that the available condition of our atmos-
phere was not always like this; rather, it took millions of years to reach this state.
Atmosphere composition
Gases, water vapour, and dust particles are constituents of atmosphere. Table 4.1 shows various
gases of atmosphere.
Table 4.1 Gases and their volume percentage in atmosphere
Constituent Percentage by volume

Nitrogen 78.08
Oxygen 20.95
Argon 0.93
Carbon dioxide 0.036
Neon 0.002
Helium 0.0005
Krypton 0.001
Xenon 0.00009
Hydrogen 0.00005
It is important to know that the proportion of gases changes in the higher layer of the atmos-
phere. Further, carbon dioxide and water vapour can be found only up to 90 km from the earth’s
surface.
Carbon dioxide is a very important gas in atmosphere because it is transparent to the incoming
solar radiation. It is also important for greenhouse effect. It is important to note that other gases
other than carbon dioxide are constant but carbon dioxide has increased in the last few decades.
Furthermore, increase in carbon dioxide will result in increase in temperature. The atmosphere has
ozone layer located between 10 km and 50 km above the earth’s surface, which filters ultraviolet
rays coming from the sun.
Atmosphere also has water vapour that decreases as the altitude increases. It can be around
4% in the warm tropics and 1% in cold areas and polar areas. It is important to know that water
vapour decreases from equator towards the poles. It also absorbs parts of the insolation from the
sun and preserves the earth from radiation heat. Therefore, it acts like a blanket, thereby allowing

172 | Chapter 4 Environment
the earth neither to become too cold nor too hot. Water vapour also contributes to the stability
and instability in the air (Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Class XI, NCERT, 2005, pp. 77).
Along with gases and water vapour, atmosphere has various kinds of solid particles such as
dust particles. These dust particles are located in the lower layer of the atmosphere.
Now, we are aware that our earth is surrounded by air and we inhale and exhale air for our
survival. It is important to know that sun is the source of energy for earth. Whatever energy the
earth receives from sun, it reflects back, and therefore, earth gets neither too hot nor too cold,
but the heat received by different parts of the earth varies. The varied heat also influences the
pressure in the atmosphere, and therefore, the temperature also gets varied.
The energy coming towards the earth is known as incoming solar radiation and also known
as insolation. Only a very small amount of energy reaches the earth in actual sense. The earth
receives 1.94 calories/cm2/min at the upper layer of its atmosphere.
The amount and the intensity of insolation vary during the day in a season and in a year. The
factors that cause these variations in insolation are as follows:
1. The rotation of earth on its axis

2. The angle of inclination of the sun’s rays
3. The length of the day
4. The transparency of the atmosphere
5. The configuration of land in terms of its aspect
However, the last two factors have less influence (Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Class XI,
NCERT, 2005, pp. 79).
Heat is created when insolation, atmosphere, and surface of the earth interact with each other.
It is measured in temperature. There are various factors that influence the temperature on earth
such as latitude of any place (latitude depends upon the insolation), altitude of a place, distance
from the sea, mass of the air and ocean current, and so on.
Structure of atmosphere
There are various layers that constitute earth’s atmosphere. All these layers are different from
each other in various ways, that is, temperature, composition, pressure, and so on. The earth’s
atmosphere has five layers: troposphere, stratosphere, ozonosphere, ionosphere, and exosphere
(Figure 4.1).
Troposphere
The lowest layer of the atmosphere is known as troposphere. All kinds of weather activities and
actions happen in troposphere. The troposphere consists of aerosols and water vapour. The length
of the sphere varies from various locations; for example, at tropics, its length is 20 km; at mid-
latitude, its length is 17 km, and at polar region, its length is 7 km. Tropopause is the layer that

can be seen as border of troposphere, which distinguishes it from stratosphere. It is important to

know that the temperature of tropopause does not change at various heights.
Biosphere:
Approximately from 5 km below sea level
to 10 km above sea level.
The zone occupied
by organisms. Crust (Oceanic is up to 10 km
thick, Continental is up to 40 km
thick; main elements oxygen
45% silicon 27%)
Atmosphere:
Thermosphere
80–120 km above sea level
Mesosphere
50–80 km above sea level
Stratosphere
15–50 km above sea level Outer core
Troposphere (2000 km thick,
0–15 km above sea level semi-soild)
Core
(1300 km radius,
solid)
Figure 4.1 Layers of atmosphere
Stratosphere
The second layer of earth’s atmosphere is stratosphere. The location of this sphere is just above
the troposphere. This sphere represents 20% of the total mass of atmosphere. We can find
changes, differences, and variations in temperature in this sphere. The coldest layer will be near
to the earth, whereas the warmer layer will be farther from earth. It is important to know that
high temperature at higher altitude is caused by ultraviolet rays. There is variation in the border
of this layer at various places: at equator, it is at 8 km, whereas it is 10–13 km to 50 km between
the poles and the equator, and at poles, it is at 8 km. Temperature also varies as per the season,
altitudes, and poles.
Ozonosphere
The layer that is 32–60 km away from earth’s surface is ozonosphere. It consists of a layer of
ozone gas that absorbs the ultraviolet rays of sun and protects the earth from it. It is called as the

safety shield of the earth. With increase in altitude, the temperature increases and 5°C increases
within 1 km of altitude. It is important to note that refrigerators and air conditioners emit chloro-
fluorocarbon (CFC), which contains active chlorine. CFC depletes the ozone layer, allowing the
UV rays to reach the earth. Hence, to protect the ozone layer, CFC-emitting refrigerators and air
conditioners are banned.
Ionosphere
This layer is located between 60 km and 1000 km, and therefore, it is known as upper atmos-
pheric region of the atmosphere. It is composed of thermosphere, mesosphere, and exosphere.
It also develops the inner side or edge of magnetosphere. It contributes in radio waves around
the earth?.
Exosphere
It ranges from 640 km and above from the earth’s surface. Its upper level is not determined.
Hydrogen and helium are the gases found mainly in exosphere.
Atmospherics circulation
We have discussed earlier that unequal distribution of temperature prevails on earth. We also
know that air expands when gets heated and compresses when gets cooled. This causes varia-
tions in the atmospheric pressure, and finally, air moves from high pressure to low pressure area.
We already know that air in its horizontal motion is called wind. Atmospheric pressure also
determines the expansion and compression of air. The wind redistributes the heat and moisture
across the planet, and thereby maintaining a constant temperature for the planet as a whole.
The vertical rising of moist air cools it down to form clouds and brings precipitation. This chap-
ter has been devoted to explain the causes of pressure differences, the forces that control the
atmospheric circulation, the turbulent pattern of wind, the formation of air masses, the disturbed
weather when air masses interact with each other, and the phenomenon of violent tropical storms
(Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Class XI, NCERT, 2005, pp. 88).
Hydrosphere
The domain of earth that is related to water is called hydrosphere. It consists mainly of water
bodies under and above the earth such as seas, oceans, lakes, rivers, glaciers, and ground water.
In subsequent chapters, hydrosphere has been discussed in detail.
Lithosphere
The solid part of the upper crust of the earth is called lithosphere. The major constructors of this
crust are rocks, which are deposits of minerals. The upper hard and solid crust of earth is made

of light elements. The interior rocks of earth are made of heavy elements. The inner formation
of earth can be understood by dividing it into three major parts, that is, crust, mantle, and core
(Figure 4.2). In subsequent chapters, lithosphere has been discussed in detail.
Figure 4.2 Domains of environment
Biosphere
The part of earth that consists of living and non-living things is called biosphere. It can be consid-
ered as the sum of all ecosystems of a particular place. It is mainly the zone on earth that consists
of life. It is the interaction of living and non-living beings with their environment and other parts
of earth such as lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.
Ecosystem can be defined as the relationship of living communities with that of non-living
things and environmental components such as air, water, soils, and minerals that is regulated by a
system. Both the abiotic and biotic components play important role in the functioning of ecosys-
tem. These regulations and their nature can differ from one part of the world to other; for exam-
ple, forests have a different nature of ecosystem, and the ocean has different kind of ecosystem
called marine or aquatic ecosystem.
The main source of energy in any ecosystem is the sun. In oceans, the phytoplankton absorbs
energy from the sun and process it through a series of chemical reactions and that energy is
distributed accordingly to other organisms of the ocean. The trees and plants obtain energy from
the sun and process it through photosynthesis and produce glucose that is eaten by other living
beings. For example, deer eats the grass and deer is eaten by the tiger; thus, the energy of the
sun flows through the grass to deer and from deer to the tiger. Therefore, the complex cycle of
energy flow takes place in the ecosystem.

There are some internal and external factors that influence and control the ecosystems. We can
consider time, climate, soil types, and topography as the external factors that influence the func-
tioning of an ecosystem and determine the way it would be functioning without being influenced
by it. Internal factors are controlled by its factors such as decomposition, root competition, or
shading. Other internal factors include disturbance, succession, and the types of species present
in a particular ecosystem.
Man-made environment
All the things that we see around us and the things that are made by humans comprise the man-
made environment. There is a constant interaction of humans from their environment in which
they live. Whatever we see around us today was not there before and what we see today may not
be there tomorrow. Humans have this tendency to make their environment conducive and adapt-
able to their needs. In this process, the environment keeps changing. All the constructions that we
observe around are the product of these interactions such as buildings, bridges, roads, poles, and
so on. Humans need to settle themselves, and therefore, they made buildings and houses; they
need to travel from one place to another, and for that, they need roads, railways, bridges, and so
on. In subsequent chapters, this part would be discussed in detail.
Human environment
Humans are emotional and social beings. They live in communities and societies. In their interac-
tions, they adapt to some kind of regulations, and in due course, the institutions such as families,
religions, and educational institutions were formed. These institutions and their activities are the
integral part of human beings that are also the integral part of human environment. Human envi-
ronment varies from place to place and from one society to another based on their rules, religions,
and beliefs.
Along with human environment, it is also important to understand the term human–environ-
ment interaction. Human–environment interaction is an important theme of study in Geography,
which is related to various kinds of relationships. These relationships can be both negative and
positive with the environment around us. Human–environment interaction studies talk about
how one adapts with the environment and how a man changes the environment as per his
needs. People also generate responses towards the environment they live in. It is important
to note that the human–environment interaction is not a field of study where one talks about
individuals; rather, it explores and reveals the relationships of various groups and their cultures.
Therefore, this is a study about that the relationship between social system evolved by human
beings and comprehensive ecosystems. All these interactions can be located and understood with
reference to climate change. Geography scientists strongly believe that human activities have
contributed to the change in environment.


➨ Air is an essential part of our life. We have to do many activities such as eat and drink to sur-
vive. Similarly, we breathe every second to live, and for it, air is very important.
➨ Atmosphere is the mixture of gases. This mixture consists of life-giving gases such as oxygen
(for humans and animals) and carbon dioxide (for plants).
➨ We are surrounded by many objects such as living and non-living things, constructions, as well
as natural components. These constitute the environment. Simply, we can say that environ-
ment is a combination of natural and man-made phenomenon.
➨ Atmosphere can be understood as a layer of gases surrounding our planet.
➨ The major gases available in our atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.
➨ Gases, water vapour, and dust particles are constituents of atmosphere.
➨ The atmosphere has ozone layer located between 10 km and 50 km above the earth’s surface,
which filters ultraviolet rays coming from the sun.
➨ Carbon dioxide and water vapour can be found only up to 90 km from the earth’s surface.
➨ Atmosphere also has water vapour that decreases as the altitude increases.
➨ It is important to know that sun is the source of energy for earth. Whatever energy the earth
receives from sun, it reflects back, and therefore, earth gets neither too hot nor too cold, but
the heat received by different parts of the earth varies.
➨ The energy coming towards the earth is known as incoming solar radiation and also known as
insolation.
➨ The earth’s atmosphere has five layers, namely troposphere, stratosphere, ozonosphere, iono-
sphere, and exosphere.
➨ Atmospheric pressure also determines the expansion and compression of air.
➨ All the things that we see around us and the things that are made by humans comprise the
man-made environment.
➨ Human–environment interaction is an important theme of study in Geography, which is related
to various kinds of relationships.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is environment? 6. What is lithosphere?
2. What is ecosystem? 7. Discus about the human–environment
3. Explain atmosphere with its different layers. interaction.
4. What is hydrosphere?
5. What is the difference between
human-made environment and human
environment?

Objective Questions
1. Which one of the following statement bet- 7. Which layer of atmosphere absorbs the
ter explains the environment? ultraviolet rays of sun?
(a) Combination of natural and manmade (a) Ozonosphere
phenomenon (b) Stratosphere
(b) Place where only living things exists (c) Troposphere
(c) Only natural phenomenon (d) Ionosphere
(d) None of these 8. Which is the appropriate explanation of
2. Natural environment can divide into fol- atmosphere?
lowing parts (a) Layer of gases surrounding a planet
(a) atmosphere, hydrosphere, and litho- (b) Combination of aquatic ecosystem
sphere. and terrestrial ecosystem
(b) crust, mental, and core. (c) Relationship of different living compo-
(c) troposphere, stratosphere, and ozono- nents
sphere. (d) None of these
(d) None of these 9. Which is the major gas of atmosphere?
3. Which one of the following is the upper (a) Nitrogen
part of the atmosphere? (b) Helium
(a) Ionosphere (c) Hydrogen
(b) Troposphere (d) Oxygen
(c) Stratosphere 10. Which layer of atmosphere plays very
(d) Ozonosphere important role in radio propagation?
4. Troposphere is (a) Ionosphere
(a) the lowest portion of atmosphere. (b) Stratosphere
(b) middle portion of atmosphere. (c) Troposphere
(c) upper portion of atmosphere. (d) Ozonosphere
(d) None of these 11. Which of the following statement best
5. Which one of the following is the major explains hydrosphere?
characteristic of the stratosphere? (a) Domain of earth related to water
(a) It has variations in temperature. (b) Domain of earth related to air
(b) It protects earth from ultraviolet rays. (c) Domain of earth related to land
(c) It is a very cold layer. (d) None of these
(d) None of these 12. The ecosystem of ocean is called:
6. What is the length of ozonosphere? (a) Aquatic ecosystem
(a) 32 to 60 km (b) Terrestrial ecosystem
(b) 60 to 80 km (c) Microbial ecosystem
(c) 20 to 32 km (d) None of these
(d) 50 to 90 km

13. Which of the following is the appropriate 15. What is ecosystem?

explanation of lithosphere? (a) Relationship of biotic and abiotic
(a) Solid upper crust of earth components
(b) Domain of water (b) Relationship of living things
(c) Solid upper crust of metal (c) Relationships of a biotic component
(d) Layer between stratosphere and trop- (d) None of these
osphere 16. Human environment is the place where
14. Which of the following is the best explana- (a) humans interact with different com-
tion for biosphere? munities and societies.
(a) Sum of all ecosystems (b) humans interact with natural phenom-
(b) Sum of all layers of atmosphere enon.
(c) Sphere of living beings (c) humans interact with ecosystem.
(d) None of these (d) humans interact with aquatic ecosystem.

CHAPTER
Air 5
LEARNING OBjECTIVES
• Know about the gases composition in atmosphere and the structure of atmosphere
• Understand about weather and climate
• Explore and understand about air, air pressure, and various kinds of winds
• Engage with the understanding of various kinds of jet streams along with humidity
STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is made up of various layers and these layers exist because of significant changes
happened in temperature. We must know that gravity plays a major role in this formation, because
it pulls the air towards the earth which is known as air pressure. The layers constitute atmosphere
are discussed below.
1. Troposphere: The expansion of this layer is a little above the surface of the earth. The reason
behind the life on the earth is due to the gases present in this layer. The height of troposphere
is 8 km on planes and 16 km on the equator. The height of troposphere varies according to
the seasons. It is high in summers and low in winters. All the climate-related process occurs
in this layer, such as formation of clouds, rain, storm, and so on. As we go upwards in this
layer, the temperature turns low. It has the highest temperature in equator area and lowest
temperature in the Polar Regions.
2. Stratosphere: It is the second layer of atmosphere that is situated above the troposphere.
The temperature is evenly distributed in this layer. It is free from surface-related temperature
effects and also from climate activities, which makes it suitable for aeroplanes. The expansion
of this layer is 18 km to 32 km. Sometimes, a special type of clouds is constructed in this layer
called mother-of-pearl clouds. Furthermore, this layer is very thick on Polar Regions and very
thin at the equator.
3. Ozonosphere: Most of the ozone gas of atmosphere is found in this layer, and it absorbs the
ultraviolet rays of the sun. The expansion of this layer is 32 km to 60 km. The unique charac-
teristic of this layer is that the temperature increases with an increase in altitude. In this layer,
the temperature raises at a rate of 5°C per kilometre.

4. Ionosphere: The height of ionosphere is 60 km to 640 km. We can divide this sphere into
many layers. The lowest layer of this sphere is called D-layer that reflects long radio waves.
Other layers such as E-1, E-2, F-1, and F-2 reflect short radio waves.
5. Exosphere: This is the last and the highest sphere of atmosphere. It has no limited boundary.
Its approximate expansion is 640 km. Helium and hydrogen are dominant gases of this sphere.
Composition of gases of the Atmosphere

Important gases of the atmosphere are as follows:
■ Nitrogen: 78.8%
■ Oxygen: 20.95%
■ Argon: 0.93%
■ Carbon dioxide: 0.036%
■ Helium: 0.0005%
■ Ozone: 0.0000001%
WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Weather is the state of atmospheric conditions at a specific time and location. The temperature,
humidity, and air are the basic determinants of weather. This is the reason when any one of the
these determinants change, it does impact the weather.
Climate is the long-term weather condition of a particular place. It is based on the average
condition of about 50 to 100 years of weather conditions. The climate of a place is unchangeable
unless there is a complete change in temperature, rain, and humidity.
By temperature, we mean the temperature of lower layer of the atmosphere. This layer is con-
nected to surface and takes heat from the surface. Atmospheric temperature is the result of the
heat and energy absorbed by the atmosphere from the sun.
DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE
Only 1/2000 crore portion of heat reaches the earth. The surface of earth receives heat from the
rays that is left after Albedo, the loss of solar energy due to reflection, and other obstacles of
solar and atmospheric structure; further, a considerable amount of energy will not even reach the
surface of the earth. The atmosphere of the earth does not become warm due to the direct fall of
sun’s rays but by the short waves that is absorbed and reached to the earth. The surface reflects
the solar heat by long waves and it is absorbed by the atmosphere. The air becomes hot due to
the contact of surface; this is reason that the more we go upward, the less the temperature of
air would be. The main factors that determine the temperature of any place are latitudes, height,
distribution of water and land, ocean streams, distance from sea, and nature of surface like the

182 | Chapter 5 Air
snow-covered surface reflects 90% of solar heat. The water bodies absorbed a large quantity of
solar heat.
The amount of energy required to heat 1°C of 1 g of any object is called specific heat. The land
has less specific heat capacity than water and this is the reason for the temperature of ocean to be
relatively constant. The difference of temperature increases with the distance from oceans or seas.
On the local basis, the ocean streams and air have impact on the temperature. The coastal
areas with warm ocean streams are relatively warmer than the other areas of those longitudes.
Generally, the warm streams are found on the eastern coasts of continents, while cold streams
are found on the western parts.
The earth is divided into three parts on the basis of temperature. The temperature at the tropi-
cal area remains high as the sun’s rays fall directly. Temperate zone is an area where the tempera-
ture remains normal and cold tropical zone is an area where the temperature remains very low
and snow covered because the sun’s rays fall askew.
In a fixed time span, the difference of the highest and the lowest temperature is called atmospheric
temperature range. The difference of the highest daily and the lowest daily temperature is called
daily temperature range. The average of the highest and the lowest temperature of months is called
annual temperature range. The temperature range is determined by the longitudes and landscapes.
AIR PRESSURE
The air has its own weight. When the volume of air above a specific part of surface put some
pressure on surface vertically that is called air pressure. The air pressure is measured by the weight
or force on per unit area by air. It is measured in Millibar and it is equal to 100 dyne/cm2. The
instrument that is used in measuring the air pressure is called Barometer.
Distribution of Air Pressure

On surface, there is a reciprocal relationship between the atmospheric pressure and the tempera-
ture. However, with an increase in height or altitude, the air pressure decreases like temperature.
Because of unequal distribution of temperature on the surface, the air pressure also varies. The
distribution of air pressure is influenced by different dynamic factors of earth along with tempera-
ture factor. Some of the important factors that influence the air pressure are temperature, height
from the sea level, motion of air, and atmospheric humidity.
Air Pressure and Wind

The flow of air in a particular direction is called wind. The names of winds are decided by the direction
of flow; for example, the flow of air from east to west would be called as western wind, while the
flow of air from west to east would be called the eastern wind. The main function of wind is to mini-
mise the difference of air pressure at different locations. The study of difference of air pressure is con-
ducted on the basis of air proficiency, that is, the falling of air pressure on per unit horizontal distance.

Forces Affecting the Direction of Wind

We know that the atmospheric pressure influences the air motion. This motion of air is known
as wind. It is also important to know that wind flows from high pressure to low pressure.
Earth also influences the motion and flow of wind. Coriolis force is exerted by the rotation of
earth. Therefore, three forces namely pressure gradient force, the frictional force, and the Coriolis
force collectively affect the horizontal wind near the earth.
A force is produced due to the difference in atmospheric pressure. The pressure gradient force
is the rate of change of pressure with respect to distance. The strength of the pressure gradient
depends upon the position of isobars. Closeness of isobar makes it pressure giant strong and dif-
ference make it weak.
Frictional Force affects the speed of the wind. This force is minimal at the surface of the sea.
Coriolis force is the force that is created due to the earth’s rotation on its axis. It also directs the
wind to move towards right and left direction. At right direction, it is diverted towards north
hemisphere and at the left direction, it is diverted to the south hemisphere. These diversions
become high when the velocity of wind is high. It is also important to know that the Coriolis force
is directly proportional to the angle of latitude.
Seasonal Wind
The pattern of wind circulation is modified in different seasons due to the shifting of regions of
maximum temperature, pressure, and wind belts. The most pronounced effect of such a shift is
noticed in the monsoons especially over Southeast Asia (Fundamentals of Physical Geography,
Class XI, NCERT, 2005, pp. 92). There are other local deviations, which are discussed further in
the following sections.
Local Wind
Local or regional winds are created due to the differences in the heating and cooling of the earth’s
surface.
Sea and Land Wind

We know that land and sea absorb the heat in a different way. In day, land becomes warm faster
than the sea. Therefore, in the case of the land, the air raises giving rise to a low pressure area.
However, sea works in opposite manner as it is relatively cool, and therefore, the pressure over sea
is high. The wind that moves from the sea to the land is called sea breeze and the wind that moves
from the land to the sea is called land breeze. It is important to know that in night, the situation
becomes completely opposite; in night, the land gets cooler faster than the sea.

184 | Chapter 5 Air
Valley and Mountain Winds

In mountainous region, during the day, the slopes get heated up and air moves upslope and to
fill the resulting gap, the air from the valley blows up the valley. The wind is known as the valley
breeze. During the night, the slopes get cooled and the dense air descends into the valley as the
mountain wind. The cool air of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the valley is called
leeward side of the mountain ranges. The moisture in these winds while crossing the mountain
ranges condense and precipitate; when it descends down the leeward side of the slope, the
dry air gets warmed up by the adiabatic process. This dry air may melt the snow in short time
(Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Class XI, NCERT, 2005, pp. 93).
Land Land
Sea Sea
Sea breeze Land breeze
Figure 5.1 Cause of sea and land breeze
Air Masses
When air passes through similar kinds of Polar high pressure
area or field for longer time, it takes or

obtains some characteristics of the area. Temperate low pressure
Air masses can be understood as a dis-
Westerly Variables
tinctive feature with humidity and tem-
Sub-tropical high pressures
perature. Air masses can be categorised
as per the source regions and there are N.E. Trades
five categories: Equatorial low pressure
1. Warm tropical and subtropical S.E. Trades

oceans. Sub-tropical high pressure
2. The subtropical hot deserts.
Brave west winds
3. The relatively cold high latitude
Temperate low pressures
oceans.
4. The very cold snow covered conti-
nents in high latitudes. Polar high pressure
5. Permanently ice covered continents

in Arctic and Antarctica. Figure 5.2 Pressure belts

Table 5.1 Measure pressure and wind

Pressure Measuring Instruments Mercurial barometer
Aneroid barometer
Altimeter barometer
Barograph
Microbar meter
Microbarovariograph
Wind Measurement Instruments Wind vane or weather cock
Anemometer
MONSOON
The word Monsoon originated from Arabic word ‘Mousim’, which means seasonal wind or
weather wind. Direction of this wind changes according to the weather. Although the impact of
monsoon is seen significantly in Southern Asia; however, it is also felt in Northern America and
Africa. According to the ancient ideology, monsoon is the result of difference of heating of water
and land. In summer, when there is low pressure in South Asian landscape, oceans have high
pressure that results into flowing of air from Indian Ocean towards the land. This wind has high
concentration of humidity; this causes rain in the land and are called South-Eastern Monsoon or
Summer Monsoon. In winter, there is high pressure on land than the ocean and that cause the
wind to blow from the land to the ocean and it’s called North-Eastern or Winter Monsoon. This
study of motion of monsoon is called Motion Theory.
Permanent Wind
These winds are result of permanent surface and permanent pressure proficiency. The land winds
and sea winds are its example. As we have discussed, because of different temperatures of land and
sea, in day time, there is high temperature and low pressure on land that cause wind to blow from
sea to land. These are called sea winds. At night, the temperature of land falls and pressure increases
that cause the wind to blow from land to sea. The direction of wind changes in day and night.
Jet streams move in the upper atmosphere. These are also known are fast moving winds.
Tropopause is the area where jet streams flow. Jet streams move from west to east. The move-
ment of jet streams varies in various ways. They stop, split, combine, and even moves in opposite
direction of another jet. Polar jets are the strongest jet streams that move 9–12 km (above the
sea). The weaker jet streams are the subtropical jets that move at 10–16 km. Both the hemi-
spheres (northern and southern) have polar jet as well as subtropical jet streams.
There are two factors that causes jet streams:
1. Heated atmosphere due to solar radiation.
2. Coriolis force’s action on moving masses. (We have already discussed that Coriolis force is
created due to the rotation of earth on it axis.)

186 | Chapter 5 Air
Humidity
Humidity means the amount of water vapour in the air. At a specific temperature and in a specific air
volume, a specific quantity of water vapour can be filled. This is called the saturation point of that air.
At a specific temperature, in a specific volume of air, the ratio of the containing capacity of air of water
vapour and its real presence is called relative humidity and denoted in percentage. Saturation point
means 100% relative humidity. The relative humidity can be changed by changing the quantity of
water vapour or temperature. The capacity of humidity of air is increased by an increase in the temper-
ature because temperature increases the volume of air and also its capacity to contain water vapour.

➨ The structure of atmosphere can be understood with reference to Troposphere, Ozonosphere,
Stratosphere, Ionosphere, and Exosphere.
➨ Weather is the state of atmospheric conditions at a specific time and location. The tempera-
ture, humidity, and air are the basic determinants of weather.
➨ Climate is the long-term weather condition of a particular place.
➨ Only 1/2000 crore portion of heat reaches earth.
➨ The earth is divided into three parts on the basis of temperature. The temperature at the
tropical area remains high as the sun’s rays fall directly. Temperate zone is an area where the
temperature remains normal and cold tropical zone is an area where the temperature remains
very low and snow covered because the sun’s rays fall askew.
➨ The volume of air above a specific part of the surface put some pressure on surface vertically
that is called Air Pressure.
➨ However, with an increase in height or altitude, the air pressure decreases like temperature.
Because of unequal distribution of temperature on the surface, the air pressure also varies.
➨ The flow of air in a particular direction is called wind.
➨ This motion of air is known as wind. It is also important to know that wind flows from high
pressure to low pressure.
➨ The pressure gradient force is the rate of change of pressure with respect to distance.
➨ The Coriolis force is the force that is created due to the earth’s rotation on its axis.
➨ The pattern of wind circulation is modified in different seasons due to the shifting of regions
of maximum heating, pressure, and wind belts. This is called seasonal wind.
➨ Local or regional winds are created due to the differences in the heating and cooling of the
earth’s surface.
➨ In mountainous region, during the day, the slopes get heated up and air moves upslope and
to fill the resulting gap, the air from the valley blows up the valley. This wind is known as the
valley breeze.
➨ Jet streams move in the upper atmosphere. These are also known are fast moving winds.
➨ Humidity means the amount of water vapour in the air.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Explain the distribution of air pressure. 5. What is permanent wind?
2. What is wind? Explain its function. 6. What is temperature? Explain its distribu-
3. What do you understand by humidity? tion on earth.
4. What do you understand by monsoon? 7. What is the difference between weather
What are the differences between summer and climate? Explain with appropriate
monsoon and winter monsoon? examples.
Objective Questions
1. Which of the following is the explanation 5. Which layer of the atmosphere is ideal for
of weather? jet aeroplanes?
(a) Sum of atmospheric circumstances of (a) Stratosphere
a specific time and location (b) Ozonosphere
(b) Sum of exospheric circumstances of a (c) Troposphere
specific time and location (d) Exosphere
(c) Distribution of temperature of a spe- 6. In which layer of atmosphere, climate-
cific time and location related process occurs?
(d) None of these (a) Troposphere
2. Which one of the following is an appropri- (b) Stratosphere
ate definition of climate? (c) Ozonosphere
(a) Long-term weather condition of a par- (d) Exosphere
ticular place 7. Which of the following layer reflects long
(b) Short-term atmospheric circumstances radio waves?
(c) Process occurs in stratosphere (a) Ionosphere
(d) None of these (b) Troposphere
3. What do you mean by temperature? (c) Ozonosphere
(a) Temperature of lower layer of (d) Ionosphere
atmosphere 8. What do you understand by the term day
(b) Temperature of ocean temperature?
(c) Temperature of north and south poles (a) Difference of the highest and the low-
(d) Heat of sun’s rays est daily temperature
4. In which layer of atmosphere, if we go (b) Sum of the highest and the lowest
1 km high, the temperature rises to 5°C? daily temperature
(a) Ozonosphere (c) Difference of day and night temperature
(b) Ionosphere (d) None of these
(c) Exosphere 9. What do you understand by the term
(d) Stratosphere annual temperature?

188 | Chapter 5 Air
(a) The average of highest and lowest 15. Which of the following measures wind?
temperature of 12 months (a) Anemometer
(b) The sum of highest and lowest tem- (b) Barometer
perature of 12 months (c) Hygrometer
(c) The difference of highest and lowest (d) None of these
temperature of 12 months 16. Which of the following called the strongest
(d) None of these jet streams?
10. The instrument that is used in measuring (a) Polar jets
air pressure is known as: (b) Equator jets
(a) Barometer (c) Tropical jets
(b) Anemometer (d) None of these
(c) Seismograph 17. Which one of the following is the appropri-
(d) None of these ate definition of humidity?
(a) Quantity of water vapour in air
11. Which of the following is the correct expla-
(b) Quantity of air in water
nation of wind?
(c) Temperature of ocean
(a) Flow of air in a particular direction
(d) None of these
(b) Flow of air from downwards to
upwards direction 18. What do you understand by term winter
(c) High pressure air of ocean monsoon?
(d) None of these (a) When wind blows from land to ocean
(b) When wind blows from ocean to land
12. What is the main function of wind?
(c) When wind blows from poles to ocean
(a) Minimising the difference of air pres-
(d) When wind blows from ocean to poles
sure at different locations
(b) Distribution of oxygen to hills 19. What do you understand by the term sum-
(c) Controlling air pollution mer monsoon?
(d) Divert straight sun’s rays (a) When wind blows from ocean to land
(b) When wind blows from land to ocean
13. What do you understand by monsoon?
(c) When wind blows from ocean to poles
(a) Seasonal or weather winds
(d) When wind blows from poles to ocean
(b) Jet winds
(c) Polar winds 20. What is the value of millibar?
(d) None of these (a) 100 dyne/cm2
(b) 60 dyne/cm2
14. The study of motion of monsoon called
(c) 180 dyne/cm2
_________
(d) 90 dyne/cm2
(a) Motion theory
(b) Atmospheric chemistry
(c) Climatology
(d) None of these

CHAPTER
Water 6
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Understand the concept of water, its distribution, and sources of water (ground and surface)
• Be aware of various oceans across the world
• Explore the various kinds of waves and currents
• Know the lakes, rivers, and river systems in India
INTRODUCTION
Water is very vital for the existence of any living being. Almost 71% of surface of the earth is
covered by water.
DISTRIBUTION OF WATER BODIES

The distribution of water bodies around the world is shown in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Water bodies and their distribution
Water bodies Distribution (%)

Oceans 97.3 (saline water)
Ice-caps 02.0
Groundwater 0.68
Freshwater lakes 0.009
Inland seas and salt lakes 0.009
Atmosphere 0.0019
Rivers 0.0001

190 | Chapter 6 Water
Arctic Ocean
Baltic
Sea
Mediterranean
North Sea North
North
Atlantic Pacific
Pacific
South
China
Sea
Indian
South South Ocean South
Pacific Atlantic Pacific
Southern Ocean
Figure 6.1 World – major seas, lakes and rivers
OCEAN
Oceans and their area are as follows:
1. Pacific Ocean – 1,662,40,000 km2 (largest)

2. Atlantic Ocean – 865,60,000 km2
3. Indian Ocean – 734,30,000 km2
4. Arctic Ocean – 132,30,000 km2 (smallest)
Ocean is the biggest part of hydrosphere. Pacific ocean is the largest ocean in the world. There
are two important characteristics of ocean water: temperature and salinity. The average depth of
ocean is 3,800 m. The depth of ocean is represented by hypsographic metric curve.
The part of ocean that is surrounded by water from three sides and ocean by one side is called
sea. The part of sea that enters into the land is called gulf. When the sea is surrounded from two
sides by land, that is, one side faces a group of island and the other side faces sea, is called a bay.
Table 6.2 Deepest oceans in the world
Name Deepest point (km) Deepest point (miles) Ocean

Mariana Trench 11.0 6.83 Pacific Ocean (near Japan)
Philippine Trench 10.4 6.46 Pacific Ocean (near the Philippine
islands)
(contd)

Table 6.2 (Contd)
Name Deepest point (km) Deepest point (miles) Ocean

Bonin Trench 9.99 6.20 Pacific Ocean (near Japan)
New Britain Trench 9.94 6.17 Pacific Ocean (near New Guinea)
Kuril Trench 9.75 6.05 Pacific Ocean (near Russia)
Some Features of Hydrosphere

Generally, the ocean temperature remains between 5°C and 33°C. Oceans are rich sources of
minerals; however, some are diluted and some are found in solid state. Some main diluted miner-
als are sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, sodium sulphate, and calcium. The taste of water is
saline because of the composition of these minerals. Salinity differs from ocean to ocean. In one
litre of water, 35% composition is salinity.
Waves and Currents

The ocean water never remains still and always in a state of motion. It has three types of motions.
The first type of motion is tide and ebb; it is systematic and continuous process of upward and
downward movement of water and the basic reason of this movement is gravitational power of
sun and moon. Ebb and tide do not move water per se location wise; however, it just moves it
upward and downward without vv changing the location. The second type of motion of water
is currents. They occur due to the friction of water and air on the surface of ocean. It also does
not necessarily change the location of water but it keeps the water in motion vertically. The third
type of motion is ocean waves. Ocean waves are dynamic and it keeps the water in motion in one
direction only. This third type of motion is important in a way that it moves the location of water.
The ocean waves are the result of combination of salinity, volume, temperature, the coastal size,
rotation of earth and air waves, and so on. The density of ocean water depends on the tempera-
ture and salinity of that water.
There are two types of ocean streams: warm stream and cold stream. When the temperature
of stream is more than the temperature of that particular latitude is called warm stream and
when the temperature of stream is less than the temperature of that particular latitude is called
cold stream. In this way, the streams that flow from lower latitudes to upper latitudes are warm
streams and those flow from upper to lower latitudes are cold streams. Except these streams,
there are some sub-surface streams that play vital role in balancing seawater.
In the northern spheres, the streams move clockwise; while in southern spheres, the streams
move anticlockwise because of the rotation of the earth. The temperature of the ocean plays an
important role in the determination of temperature of places on the earth.
Some of the most important streams are northern and southern equatorial streams, gulf stream, Florida
stream, Brazil stream, North Atlantic Drift, and Agulhas stream; all these streams are warm in nature.

Some cold water streams are Labrador Streams, Canneri stream, Benguela stream, Falkland stream,
Alaska stream, Peru stream, Humboldt stream , Oyashio stream and Canaries stream.
1. Streams of Atlantic Ocean: Warm streams of Atlantic ocean are northern equatorial stream,
gulf stream, Florida stream, southern equatorial stream, and Brazil stream. Cold streams are
Labrador stream, Falkland stream, Antarctic stream, north Greenland stream, and Canneri
stream.
2. Streams of Pacific Ocean: The warm streams of Pacific Ocean are Northern Equatorial
stream, Sushima stream, Kuroshio stream, Northern Pacific stream, and Eastern Australia
stream. Some cold streams are Alaska stream, Peru stream, Humboard stream, California
Stream, and Antarctic stream.
3. Streams of Indian Ocean: Warm streams are southern equatorial streams, Agulhas stream,
and Mozambique stream. Cold streams are western Australian stream.
A narrow water way that joins two different gulfs, oceans, or seas is called a strait and a nar-
row way that joins two big landscapes is called Isthmus. For example, Gibraltar Strait that joins
Atlantic Ocean with Mediterranean Sea and Panama Isthmus that connects Northern America
with Southern America.
LAKES
In comparison to sea and ocean, the rivers and lakes are smaller. A lake is a trench full of water.
Although the lakes do not have a flow of water, there are some exceptions too. Many lakes are
formed like a river. Some of the rivers enter into lakes, whereas the others flow out of it. In com-
parison to lakes, the rivers have a flow.
There are several types of lakes such as man-made, natural, freshwater, and saline. Freshwater
lakes are formed due to the melting of ice and it is necessary that these lakes are connected with
rivers. These are found on high and medium latitudes. Some examples are Baikal, Titicaca, Wular,
Dal, Manasarovar, and so on.
Salty lakes are found in the areas of high evaporation and low rainfall; further, these are not
connected with any river that is why they are still. These are used in the production of salt like
Sambhar Lake of Rajasthan. Some of the lakes are well-connected with the sea like Chilika Lake
of Orissa.
Natural lakes are made of activities of tectonic plates or crater of volcanoes. India’s Lunar Lake
is example of Crater Lake or natural lake. Soil erosion, river erosion, and air erosion are also cause
the formation of these types of lakes. Baikal, Caspian, and death sea are examples of these types
of lakes.
Man-made lakes are formed due to the multipurpose projects originating from different coun-
tries; these projects include irrigation, control of floods, and electricity production. Some of the
man-made lakes such as Gobind Sagar of Bhakra Nangal and Gandhi Sagar of Chambal are
formed due to the construction of dams.

Some of the famous lakes around the world are as follows:
1. Caspian Sea (Russia and Kazakhstan): 436,000 km2

2. Superior (Canada and USA): 82,100 km2
3. Victoria (Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania): 68,870 km2
4. Huron (Canada and USA): 59,600 km2
5. Michigan (USA): 58,000 km2
6. Tanganyika (Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia, and Congo): 32,600 km2
7. Baikal (Russia): 31,500 km2
8. Great bear lake (Canada): 31,000 km2
RIVERS
A relatively constant way of water flowing in a direction is called river. Rivers are the biggest
source of freshwater. Some of the famous rivers around the world are as follows:
1. Nile (Egypt and Sudan): 4,132 miles (longest river in the world)
2. Amazon (South America): 3,976 miles
3. Yangtze river or Changjiang (China): 3,915 miles
4. Mississippi (North America): 3,734 miles
5. Yenisei (Siberia): 3,445 miles
6. Yellow river (China): 3,395 miles
7. Ob river (Siberia and Russia): 3,395 miles
8. Panama river (Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina): 3,030 miles
9. Congo river (Congo): 2920 miles
10. Amur river (Manchuria): 2763 miles
WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA

India is a developing country. It has a large population in which more than 60% of people are
working under the agriculture sector. On the other hand, industries are developing very fast and
becoming the backbone of India’s economy. It is also a country of different climate regions. At a
specific period of time, one place will be affected by flood, and the other will be suffering from
drought. All these qualities of this county make it highly dependent on some natural resources
and water is the most important resource among them. We use water in our agriculture and
developing industries; further, we use it to fulfil the water needs of a very large population and we
use it in our developing infrastructure. We are decreasing our dependency on monsoon to make
sustainable development of our personal and commercial agriculture. Therefore, it is very easy to
understand the importance of water resources for us. India accounts for about 2.45% of world’s
surface area, 4% of the world’s water resources, and about 16% of world’s population. The total

water available from precipitation in the country in a year is about 4,000 km3. The availability
from surface and replenishable groundwater is 1,869 km3. From this, only 60% can be used for
beneficial purposes. Thus, the total utilisable water resources in the country are only 1,122 km3.
(Unit 3, Chapter 6, Water Resources, Class 12, NCERT, pp. 60.)
Surface Water Resources

We can divide surface water resources into four major sources: ponds, tanks, lakes, and rivers.
India has gifted thousands of rivers by nature. There are almost 10,360 listed rivers. From these riv-
ers, India gets more than 1,869 km3 of freshwater. However, due to many geographical reasons,
only 32% of that water can be utilised. The amount water in river totally depends upon the size of
its catchment area of river basin and the amount of rainfall occurred in the area of catchment of
river. Some of the Indian Rivers has huge catchment area. The Ganga, the Brahmaputra, and the
Barak rivers are leading them. These rivers are the source of 60% of surface water sources of India.
Table 6.3 Basin-wise groundwater potential and utilisation in India (cubic km/year)
S.no. Name of basin Total replenishable Level of groundwater

groundwater resources utilisation (%)
1. Brahmani with Baitarani 4.05 8.45
2. Brahmaputra 26.55 3.37
3. Chambal Composite 7.19 40.09
4. Kaveri 12.3 55.33
5. Ganga 170.99 33.52
6. Godavari 40.65 19.53
7. Indus 26.49 77.71
8. Krishna 26.41 30.39
9. Kuchchh and Saurashtra including river Luni 11.23 51.14
10. Chennai and South Tamil Nadu 18.22 57.68
11. Mahanadi 16.46 6.95
12. Meghna (Barak and others) 8.52 3.94
13. Narmada 10.83 21.74
14. Northeast Composite 18.84 17.2
15. Pennar 4.93 36.6
16. Subarnrekha 1.82 9.57
17. Tapi 8.27 33.05
18. Western Ghat 17.69 22.88
Total 431.42 31.97
Source: Class 12, NCERT Geography text book, Unit 3, Chapter 6, Water Resources, page 61

Groundwater Resources
In India, we have 432 km3 freshwater resources as groundwater. However, 46% of total replen-
ishable groundwater resources of country are shared by the Ganga and the Brahmaputra basins.
As we know, we are a developing country and working hard to develop our agriculture and indus-
tries. This is the reason why utilisation of groundwater is very high in many parts of our country.
The leading states where utilisation of groundwater is very high are Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Maharashtra.
Surface Water Withdrawals Ground Water Withdrawals
Domestic Domestic
9% 3%
Industrial Industrial
2% 5%
Agriculture Agriculture
89% 92%
Figure 6.2 (a) Sectoral usage of surface water (b) Sectoral usage of groundwater
MAJOR RIVER SYSTEMS IN INDIA

India is the country of thousands of rivers. From north to south and east to west, there are many
river systems in India. However, two major river systems are Ganges river system and Indus river
system.
Ganges River System

There are many rivers in this system. The major rivers merging in this system move from west to
east. The rivers are as follows:
1. Chambal
2. Betwa
3. Yamuna
4. Gomti

5. Ghaghra
6. Son
7. Gandaki
8. Koshi
9. Brahmaputra
Indus River System

It originates in the northern Kailash range near Manasarovar Lake in Tibet. The major rivers of this
system are as follows:
1. Indus
2. Chenab
3. Jhelum
4. Ravi
5. Sutlej
6. Beas
7. Shyok
8. Zanskar
Famous Lakes of India

The famous lakes of India are as follows:
1. Wular Lake (Jammu and Kashmir): It is the largest freshwater lake in India. The length and
width of the lake are approximately 16 km and 9.6 km, respectively.
2. Dal Lake (Jammu and Kashmir): It is located in Srinagar. It is also known as Crown of
Kashmir.
3. Chilika Lake (Odisha): It is the second largest lagoon lake of the world.
4. Pangong Lake (Ladakh): It is situated at the height of about 4,350 m.
5. Sambhar Salt Lake (Rajasthan): It is the largest inland salt lake of India. It is a bowl-shaped
lake.
6. Bhimtal Lake (Uttarakhand): It has a large variety of aquatic life and winter stoppage of
birds from trans-Himalayan region.
7. Lonar Lake (Maharashtra): It is a crater lake.

➨ Almost 71% of surface of earth is covered by water.
➨ Ocean is the biggest part of hydrosphere. Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean in the world.

➨ The part of ocean that is surrounded by water from three sides and ocean by one side is called
Sea.
➨ Generally, the ocean temperature remains between 5°C and 33°C. Oceans are rich sources of
minerals; however, some are diluted and some are found in solid state.
➨ The ocean water never remains still and always in a state of motion. It has three types of
motions: tide, currents, and ocean waves.
➨ There are two types of ocean streams: warm stream and cold stream.
➨ In the northern spheres, the streams move clockwise; while in the southern spheres, the
streams move anticlockwise because of the rotation of the earth.
➨ A narrow water way that joins two different gulfs, oceans, or seas is called a strait and a nar-
row way that joins two big landscapes is called Isthmus.
➨ There are several types of lakes such as man-made, natural, freshwater, and saline.
➨ Freshwater lakes are formed due to the melting of ice and it is necessary that these lakes are
connected with rivers.
➨ Salty lakes are found in the areas of high evaporation and low rainfall; these are not connected
with any river and that is why they are still.
➨ Natural lakes are made of activities of tectonic plates or crater of volcanoes. India’s Lunar Lake is
an example of Crater Lake or natural lake.
➨ Man-made lakes are formed due to multipurpose projects of countries; these projects include
irrigation, control of floods, and electricity production.
➨ We can divide surface water resources into four major sources: ponds, tanks, lakes, and rivers.
➨ In India, we have 432 km3 freshwater resources as groundwater. However, 46% of total
replenishable groundwater resources of country are shared by the Ganga and the Brahmaputra
basins.
➨ Two major river systems are Ganges river system and Indus river system.
➨ Wular Lake (Jammu and Kashmir) is the largest freshwater lake in India. Its approximate length
and width of 16 km × 9.6 km.
➨ Chilika Lake (Odisha) is the second largest lagoon lake in the world.
➨ Sambhar Salt Lake (Rajasthan) is the largest inland salt lake in India. It is a bowl-shaped
lake.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What do you understand by waves and 5. What is lake? Explain different types of lakes.
currents of ocean? 6. What is surface water resource? Explain
2. What is hydrosphere? with examples in the context of India.
3. Explain the distribution of water bodies. 7. What is groundwater resource? Explain the
4. What is the difference between bay and distribution and utilisation of groundwater
gulf? Explain with examples. in India.

Objective Questions
1. Which one of the following Indian rivers (c) 8%
has the largest basin area? (d) 10%
(a) Ganga
7. Which one of the following is the longest
(b) Yamuna
river in the world?
(c) Kaveri
(a) Nile
(d) Krishna
(b) Ganga
2. Which of the following states has a very (c) Amazon
high rate of groundwater utilisation? (d) Hudson
(a) Punjab
(b) Kerala 8. Which one of the following is a salty lake?
(c) Orissa (a) Dead Sea
(d) Karnataka (b) Baikal
(c) Titicaca
3. Which of the following river basins has
(d) Manasarovar
huge amount of groundwater?
(a) Brahmaputra 9. Which one of the following is a freshwater
(b) Kaveri lake?
(c) Chambal (a) Titicaca
(d) Godavari (b) Chilika
4. Which of the following sectors has the (c) Dead Sea
highest rate of utilisation of groundwater (d) Aral Sea
in India? 10. Which of the following is the largest ocean
(a) Agriculture of the world?
(b) Industries (a) Pacific Ocean
(c) Domestic (b) Indian Ocean
(d) None of these (c) Atlantic Ocean
5. Which of the following sectors has the (d) Arctic Ocean
highest rate of utilisation of surface water 11. Which of the following is the deepest point
in India? of ocean?
(a) Agriculture (a) Mariana Trench
(b) Industries (b) Bonin Trench
(c) Domestic (c) Kuril Trench
(d) None of these (d) Philippine Trench
6. What is the share of India in total amount 12. What is the movement of streams in north-
of freshwater of the world? ern sphere of earth?
(a) 4% (a) Clockwise
(b) 6% (b) Anticlockwise

(c) East to west 17. Which of the following is the largest lake
(d) West to east of the world?
(a) Caspian Sea
13. Which one of the following is the warm
(b) Lake Superior
stream?
(c) Lake Victoria
(a) Gulf stream
(d) None of these
(b) Labrador stream
(c) Canneri stream 18. Which of the following is the largest salty
(d) Falkland stream lake of the world?
(a) Caspian Sea
14. Which one of the following is the cold
(b) Lake Superior
stream?
(c) Michigan Lake
(a) Alaska stream
(b) Brazil stream (d) None of these
(c) Agulhas stream 19. Which of the following is the example of
(d) Florida stream Crater Lake?
(a) Lunar lake
15. A narrow water way that joins two differ-
(b) Gobind Sagar
ent gulfs, oceans, or seas is called
(c) Gandhi Sagar
(a) Strait
(d) Chilika
(b) Isthmus
(c) Canal 20. Which of the following is the example of
(d) None of these isthmus?
(a) Panama
16. Which one of the following is the man-
(b) Gibraltar
made lake?
(c) Malacca
(a) Gobind Sagar
(d) Palk
(b) Chilika
(c) Sambhar
(d) Baikal

CHAPTER
Agriculture 7
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Understand agriculture as a profession
• Explore and understand the various kinds of agricultural systems
• Become aware about various types and forms of cultivation
• Know about the necessary conditions needed to grow a particular crop
• Familiarise the cropping patterns in India
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is the primary occupation of India, and it is the main source of food. It is defined dif-
ferently in different parts of world. It includes production of crops and animal husbandry. Animal
husbandry includes caring and management of farm animals. Farming is the primary economic
process and depends upon the climatic and environmental conditions of a particular place. Soil,
humidity, and temperature also play a significant role in the development of farming. Tropical
region is the most favourable and developed region in agriculture because of the climatic condi-
tions and the easily and cheaply available human resources. Appropriate rainfall is also important
for agriculture.
AGRICULTURE SYSTEM
In agriculture system, the relationship between farmers and land is studied. In this system, there
are different types of cultivations followed and some of them are as follows:
1. Personal cultivation: It is the most famous agriculture type in the world. Here, the farmer
cultivates his land as per his need and choice. He is responsible for his loss and gain, and
sometimes farmers borrow land from landlords and farm the land for their use.
2. Commercial cultivation: This type of cultivation is mostly seen in the regions where people
have vast land. Farmers not only farm for their personal needs but also for commercial
purposes. A large amount of agriculture production is contributed by commercial farming.

3. Cooperative cultivation: This type of cultivation is done in the developed nations where
the farmers contribute their land, resources, and equipment, and give up their personal inter-
est. It is totally based on group work. This type of farming is practiced in Israel, Netherlands,
and Belgium, and in Israel, it is called kibbutzim. The production of this farming is distributed
among the contributors.
FORMS OF CULTIVATION
There are various kinds of farm cultivation. Some of them are discussed below:
1. Place-bound cultivation: This cultivation is practiced by the farmers from a very long time,
continuously without leaving the land. It is one of the major cultivation types across the world
including India.
2. Shifting cultivation: It is opposite of place-bound cultivation. First, the forest land is cleared,
and a piece of land is prepared for cultivation. Here, cultivation is done for a specific period of
time, and after that, it is left for rejuvenation, and a new forest land is cleared to do the same
practice again.
3. Staircase cultivation: It is practiced on hilly areas to protect the soil from soil erosion. It
is also known as step cultivation. The staircase type cultivation prevents the intense flow of
water from hills and prevention of soil erosion is ensured. This type of cultivation is also a
place-bound and permanent cultivation type.
4. Irrigation cultivation: This cultivation is practiced in sub-tropical regions. It is done in low
rain areas, and cultivation is done through the help of irrigation. In India, rice and sugarcane
cultivation is done through this type of cultivation.
5. Dry cultivation: In regions where there is low rain and with no irrigation facility, crops are
developed under dry conditions. In these regions, crops which can bear high temperature and
dryness are cultivated. This type of cultivation is done in India, Australia, and North America.
The crops which need irrigation are also cultivated in these lands.
6. Rotation cultivation: The main aim of rotation cultivation is to preserve the fertility of the land.
In this system, different crops are cultivated on rotation basis on the same land. Some crops get
nutrition from upper layer of the land, whereas some crops absorb nutrition from the depth.
7. Mixed cultivation: When two or more than two types of crops are cultivated on the same
land in a year, it is called mixed cultivation. When we do not leave the land without the crop
and it is called relay cultivation. In India, Rabi and Kharif crops are cultivated on the same piece
of land. Other countries where mixed cultivation is done include China, Japan, and some parts
of Europe.
TYPES OF CULTIVATION
Various types of cultivation are as follows:
1. Intensive cultivation: The main objective of this kind of cultivation is to harvest more from a
given specific piece of land. It requires good quality seeds, man power, machinery, and fertilizers.

202 | Chapter 7 Agriculture
It is mostly done in densely populated areas of the world, and it is very popular in China, Japan,
Eastern Asia, and Western Europe.
2. Extensive cultivation: It is done on big farm lands with the help of agricultural machineries.
Manpower and animal power are used very minimal in this type of cultivation. Only one type
of crop is cultivated in a year due to the availability of vast land for cultivation. It is popular in
sparsely populated areas of the world such as in USA, Canada, and Australia.
3. Shifting cultivation: It is opposite of place-bound cultivation. First, the forest land is cleared
and a part of it is prepared for cultivation. Farming is done for a specific period, and after that,
it is left for rejuvenation and a new forest land is cleared to do the same practice again.
4. Nomadic cultivation: In sub-tropical regions, some nomadic communities migrate from
one place to another in search of water and fodder for their animals. They survive on the
productions of animals. This type of nomadic cultivation is found in some parts of Northern
Africa, Middle Asia, and Arabia.
5. Specialised plantation cultivation: To meet the demand supply of fruits and vegetables,
this type of cultivation is practiced in cities and industrial areas. Plantation cultivation is
developed in high densely populated areas of Europe.
6. Dairy cultivation and animal husbandry: Because of great demand of dairy products in
the cities of Europe, this type of cultivation was developed and spread to other parts of the
world. The temperate zone of Europe is conducive for animal Cattling. The animal Cattling
provides milk and milk products such as butter, cheese, curd, and so on to the population.
Denmark, New Zealand, and Sweden are the largest producers of livestock products.
MAJOR CROPS
Some of the major crops of the world are as follows:
1. Rice: It is a crop of tropical and humid regions. To grow rice, the required temperature is
20°C to 27°C. Soil conducive for this crop is loam and alluvial soils. Rice cultivation requires a
large quantity of water and more than 100 cm rainfall. In addition, it requires good enough
manpower for cultivation. China, Indonesia, and India are the major producers of rice in the
world.
2. Wheat: Wheat production is popular in the Prairie and Steppe regions. Good water draining
soil is necessary for its cultivation. Other conditions required are 15°C–20°C temperature and
rainfall of 75 cm. Nowadays, machinery is used at a massive level in wheat cultivation. It is the
major crop of extensive cultivation, and it is a crop of temperate and tropical and sub-tropical
regions. China, USA, India, France, and Russia are the major producers of Wheat.
3. Millets: It is an excellent source of protein. It is cultivated in the same regions where wheat
is cultivated. It is a raw source for beer production. It can be cultivated in less fertile soils and
regions with mean rainfall. Major producers of millets are Canada, Russia, Germany, and Ukraine.

4. Maize: Basically, it is an American crop. It is also known as corn. To grow maize, the required
temperature is 18°C to 27°C and rainfall of 60–70 cm. Loamy (Loam) soils are good maize
cultivation. In Northern America, this crop is cultivated to feed the livestock. The major
producers of maize are China, Mexico, Brazil, and Nigeria.
5. Cotton: It is a fine source of fibre used in cloth manufacturing, which comes from fruits
of its plants. It requires tropical climate with medium rainfall. To grow cotton, the required
temperature is 25°C and at least 200 days without frost. Black and alluvial soils are ideal for
this crop. It decreases the fertility of soil. Major producers of cotton are China, USA, Pakistan,
India, and Uzbekistan.
6. Jute: Jute is cultivated from the stem of jute plant. To grow jute, the required temperature
required is 27°C to 30°C and rainfall of 100–200 cm. It needs high humidity. It is the major
crop of delta regions. It also decreases the fertility of soil very fast. Bangladesh and India are
the major producers.
7. Coffee: Coffee plants are cultivated under some trees like rubber to avoid direct sunlight. To
grow coffee, the required temperature is 26°C and rainfall of 150–200 cm. It is totally a crop
of warm and wet region. Coffee is an important beverage, and the major producers are Brazil,
Columbia, Mexico, Uganda, and Indonesia.
8. Tea: Tea plants are cultivated steep hilly areas especially in the monsoon regions. To grow
tea, the required temperature is 21°C and rainfall of 200 cm. A long dry season is necessary
for its cultivation. Direct sun light is not good for its cultivation; therefore, trees are planted
to provide shade. Tea is a very important beverage, and the major producers are India, China,
Sri Lanka, and Kenya.
9. Sugarcane: It is an important source for the production of sugar. To grow sugarcane, the
required temperature is 20°C to 28°C and rainfall of 120 cm. It requires very fertile land. India,
Brazil, and Cuba are the largest producers of sugarcane.
Cropping in India
In India, agriculture is the primary occupation. More than 60% of total population is either directly
or indirectly involved in agriculture. We can divide Indian cropping on the basis of three seasons,
namely kharif, rabi, and zaid. We can also divide Indian cropping on the basis of seasons of north-
ern states and southern states.
1. Kharif: The cropping season of kharif is from June to September. Rice, cotton bajra, maize,
jowar, and tur are some of the important kharif crops of northern states, whereas in the
southern states, rice, maize, ragi, jowar, and groundnut are cultivated during this season.
2. Rabi: The cropping season of rabi is from October to March. Wheat, gram, rapeseeds, mus-
tard, and barley are some of the important rabi crops of northern states, whereas in southern
states, rice, maize, ragi, groundnut, and jowar are cultivated during this season.

3. Zaid: The cropping season of Zaid crops is from April to June. In this season, mostly veg-
etables, fruits, and fodder are cultivated in northern states, whereas in southern states rice,
vegetables, and fodder are the important crops of this season.
Cropping Patterns in India

Food grains
India is a densely populated country and it needs a very huge amount of food to feed the popula-
tion. Here, food grains cropping plays a very vital role to feed India’s population. This quality of
this crop make it very dominant and significant cropping. It is also used for commercial purposes
and to strengthen the economy of the country. Food grain cropping occupies about two-third of
the total cropped area. We can divide food grains in two types on the basis of its structure, namely
cereals and pulses.
1. Cereals: In India, cereals cropping occupies about half of the cropped area of the county.
India produces more than 10% of cereals of the world. It ranks 3rd after China and USA in
cereal cropping. Cereals cropping can also be divided into two types, namely fine grains such
as rice and wheat, and coarse grains such as jowar, bajra, maize, and ragi.
(a) Rice: It has a very vital position among cereals. Majority of Indian population depend on
rice for their survival. India has more than 3000 varieties of rice, and we export various
varieties of good quality rice all over the world. Many states of India produce rice. It
is cultivated in northern states like Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, northern
Rajasthan, and West Bengal, and in southern states like Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana, and Kerala. India produces more than 22% of World’s total rice
production. The northern regions of India like Haryana and Punjab are not traditional
producers of rice and they started producing it after the green revolution.
(b) Wheat: It is the second important crop of India after rice. India produces more than 12%
of world’s total wheat production. Indo-Gangetic plains, Malwa Plateau, and Himalayas
up to 2700 m altitude are the best regions of wheat production in India.
(c) Jowar: It is grown as both kharif and rabi crop. In northern India, it is considered as
kharif crop, whereas in southern India, it is consider as a rabi crop. In northern India,
it is grown as a fodder crop. It occupies about 5.3% of total cropped area of India.
Maharashtra is the main region that produces more than 50% of total jowar cropping in
India.
(d) Bajra: It is a crop of dry and hot climate region. Usually it is grown under mixed cropping.
This cereal occupies about 5.2% of total cropped area of India. Leading states that
produces Bajra are Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, and Maharashtra. It is drought-
resistant crop.
(e) Maize: It can be categorised as food crop as well as fodder crop. It occupies about 3.6%
of total cropped area of India. Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka are the
leading producers of maize.

2. Pulses: They are very rich source of proteins. Through the process of nitrogen fixation, it
increases the fertility of soils. India is one of the leading producers of pulses as it produces
almost 50% of world’s total pulse production. The leading regions of t pulse production in
India are the dry lands of Deccan and Central Plateaus and north western parts of the country.
In India, gram and arhar are the most commonly grown pulses.
(a) Gram: It is a rabi crop and the crop of subtropical region. It does not need much water
to grow successfully. It occupies almost 2.8% of total cropped area of India. The leading
producers of gram are Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
and Rajasthan.
(b) Arhar: It is the second important pulse crop of India after gram. It is also known as
pigeon pea. It is the crop of dry areas. It covers only 2% of total cropped area of India.
Maharashtra is the leading producer of arhar in India. After Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh,
Karnataka, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh are also good producers of arhar.
Other Important Crops of India

1. Sugarcane: It is a crop of tropical areas. It needs humid climate to grow successfully. In India,
Uttar Pradesh is famous for sugarcane farming. It also cultivated in Maharashtra and Gujarat
on large level. In southern India, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh also cultivate
sugarcane. Uttar Pradesh produces about two-fifth of sugarcane of India’s total production.
2. Tea: Tea is a plantation crop which is mainly used for commercial purpose. It is a rich source
of caffeine and tannin. Humid and sub-humid hilly areas are appropriate places for growing
tea. In India, Assam state is the biggest producer. India is one of the top producers of tea
among Sri Lanka and China.
3. Coffee: Coffee is also used as a beverage like tea. It is tropical crop, and India grows ‘Arabica’
coffee (Arabica is one of the three types of coffee—Arabica, Robusta, and Liberica), which is
a superior quality coffee. It has high demand in international market. Its plants are cultivated
under some trees to keep them away from direct sunlight.

➨ Agriculture is the primary occupation of India. It includes production of crops and animal hus-
bandry. Animal husbandry includes caring and management of farm animals.
➨ When a farmer cultivates his land as per his need and choice, it is called personal cultivation.
➨ In commercial cultivation, the farmers not only farm for their personal needs but also for com-
mercial purposes.
➨ When farmers contribute their land, resources, and equipment, and gives up their personal
interest, it is known as cooperative cultivation. It is totally based on group work.

➨ There are various forms of cultivation such as place-bound cultivation, shifting cultivation,
staircase cultivation, irrigation cultivation, dry cultivation, mixed cultivation, and rotation
cultivation.
➨ Intensive cultivation, extensive cultivation, shifting cultivation, nomadic cultivation, dairy cul-
tivation and animal husbandry, and specialised plantation cultivation are different types of
cultivation.
➨ Rice is a crop of tropical and humid regions. To grow rice, the required temperature is 20°C to
27°C. Soil conducive for this crop is loam and alluvial soils.
➨ Wheat production is popular in the Prairie and Steppe regions. Good water-draining soil is
necessary for its cultivation. Other conditions required are 15°C–20°C temperature and rainfall
of 75 cm.
➨ Cotton cultivation requires tropical climate with medium rainfall. Temperature required is 25°C
and at least 200 days without frost. Black and alluvial soils are ideal for this crop.
➨ Coffee is an important beverage. The temperature required is 26°C and rain fall of 150–200 cm.
➨ We can divide Indian cropping on the basis of three seasons, namely kharif, rabi, and zaid.
Check Your Progress

1. Why agriculture is called primary occu- 4. What are the different types of cultivation,
pation of India, explain with suitable explain with examples?
examples? 5. Discuss the farming conditions of the fol-
2. What is the difference among personal cul- lowing crops, rice, wheat, maize, and
tivation, commercial cultivation, and coop- millets.
erative cultivation, explain with suitable 6. Explain the cropping seasons of India.
examples?
3. Explain different forms of cultivation with
examples.
Objective Questions
1. Agriculture is the primary occupation because (a) Personal cultivation
(a) it is the main source of food. (b) Commercial cultivation
(b) it contributes major part in world (c) Cooperative cultivation
economy. (d) None of these
(c) it is an ancient occupation. 3. Which of the following best define com-
(d) None of these mercial cultivation?
2. When a farmer farms according to his per- (a) Farming for sale
sonal need and choices, it is called: (b) Framing for survival

(c) Farming for store 10. When two or more than two types of
(d) None of these crops are cultivated on the same land in
one year, it is called:
4. Which of the following best define coop-
(a) Mixed cultivation
erative cultivation?
(b) Rotation cultivation
(a) Group work-based farming
(c) Irrigation cultivation
(b) Government-supported farming
(d) Staircase cultivation
(c) Farming by cooperative firms
(d) None of these 11. Which of following is a characteristic of
extensive cultivation?
5. What do you understand by shifting
(a) Extensive use of machinery
cultivation?
(b) Extensive use of manpower
(a) Shifting the place of farming
(c) Extensive use of natural power
(b) Shifting the crop
(d) Extensive use of animal power
(c) Shifting the technique of farming
(d) None of these 12. What do you understand by nomadic
cultivation?
6. What is the major characteristic of place-
bound cultivation? (a) Animal grazing
(b) Pulses cropping
(a) Same place, long time
(c) Cereal cropping
(b) Different place, same crop
(d) None of these
(c) Farming of time-taking crops
(d) None of these 13. Rice needs _________ to grow successfully.
(a) large quantity of water
7. What do you understand by staircase
(b) black soil
cultivation?
(a) Farming on coastal areas (c) costal soil
(b) Farming on hilly areas (d) None of these
(c) Farming on plains 14. Which of the following is the major crop of
(d) None of these extensive cultivation?
(a) Wheat
8. Which of the following form of cultivation
(b) Cotton
suits low rain areas?
(a) Irrigation cultivation (c) Maize
(d) Millets
(b) Staircase cultivation
(c) Shifting cultivation 15. Which of the following crop is used in beer
(d) Rotation cultivation production?
(a) Millets
9. What is the aim of rotation cultivation?
(a) Maintain nutrition in soil (b) Maize
(c) Rice
(b) To earn more profit
(d) Cocoa
(c) Fulfil the need of varieties of crops
(d) None of these

16. Which type of climatic conditions is needed (c) Maize

for cropping of cotton? (d) Millets
(a) Tropical climate and medium rainfall 19. Which of the following is the crop of Kharif?
(b) Sub-tropical climate and heavy rainfall (a) Rice
(c) High humidity (b) Wheat
(d) None of these (c) Mustard
17. Which of the following crop is planted (d) Barley
under the trees to keep away from direct 20. Which of the following is the crop of Rabi?
sun light? (a) Wheat
(a) Coffee
(b) Rice
(b) Cotton (c) Cotton
(c) Jute (d) Bajra
(d) Peanuts
21. Which of the following is the crop of Zaid?
18. Which is the most vital crop of the south- (a) Fodder
ern part of India? (b) Gram
(a) Rice (c) Jowar
(b) Wheat (d) Barley

CHAPTER
Resources 8
LEARNING OBjECTIvES
• Develop understanding about various kinds of resources
• Understand the importance of resources for mankind
• Know the various kinds of categories and sub-categories of resources
• Become aware of the energy resources
INTRODUCTION
The things around us with which we fulfil our needs and which have utility values are called resources.
All the resources used by mankind have the potential to produce energy which is useful for us.
Resources are needed for the vital infrastructural facilities that are used extensively by all the sectors
of human activities such as industries, agriculture, transportation, households, and service sectors. We
need resources such as electricity, cooking gas, oils, and so on to meet our daily needs at our home.
We cannot imagine cooking without energy that comes directly from resources such as fire, kerosene,
cooking gas, or electricity. Similarly, in agriculture, we use human resources like man to work in the
fields and animals to plough the fields. Now, in modern times, these animals are replaced by machines
such as tractors, harvesters, and so on. However, what is reality here is that we need resources.
Industries are also dependent on resources to produce various products used by us. The large
machineries at factories need resources like electricity or oil to operate, and they also need human
resources to keep the machines working. There is a long list where resources are needed and life
is beyond imagination without the resources.
TYPES OF RESOURCES
On the basis of availability, accessibility resources have been categorized as following:
Natural Resources
The resources that are provided by the nature and used in their natural forms or with a slight
human modification are called natural resources. The air we breathe and the water we use from
rivers, lakes, etc., are some of the examples of natural resources.

210 | Chapter 8 Resources
The earth is full of resources, but all the resources could not be known or used at once. We
need innovation, technology, and time to make those resources available for our use. On the basis
of these features, the resources are classified as follows:
1. Actual resources: The resources that are readily available and whose stock, distribution, and
deposit are known to mankind are called actual resources.
2. Potential resources: The resources that are not readily available and whose quantity and
stock are not known to mankind are called potential resources.
We use a lot of energy and resources daily, but they differ in one feature, that is, the availability of
the resources. On the possibility of their availability, recycling, and scope of renewal, the resources
are classified as follows:
1. Renewable resources: The resources whose total stock and availability remain unaffected
irrespective of their consumption are called renewable resources. As the word itself defines,
renewable means which have the capacity to reproduce itself or which can be renewed.
2. Non-renewable resources: The resources whose total stock and availability are affected
due to their consumption are called non-renewable resources. As the word itself defines,
non-renewable means which do not have the capacity to reproduce itself or which cannot be
renewed.
3. Man-made resources: Although we use a lot of energy and resources daily, all these are
not provided by nature in natural form directly. Some of the natural resources are modified to
make their usability worthy. Such resources are called man-made resources.
4. Human resources: Human resources mean use of humans as resources in the form of work-
force. Some scholars called it as human capital.
All the resources in India can be categorised into various categories. Resources such as water,
land, minerals, etc., are very crucial for India. These resources also have many sub-categories. We
will be discussing these categories and sub-categories in this section.
Water resources
Water, like oxygen, is necessary for human survival. Without it, we cannot imagine how the earth
would be. Water covers almost 71 per cent of the total surface area of the earth. We can divide
water sources into two categories: first is saline water and the other is fresh water. In total, only
3 per cent of fresh water is available on earth. India accounts for about 4 per cent of world’s
water resources. There are two major sources of fresh water: one is surface water and the other
is replenishing groundwater.
1. Surface water resources: We can include four major sources of water under surface water
resources. These are rivers, lakes, ponds, and tanks. India is the land of rivers and we have
about 10,360 rivers in our country. The annual flow of water in these rivers is about 1869
cubic km, but we cannot use all of it. Due to various reasons, we got only 690 cubic km of it.

2. Groundwater resources: India has only 432 cubic km ground water. The Ganga and
Brahmaputra basins have about 46 per cent of it. Groundwater utilization is very high in India.
Land and agricultural resources

As a resource, land has multiple uses for human beings. It can be used as a residence and for pro-
duction. As a resource, land incorporates different types of residential buildings, schools, roads,
parks, We can easily categorise land resources based on its usage as follows:
1. Forest land: It comes under government announced forest area.

2. Non-agricultural land: Land which comes under urban and rural settlements, infrastructure,
and industries are called non-agricultural land.
3. Barren and waste land: It includes hilly terrains, dessert lands, ravines, etc. This category of
land cannot be used for cultivation.
4. Grazing lands: This type of land is usually owned by village Panchayat or government. These
land properties are under common property resource.
5. Tree crops and groves area: In this category, we can include orchards and fruit trees. Most
of these lands are private-owned properties.
6. Culturable waste land: It includes the lands that are not cultivated for more than five years.
7. Current fallow: It includes the lands that are left without cultivation for one agricultural year.
It is a cultural practice to increase the fertility of a particular land in which that land is left
uncultivated for a certain time period.
8. Net area sown: It is the physical extent of net sown land.
Minerals and energy resources

Due to its geological structure, India has very rich varieties of mineral resources. In the era of
industrial development, it is very vital for any country to have these types of resources. There are
many types of resources under this category. We can categorise minerals into metallic minerals
and non-metallic minerals based on the chemical and physical properties.
1. Metallic minerals: These minerals are the sources of metals. They are found under earth’s
surface and mountains in the form of ores or in their impure forms. We can put iron ore,
copper, gold, and so on in this category. We can divide metallic minerals in two sub-categories,
namely ferrous and non-ferrous metallic minerals. Ferrous minerals are the minerals that have
iron content. Non-ferrous metallic minerals are the minerals that do not have iron content.
2. Non-metallic minerals: There are two types of non-metallic minerals based on their origin,
namely organic and inorganic. Non-metallic minerals are originated from fossil fuels such as
coal, and petroleum comes under the category of organic minerals. The non-metallic minerals
which are found in the form of rocks come under inorganic category. Mica, limestone, and
graphite are some examples of non-metallic minerals.

Minerals have an inverse relationship between quality and quantity. It means low-quality minerals
are easily available as they are high in quantity, whereas on the other side, high-quality miner-
als are rarely available because of their shortage in nature. Minerals take thousands of years to
develop geologically. Hence, these minerals are limited in nature.
DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS IN INDIA

Minerals have a characteristic of unequal distribution over the surface of earth. Some parts of
earth are very rich in different types of valuable minerals, whereas some places do not have
any. In India, there is unequal distribution of minerals. Most of the metallic minerals in India
occur in the peninsular plateau region in the old crystalline rocks. Over 97 per cent of coal
reserves occur in the valleys of Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi, and Godavari. Petroleum reserves
are located in the sedimentary basins of Assam, Gujarat, and Mumbai high, i.e., off-shore region
in the Arabian Sea. New reserves have been located in the Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins.
Most of the major minerals resources occur to the east of a line linking Mangalore and Kanpur.
(NCERT textbook, Class 12, Geography, Chapter 7, Mineral and Energy Resources, pp. 73)
Mineral deposits are spread over three regions in India as given below:
Figure 8.1 India (a) metallic minerals (ferrous) (b) minerals (non-ferrous)

1. The northeastern plateau: The northeastern plateau covers Jharkhand, Orissa plateau,
West Bengal, and some parts of Chhattisgarh. This region is very rich in minerals such as iron,
coal, manganese, bauxite, and mica. This is the main reason for the establishment of major
iron and steel industries in this region.
2. The southwestern plateau: This plateau includes Karnataka, Goa, Kerala, and some parts
of Tamil Nadu. This region is rich in bauxite and ferrous metals.
3. The northwestern region: Aravali in Rajasthan and some parts of Gujarat are included in
this region Copper and zinc, sand stone. marble, along with Gypsum and Salt in Gujrat.
ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy resources are primarily mineral fuels, which are essential for power generation. We all
know that in every sector (agriculture, industry, transport, etc.), there is essential need of fuel
that makes these sectors functional. In mineral fuels, we can include coal, petroleum, and natural
gases. All these types of fuel minerals are originated from fossil fuels and are available in a very
limited amount on earth. Nowadays, nuclear energy minerals are also considered in the category
of energy resources. The trend of generating energy from nuclear energy minerals is developing
very fast. It is considered as a source of future power generation. All these energy resources are
called conventional sources of energy.
Conventional Energy Sources

Coal
Coal is the main mineral used in the generation of thermal energy in India. There are almost seven
types of coal found across the world. These are peat, lignite, sub-bituminous, bituminous, steam,
anthracite, and graphite. Anthracite coal is considered as the best quality of coal due its highest
carbon content. Bituminous coal comes the second and lignite is considered as the lowest grade.
In India, bituminous coal has almost 80 per cent share in total coal production. It can be found in
Gondwana Coal Field in India, which is located in Damodar basin. These fields are in Jharkhand–
Bengal coal belt. There are some vital coal fields in this area such as Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura,
and Jharia.
Petroleum
From the day internal combustion engines became an important part of our daily life, the demand
of petroleum increased day by day. This source of energy is the back bone of automobiles, rail-
ways, and aircrafts. Usually we get it from under the earth’s surface or from sea bed in natural
form, that is, crude petroleum. It can be found in very old sedimentary rocks. In India, there are

many places which are famous for producing petroleum such as Digboi (the first petroleum pro-
ducing region of India), Naharkatiya, Ankleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana, Navagam, Mumbai high, etc.
Natural gas
Usually natural gas is found along with oil in all the oil fields, but natural gas has its exclusive
reserves located near to eastern coasts. Some exclusive reserves of natural gas are also located in
Tripura, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
Figure 8.2 India (a) Conventional energy resources (b) Oil refineries
Source: NCERT textbook, Class 12, Geography, Chapter 7, Mineral and Energy Resources,
pp. 79 and 81
Nuclear energy resources

In today’s world, nuclear energy is emerging very fast. It is a form of energy that is generated
in nuclear power plants. These power generating units use heat and steam to generate power.
The energy that creates heat and steam are generated in a process of splitting of uranium atoms.
This process is called nuclear fission. As a source of energy, nuclear energy consumes very little fuel
to generate more power in comparison to coal and petroleum. In India, we have seven nuclear
power plants at Tarapur, Rawatbhata, Kudankulam, Kaiga, Kakrapar, Kalpakkam, and Narora.

Non-conventional Energy Sources

Non-conventional energy sources are wind, tides, solar, geothermal heat, and biomass. The pre-
sent world is focusing on non-conventional energy sources as a substitute for petroleum, coal,
and bio gas because the earth has only very limited amount of conventional energy sources. These
non-conventional energy sources are renewable and do not harm environment.
Solar energy
Solar energy is a transformed energy that we get from sun. It is universal and inexhaustible source
of energy. It is pollution free and available unlimitedly. To get this energy from sun’s heat, we
should have solar panels. But this technology is still very costly for a common man.
Wind energy
Wind energy is directly generated through wind by using windmills.
Tidal and wave energy

As we know that water covers almost 70 per cent of total earth’s surface, in which seas contribute
about 99 per cent. There is a tendency of rising and falling of sea water. It happens because of
gravitational power of moon and sun. This rising and falling process is called tides. There is a lot
to do in this area of generating energy through these tides.
Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy refers to the use of heat of earth’s core to generate energy. Scientists of many
countries are working on this source of energy.
Bioenergy
Bioenergy is the energy produced from plant materials and animal excreta. Sometimes it is made
from urban wastes also.

➨ The things around us with which we fulfil our needs and which have utility values are called
resources.
➨ Resources are needed for the vital infrastructural facilities that are used extensively by all the
sectors of human activities such as industries, agriculture, transportation, households, and
service sectors.
➨ The resources that are provided by the nature and used in their natural forms or with a slight
human modification are called natural resources.

➨ The resources that are not readily available and whose quantity and stock are not known to
mankind are called potential resources.
➨ The resources whose total stock and availability remain unaffected irrespective of their con-
sumption are called renewable resources.
➨ As a resource, land has multiple uses for human beings. It can be used as a residence and for
production.
➨ Due to its geological structure, India has very rich varieties of mineral resources. In the era of
industrial development, it is very vital for any country to have these types of resources.
➨ Minerals take thousands of years to develop geologically. Hence, these minerals are limited in
nature.
➨ Wind energy is directly generated through wind by using windmills.
➨ The northeastern plateau covers Jharkhand, Orissa plateau, West Bengal, and some parts of
Chhattisgarh.
➨ Non-conventional energy sources are wind, tides, solar, geothermal heat, and biomass. The
present world is focusing on non-conventional energy sources as a substitute for petroleum,
coal, and bio gas because the earth has only very limited amount of conventional energy
sources. These non-conventional energy sources are renewable and do not harm environment.
Check Your Progress

1. Explain the term non-conventional energy 3. What is the difference between organic
with suitable examples. minerals and inorganic minerals? Explain it
2. What is the difference between metal- with appropriate examples.
lic and non-metallic minerals? Give some 4. What are energy resources? Explain the dif-
examples for each category. ferent types of energy resources.
5. Explain the minerals distribution in India.
Objective Questions
1. Which of the following is the best explana- 2. Which of the following is the best explana-
tion of potential resources? tion of actual resources?
(a) Resources that may be used in future. (a) Resources that are available for use in
(b) Resources that are available for use in present.
present. (b) Resources that are not completely
(c) Resources that are unlimited stocks. known to mankind.
(d) None of these

(c) Resources that have availability only (c) Culturable waste land
on land. (d) Current fallow
(d) None of these 9. Which of the following is the example of
3. The resources which have a capacity to ferrous minerals?
reproduce itself is called: (a) Iron
(a) Renewable resources (b) Mica
(b) Non-renewable resource (c) Aluminium
(c) Human made resources (d) Copper
(d) None of these 10. Which one of the following is the example
4. Which type of resources has limited avail- of non-ferrous minerals?
ability and stock on earth? (a) Copper
(a) Non-renewable resources (b) Iron
(b) Renewable resources (c) Steel
(c) Both the (a) and (b) (d) None of these
(d) None of these 11. Which of the following is the appropriate
5. Which of the following is the appropriate explanation of organic minerals?
explanation of human resource? (a) Minerals which are originated from
(a) Work force of human fossils.
(b) Human made resource (b) Minerals which are originated from
(c) Resources found by human rocks
(d) None of these (c) Minerals which are manmade
(d) None of these
6. What is approximate annual flow of water
12. Which of the following is the example of
in Indian rivers?
inorganic minerals?
(a) 1869 cubic km
(a) Limestone
(b) 1400 cubic km
(b) Coal
(c) 2100 cubic km
(c) Petroleum
(d) 432 cubic km
(d) None of these
7. Which of the river basins has highest 13. Which one of region in India is famous for
amount of groundwater in India? large stocks of coal?
(a) Ganga and Brahmaputra river basin (a) Valleys of Damodar
(b) Krishna and Kaveri river basin (b) Ganga basin
(c) Damodar river basin (c) Kaveri basin
(d) Son River basin (d) None of these
8. Which of the following category of lands 14. Which one of the following is the best
comes under common property resource? quality coal?
(a) Grazing lands (a) Anthracite
(b) Non-telands (b) Bituminous

(c) Peat 18. How many nuclear power plants are there
(d) Lignite in India?
(a) 7
15. Which types of coal has the largest share in
(b) 6
total coal production in India?
(c) 8
(a) Bituminous
(d) 9
(b) Anthracite
(c) Lignite 19. The term geothermal energy refers to:
(d) Peat (a) Use of heat of earth’s core
(b) Use of sun’s heat
16. Which of the following is the first petro-
leum producing region of India? (c) Use of heat of nuclear power plant
(a) Digboi, Assam (d) None of these
(b) Mumbai high, Maharashtra 20. Which of the following is the quality of
(c) Ankleshwar, Gujarat non-conventional energy sources?
(d) None of these (a) Renewable and environment friendly
(b) Non-renewable and environment
17. The process from which we can get use-
friendly
able nuclear energy is called:
(c) Limited in quantity
(a) Nuclear fission
(d) None of these
(b) Nuclear fusion
(c) Both the (a) and (b)
(d) None of these

CHAPTER
human Environment 9
LEARNING OBjECTIvES
• Understand the various aspects of human environment
• Know the spread of population across India with various associated aspects of population
such as density and growth
• Explore the various kinds of settlements
• Become familiar about the different types of transportation in India
• Understand the concept of migration and reasons of migration
INTRODUCTION
Human environment is constituted by humans, their activities, and environmental features they
have created for their convenience and comfortable life. How do they live, where do they live,
their population, their mode of communication among themselves, and how they survive, all these
questions are the matter of human environment. In this chapter, we will focus on certain aspects
of human environment such as human settlements, migration, transportation, and population.
POPULATION
When we think about the word population in the context of human beings, the few things that
immediately come to our mind are people, specific geographical area, composition of different
groups, density, distribution, and so on. These words have a very important role to define the sta-
tus of population of a region, country, or continent. In this section, we will discuss about Indian
population.
India is the second most populous country of the world, and China being the first. However, as
we are growing very fast in numbers, we will definitely snatch the crown of world’s most popu-
lous country from China. At present, according to 2011 census, the total population of India is
1,210,726,932. As mentioned earlier, if we want to understand population, we have to focus on
its different traits such as distribution, density, growth, and composition. Hence, first we will start
with the concept of distribution in the way to understand Indian population.

220 | Chapter 9 Human Environment
Distribution of Population
India has unequal distribution of population. Some states have very high population and some
have very less. Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, and West Bengal are the highly populated
states of India. States such as Sikkim, Jammu & Kashmir, Arunachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand
have very small share of population of the total population of India. There are various reasons
behind this unequal distribution in India. ‘Among the socioeconomic and historical factors of
population distribution, the important ones are evolution of settled agriculture and agricultural
development, pattern of human settlement, development of transport network, industrialisation,
and urbanisation. It is observed that the regions falling under river plains and coastal areas of India
POPULATION, 2011
Jammu & Kashmir

1, 25, 48, 926
Himachal
Pradesh
68,56,509
Punjab Chandigarh
2,77,04,236 10,54,686
Uttarakhand
Haryana 1,01,16,752
2,53,53,081
NCT of Delhi Arunachal
1,67,53,235 Sikkim Pradesh
6,07,688 13,82,611
Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh

Assam
19,95,81,477
6,86,21,012 3,11,69,272 Nagaland
Bihar 19,80,602
Meghalaya
10,38,04,637
29,64,007
Manipur
Jharkhand 27,21,756
Tripura
3,29,66,238
West 36,71,032 Mizoram
Gujarat Madhya Pradesh Bengal 10,91,014
6,03,83,628 7,25,97,565 9,13,47,736
Chhattisgarh
2,55,40,196
Orissa
Daman & Diu 4,19,47,358
2,42,911
Dadra & Nagar Haveli Maharashtra
3,42,853 11,23,72,972
AND
Andhra Pradesh
8,46,65,533 P
AM
Goa
AN
POPULATION
14,57,723
1 00 00 000 AND BELOW
AN
1 00 00 001 - 2 50 00 000
Karnataka
D N
6,11,30,704 2 50 00 001 - 5 00 00 000

L
5 00 00 001 - 10 00 00 000
ICO
A
P 10 00 00 001 AND ABOVE

K
P
B
12,44,464
S
64,429 Tamil Nadu

A
H DI
(I
7,21,38,958
R
Total Population 1,21,01,93,422

N
A A)
IS
3,79,944 L
A
D
Kerala Males 62,37,24,248 N

W
3,33,87,677 D
A
E
Females 58,64,69,174 S
E
P
P-Puducherry
Figure 9.1 India distribution of population 2001

have remained the regions of high population concentration. Even though the uses of natural
resources such as land and water in these regions have shown the sign of degradation, the con-
centration of population remains high because of an early history of human settlement and devel-
opment of transport network. On the other hand, the urban regions of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata
Bangalore, Pune, Ahmadabad, Chennai, and Jaipur have high concentration of population due
to industrial development and urbanisation drawing a large numbers of rural–urban migrants’.
(NCERT textbook, Class 12, Geography, Chapter 1, Population, pp. 3)
Ten highly populated states of India as per 2011 census are as follows:
1. Uttar Pradesh: 199,812,341

2. Maharashtra: 112,374,333
3. Bihar: 104,099,452
4. West Bengal: 91,276,115
5. Madhya Pradesh: 72,626,809
6. Tamil Nadu: 72,147,030
7. Rajasthan: 68,548,437
8. Karnataka: 61,095,297
9. Gujarat: 60,439,692
10. Andhra Pradesh: 49,386,799
Ten less populated states of India as per 2011 census are as follows:
1. Sikkim: 610,577
2. Mizoram: 1,097,206
3. Arunachal Pradesh: 1,383,727
4. Goa: 1,458,545
5. Nagaland: 1,978,502
6. Manipur: 2,721,756
7. Meghalaya: 2,966,889
8. Tripura: 3,673,917
9. Himachal Pradesh: 6,864,602
10. Uttarakhand: 10,086,292
Population of union territories of India as per 2011 census are as follows:
1. Delhi: 16,787,941
2. Puducherry: 1,247,953
3. Chandigarh: 1,055,450
4. Andaman and Nicobar Islands: 380,581
5. Dadra and Nagar Haveli: 343,709
6. Daman and Diu: 243,247
7. Lakshadweep: 64,473

Density of Population
Density of population means number of persons per unit area. According to 2011 census, the
density of India’s population was 313 people per square km, but the estimated density of India’s
population was 383 people per square km. Similar to distribution of population, density of popu-
lation is also unequally distributed in India. There are few places in India where density of popula-
tion is very high. Arunachal Pradesh, New Delhi, West Bengal, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh are the
highest dense areas. On the other hand, there are some very low density areas such as Himachal
Pradesh, Uttrakahand, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°
36° INDIA 36°
Jammu & Kashmir

124
32° 32°
Himachal Pradesh
123
Punjab Chandigarh
550 9252
Haryana
28° 573 NCT of Delhi 28°
11297 Sikkim Arunachal Pradesh
86 17
Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh

828 Assam
201 Nagaland
397
Bihar 119
1102 Meghalaya
132 Manipur
24° 24°
122
Jharkhand Tripura
414 350
Gujarat Mizoram
Madhya Pradesh West Bengal
308 52
236 1029
Chhattisgarh
189
Orissa
20° 20°
Daman & Diu 269
2169
Maharashtra
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 365
698
Andhra Pradesh
16° ARABIAN SEA 308 (P) BAY OF BENGAL 16°
Goa
394
Karnataka Andaman & Nicobar Islands Narcondam I.

319 46 (India)
12° (P)Puducherry Barren I. 12°

(P) 2598 Number of Persons, Per sq. km (India)
Tamil Nadu
555 (P)
Lakshadweep Kerala
2013 859
National average:382
100 50 0 500
8° 8°
INDIAN OCEAN Kilometres Indira Point
72° EAST OF GREENWICH 76° 80° 84° 88° 92°
Figure 9.2 India density of population 2001

Growth of Population
Growth in population means positive change in the number of people living in a specific area.
For measuring the growth in population, we have to decide any specific time period. ‘Population
growth has two components, namely natural and induced. The natural growth is analysed by
assessing the crude birth and death rates, whereas the induced components are explained by the
volume of inward and outward movements of people in any given area’. (NCERT textbook, Class
12, Geography, Chapter 1, Population, pp. 5)
The growth rate of Indian population is very high. We can understand it by seeing the map
shown in Figure 9.3.
TAJIKISTAN
N
AFGHANISTAN
JAMMU
INDIA
& DECADAL GROWTH RATE
KASHMIR 2001 - 2011
HIMACHAL
PAKISTAN PRADESH
Chandigarh
CHINA
PUNJAB (TIBET)
UTTARAKHAND
HARYANA L
DELHI
HA
NE
PA
SIKKIM AC SH
L UN DE
AR RA
BHUTAN P
RAJASTHAN UTTAR PRADESH ASOM

(ASSAM) NAGALAND
BIHAR
MEGHALAYA
BANGLADESH MANIPUR
JHARKHAND
TRIPURA
GUJARAT WEST MIZORAM
MADHYA PRADESH
BENGAL
H
AR
ISG
(ODISHA)
Diu MYANMAR
TT
Daman ORISSA
HA
DADRA &
CH
NAGAR HAVELI BAY

OF
MAHARASHTRA BENGAL
ANDHRA Yanam
ARABIAN
PRADESH (Puducherry)
SEA
GOA
LEGEND
KARNATAKA
AN
International Boundary
DAMAN
State Boundary
LAK (INDIA
Mahe Puducherry Decadal growth

SHA )
(puducherry)
& NIC O B A R
TAMIL NADU Karaikal

(IN D I A)
less than 10
DW
(Puducherry)
KE
10-20
RA
EEP
LA
20-30
ISL
30 above
A
SRI
ND
I N D I A N LANKA OCEAN
S
Figure 9.3 India growth of population

Composition of Indian Population

Composition of Indian population is very diverse in nature. These are multiple religions, tribes, lan-
guages, ethnicities, and so on. If you want to understand the composition of Indian population,
you have to analyse all different traits of Indian population such as age, sex, ethnicity, religion,
language, marital status, literacy, occupation, and so on.
SETTLEMENTS
Settlement in Geography is an important sub-branch of human geography. The group of houses
built by the people to live can be called a settlement. To be considered as a settlement, the places
where such houses are built must have an independent name. If small places where such houses
are built do not have an independent name, then it is considered as a subpart of the big settlement,
and such settlements are called hamlet. Sometimes the word settlement is used for the place hav-
ing a specific geographical area and people may or may not live there. The settlements where peo-
ple do not live are called uninhabited settlements. The human settlements are the result of human
interactions with their environment. People build home for shelter and safety from wild animals,
weather, and from other people. However, these alone do not make a settlement. Actually the set-
tlements are the result of people’s cooperation and their ability to develop and use the available
environmental resources. The settlements are developed with the development of human civilisa-
tion from hunting–gathering to agriculture, which demanded help of others and mutual coopera-
tion. The area where the settlement extends is called its site. The settlements are dependent on
some natural conditions such as climate, water availability, suitable land, and fertile soil.
On the basis of their location, time of staying, and building features, the settlements can be
classified as follows:
1. Rural settlement: The rural settlements are settlements whose residents are primarily
engaged in the primary economic activities such as animal husbandry and agriculture. For
these activities and for most of their requirements, the people mainly depend on the primary
resources available in the local environment. Most of the rural settlements are smaller than
the urban settlements.
2. Urban settlement: The urban settlements are relatively bigger and are thickly populated
than the rural settlements. The economics and commercial activities of the urban settlements
are complex and diverse. Most of the population of the urban settlements is engaged in the
secondary activities or the service sector of the economics such as production, transportation,
trade and commerce, and so on. The urban population is dependent on the rural population
to fulfil its food and consumption products.
3. Temporary settlement: As the name itself specify, the temporary settlement is a place
where human live for a relatively short period of time. This could be a result of staying for a
particular purpose that may not exist after a specific time. For example, some communities,

who involve in hunting and gathering, build their homes in a jungle for a particular period
of time to live safely during their stay, and this creates a temporary settlement. They can
remove their shelter after the purpose is fulfilled, which could be killing and gathering of
fishes, migratory birds, animals, seasonal fruits, woods, flowers, and so on. These kinds of
settlements are in trend among the communities living in the jungle and practicing shifting
cultivation, hunting and gathering, and so on. The geographical distribution spread in vast
area and can vary from place to place such as desert will vary from jungles and jungles will
vary from the poles.
4. Permanent settlement: The settlements where people live permanently are called perma-
nent settlements. Unlike the temporary settlements, people live in these settlements for a
long period of time. The permanent settlements design the nature of shelter like solid con-
crete buildings, and so on. The permanent settlement also requires some facilities to live life
comfortably. The area where a permanent settlement exists is surrounded by facility providers
such as markets, schools, institutions, hospitals, and so on to fulfil the daily requirement of
the residents. The settlers are also required to travel from one place to another, so they need
means of transportation and communication.
5. Clustered settlements: In this type of settlement, the houses of the people are found very
close to one another. The limited supply of water, need for safety, fertile soil, unstable socio-
political situations, and so on are the main causes of formation of this kind of settlements.
The density of population of these settlements is generally high. This kind of settlements is
found in India, China, Pakistan, and Middle East countries of Africa.
6. Scattered settlements: In this type of settlement, the houses are very far from each other,
and the reasons of formation of this kind of settlements are opposite of the clustered settle-
ments. The unlimited water availability, safety, large and fertile fields, and stable and peaceful
sociopolitical situations are the main causes of existence of scattered settlements. This kind
of settlements is found in North America, Australia, and some parts of Europe.
7. Segmented settlements: This kind of settlement shows the transition of the scattered and
clustered settlements. This is formed by the grouping of many houses. The group of houses
shares a similarity and there is a difference among them. They could be formed on the basis
of same religion, language, cultural milieu, and so on.
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION

Road Transport
It is the most accessible and commonly used means of transport. However, its development is
not equal all over the world. Surface and distribution of population plays a very vital role in the
development of road transport. Now, in the present world, road transport not only confines with
the local and national boundaries but also plays an important role in international and inter-
continental transportation. Northern America and Europe has developed such kind of network.

These big ways have different names in many different countries, such as in India, Canada, and
England, it known as highway; in Germany, it known as autobahn; in Italy, it is known as autos trod.
Train Transport
Train transport is a very important part of land transportation. It is very useful for long distance
transportation. The development of train transportation is the gift of industrialisation. The devel-
opment of train transport is based on the surface conditions and distribution of population. In
planes, it is very easy to develop a railway network, but in hills and high places, it becomes very
tough to establish a network of train transportation. Although train transportation is developed
in every part of world, the most important train networks are those that connect a nation to
another nation or very long distant areas within a nation. The railways are developed after the
roadways. The first railways were developed in England in 1835 and the first train ran between
the Manchester and Liverpool, and its driver and builder was George Stephens himself. Most of
the railways of the world are found in the Eastern Europe and Middle East of North America. USA
has the longest rail route and India has the second longest railways in the world. Indian Railways
network comprises 115,000 km of track over a route of 65,808 km of route with 7112 stations. In
India, the first train ran between Mumbai to Thane in 1853. It was nationalised in the year 1951.
About 32.8 per cent of the route of Indian railways is electrified. It is the world’s seventh largest
utility employer with a population of 1.376 million employees.
Some of the world’s famous train routes are as follows:
• Trans-Siberian train railway route (Russia)
• The Canadian: Toronto to Vancouver (Canada)
• Shanghai to Lhasa (China)
• California Zephyr: Emeryville (San Francisco) to Chicago
• Indian Pacific: Sydney to Perth (Australia)
• Vivek Express: Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari (India)
Water Transportation
Although water transportation is considered as the slowest transportation, its low cost makes it
a very important transportation for inter-country transportation. It can be divided into two main
categories, namely inner water transportation and sea water transportation.
Inner water transportation includes rivers, lakes, and canals. The importance and utility of
these water routes depends on the depth, width, and amount of water of these routes. Some
important water routes are as follows:
• Amsterdam-Rhine, Netherlands, 45 mi, 1952
• Beaumont-Port Arthur, United States, 40 mi, 1916
• Canal du midi, France, 149 mi, 1692
• Houston, United States, 50 mi, 1914
• Nord-Ostsee-Kanal, Germany, 61.3 mi, 1895

• Panama, panama, 50.7 mi, 1914

• St. Lawrence Seaway, US and Canada, 2400 mi, 1959
• Suez, Egypt, 119.9 mi, 1869
MIGRATION
The term migration basically refers to the movement of people to one place to another. The
movement of people could have certain reasons related to their social life, economical condition,
situation of war and conflict, and so on. We can divide migration into two different types. The
first is international migration and the second is internal migration. Again, we can divide internal
migration into various types such as rural area to urban area, urban area to urban area, and rural
area to rural area. In the context of India, we can also add a type of migration which is called state
migration. In this chapter, we will try to understand the concept and tradition of migration in India.
‘In the census of India, migration is enumerated on two bases: (i) place of birth, if the place
of birth is different from the place of enumeration (known as life-time migrant); (ii) place of resi-
dence, if the place of last residence is different from the place of enumeration (known as migrant
by place of last residence). Can you imagine the proportion of migrates in the population of India?
As per 2001 census, out of 1029 million people in the country, 307 million (30 per cent) were
reported as migrants by place of birth. However, this figure was 325 million (31 per cent) in case
of place to last residence’. (NCERT textbook, Class 12, Geography, pp. 16)
When we talk about internal migration in India, we can easily find many different streams of
migration. We can divide these streams in two broader categories: first is intrastate migration and
second is interstate migration. Both these categories have four types of migration steams such as
the following:
1. Rural to rural: When people moved from one village to another.

2. Rural to urban: When people moved to city from village.
3. Urban to rural: When people moved to village from city.
4. Urban to urban: When people moved from one city to another.
Immigrants from Neighbouring Countries

India is surrounded by almost seven countries. From some of these counties, India faces regular
illegal intrusion. We can easily understand it by data given in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1 Immigrants by last residence from neighbouring countries by all duration in
India, 2001
Countries % No. of immigrants % of total immigrants

Total international migration 5,155,423 100
Migration from neighbouring countries 4,918,266 95.5
(contd)

Table 9.1 (Contd)
Countries % No. of immigrants % of total immigrants

Afghanistan 9,194 0.2
Bangladesh 3,084,826 59.8
Bhutan 8,337 0.2
China 23,721 0.5
Myanmar 49,086 1.0
Nepal 596,696 11.6
Pakistan 997,106 19.3
Sri Lanka 149,300 2.9
Source: Census of India, 2001; NCERT textbook, Class 12, Geography, Chapter 2, Migration,pp. 18
Reasons for Migration

There are multiple reasons of migration of people in India. Here are some important reasons of
migration in India.
1. Work/employment: Work or employment is one of the most important reasons of migra-

tion. We can understand it by understanding industrial and infrastructural growth of India in
the past few decades. If we investigate the last few decades of development in India, we can
easily find that the last few decades’ development became centralised in very few regions of
India. Jobs became bounded in specific cities. Hence, a person who needs an employment
must come to a city such as Delhi, Mumbai, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, and so on. Census
2001 clearly says that almost 38 per cent of total male migration in India is due to work or
employment.
2. Business: Business is also an important reason of migration of people. However, this is a very
limited type migration. If we talk about 2001 census, business migration only contributes
3 per cent of total male migration in India.
3. Education: Education is also the reason behind migration in India. According to 2001 census,
it contributes almost 6 per cent in total male migration in India.
4. Marriage: Marriage is one of the very big reasons of female migration in India. According to
2001 census, it contributes almost 65 per cent in total female migration.
5. Natural disaster: Sometimes natural disasters such as earthquake, tsunami, flood, and
drought become the reason of migration of people. These types of migration could be tem-
porary or permanent or both.
6. Social exclusion: In some cases, social exclusion becomes the reason behind movement of
a group of people from one place to another.

Consequence of Migration
There are some consequences of migration of large number of people. Cities become over
crowded. Physical and social environment become pressurised. Over-exploitation of resources
starts to fulfil the needs of population. The level of ground water drops down due to over deple-
tion. Natural ecosystem of that place becomes affected badly.

➨ Human environment is constituted by humans, their activities, and environmental features
they have created for their convenience and comfortable life.
➨ Things such as people, a specific geographical area, composition of different groups, density,
distribution, and so on are the important things that come to our mind with reference to
population.
➨ At present, according to 2011 census, the total population of India is 1,210,726,932.
➨ India has unequal distribution of population. Some states have very high population and some
have very less. Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, and West Bengal are the highly populated
states of India.
➨ Density of population means number of persons per unit area. According to 2011 census, the
density of India’s population was 313 people per square km.
➨ Multiple religions, tribes, languages, ethnicities, and so on are the composition of Indian
population.
➨ The group of houses built by the people to live can be called a settlement. To be considered as
a settlement, the places where such houses are built must have an independent name.
➨ The human settlements are the result of human interactions with their environment.
➨ The rural settlements are settlements whose residents are primarily engaged in the primary
economic activities such as animal husbandry and agriculture.
➨ The urban settlements are relatively bigger and are thickly populated than the rural settle-
ments. The economics and commercial activities of the urban settlements are complex and
diverse.
➨ In clustered settlements, the houses of people are found very close to one another.
➨ The big ways have different names in many different countries, such as in India, Canada, and
England, it known as highway; in Germany, it known as autobahn; in Italy, it is known as autos trod.
➨ The first railways were developed in England in 1835 and the first train ran between the
Manchester and Liverpool, and its driver and builder was George Stephens himself.
➨ The term migration basically refers to the movement of people to one place to another. The
movement of people could have certain reasons related to their social life, economical condi-
tion, situation of war and conflict, and so on.
➨ Work/employment, business, marriage, education, natural disaster, and social exclusion are
some of the important reasons for migration in India.

Check Your Progress

1. What do you understand by migration? 5. What do you understand by settle-
Explain it in the context of India. ment? Explain it with different types of
2. What do you understand by population settlements.
distribution and density? Give your answer 6. What is transportation? What are the dif-
with appropriate examples. ferent types of transportation?
3. What is the difference between migration 7. What is water transport? What is the dif-
and immigration? ference between internal and external
4. What is the composition of population and water transport?
population growth? Give you answer with
appropriate examples.
Objective Questions
1. Which one of the following is the main (c) Sri Lanka
source of male migration in India? (d) Nepal
(a) Employment
5. According to 2001 census, what is the per-
(b) Education
centage of total migrants in India by place
(c) Marriage
of birth?
(d) Business
(a) 30 per cent of total population
2. Which one of the following is the main (b) 20 per cent of total population
source of female migration in India? (c) 25 per cent of total population
(a) Marriage (d) 15 per cent of total population
(b) Employment 6. Which of the following canals is situated in
(c) Education Egypt?
(d) Natural disaster (a) Suez
3. Which one of the following is the conse- (b) Panama
quence of over migration? (c) Canal du midi
(a) Over exploitation of resources (d) Nord-Ostsee-Kanal
(b) Lose of agriculture 7. The first rail ran between which cites?
(c) Development of villages (a) Manchester and Liverpool
(d) None of these (b) Mumbai to thane
4. According to 2001 census, which of the (c) Washington to new York
following country has the highest number (d) Paris to Berlin
of immigrants in India? 8. Who was the driver of first rail?
(a) Bangladesh (a) George Stephenson
(b) Pakistan (b) George Wilson

(c) Stephen George (a) Clustered settlements

(d) John Hack (b) Scattered settlements
(c) Segmented settlements
(d) None of these
train route in the word?
(a) Trans-Siberian route 14. Which of the following is the least popu-
(b) Toronto to Vancouver lated state of India?
(c) Shanghai to Lhasa (a) Sikkim
(d) Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari (b) Mizoram
(c) Goa
(d) Nagaland
train route in India?
(a) Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari 15. Which of the following is the highest pop-
(b) Jammu Tawi to Kanyakumari ulated state of India?
(c) Jammu to Thiruvananthapuram (a) Uttar Pradesh
(d) Jammu to Ernakulam (b) Maharashtra
(c) Bihar
11. Which one of the following is a character-
istic of scattered settlements? (d) West Bengal
(a) Houses are very far from each other 16. Which of the following UT is least popu-
(b) Houses are very near to each other lated?
(c) Houses build in groups (a) Lakshadweep
(d) None of these (b) Daman and Diu
(c) Dadra and Nagar Haveli
12. Which of the following best defines the
(d) Puducherry
segmented settlements?
(a) Grouping of many houses 17. Which is the rate of density in India accord-
(b) High density population ing to 2011 census?
(c) Houser are very far from each other (a) 383
(d) None of these (b) 311
(c) 309
13. Which of the settlements has the quality of
(d) 350
high density of population?

Unit III
Social and Political Life
Chapter 1 Understanding Diversity

Chapter 2 Government
Chapter 3 Making a Living
Chapter 4 Democracy
Chapter 5 Understanding Media
Chapter 6 Understanding Gender Perspective
Chapter 7 The Constitution
Chapter 8 Parliamentary Democracy
Chapter 9 Social Justice and the Marginalised

Social and Political Life:
An Introduction
MOVING FROM CIVICS TO SOCIAL POLITICAL LIFE

It is important to know that the idea of Civics education has been shifted to the idea of social
and political life. The reason for this shift and the nature of shift that has been taken place must
be analysed. The shift must not have been done overnight; rather there must have been some
specific reason behin d this change. The first argument is that Civics was the origination of colo-
nial legacy, which has the main idea and objective to make people civilised based on a certain
fixed pattern of perspective. There is another agreement associated with the content covered
by Civics. It maintains that Civics simply describes government institutions and students were
expected to internalise their roles and processes. However, the idea of criticality towards institu-
tions and their work were not a part of Civics. Social and political life is a departure from this and
certain crucial aspects have been added to the entire discourse. Some such aspects include critical
thinking, reflective thinking, and so on. Social and political lives provide the space for reflection
and understanding knowledge than mere rote learning. It also tries to relate the content with
everyday experiences; however, the core ideas and concepts of political science are not addressed
adequately.
Here, it is important to understand that learners bring various perspectives to the class; while
some perspectives are correct, others may have alternative conceptions. Both are important in a
learner’s life to perceive the world. This is more important in a subject like social sciences where
everything is related to the subjective social world. Therefore, when learners attend the formal
education system, teachers must understand that they come with some ideas about the concepts
they are going to learn.

CHAPTER
Understanding
Diversity 1
LEARNING ObjECTIVES
• Understand the concept of diversity
• Know various kinds of dimensions which constitute diversity
• Examine why diversity matters to us
• Elaborate upon the various kinds of discriminations, stereotypes, and biases
• Explore the various ways which facilitate our cognitive process to effectively deal with various
inequalities
INTRODUCTION
When we observe the world around us, we get to know about various kinds of differences and dis-
similarities. In popular notion, we call these individual differences, but if we analyse the situation, we
will be convinced that these are not differences; rather, these are uniqueness. These are also not only
individual, rather, social as well and represent a larger group of people. Therefore, it is true that diver-
sity provides positive strength. Further, we also have to understand how appropriate understanding
of diversity will lead us toward unity in society, where everyone may be unique but will be united.
WHAT IS DIVERSITY
We know that every individual perceives and reacts towards things in a unique manner, which
differentiates a person from others. We can take examples of class VIII, where everyone is of the
same age but their way of dealing with things, learning, and understanding is rather unique,
which has been developed through the interaction with his/her social context.
Diversity adds many aspects to our lives. We have friends from diverse cultures and become
acquainted with their rituals, food, clothes, languages, and festivals. We participate in each other’s’
activities and enrich ourselves. Diversity is so vast that we can see and observe it in our immediate
surroundings. This has been made possible by a multicultural social life and context.
Diversity can be of many types and may be related to caste, class, gender, tribe, language,
religion, culture, and so on. We need to understand the correct meaning of diversity that will lead

238 | Chapter 1 Understanding Diversity
us toward a heterogeneous society where mutual respect and acceptance will become a prime
characteristic. Moreover, appropriate understanding of diversity will make people understand that
it is not necessary that we all reach a mutual agreement and accept each other. We can also live in
a peaceful society by understanding that it is not necessary that we agree with each other’s ways
of lives. Having the same thought process and line of thought seems to be a dangerous idea in
the diverse society. In such a situation, we will lose the charm of our social life.
UNDERSTANDING DIVERSITY IN INDIA

India is known for its diverse culture. There are various kinds of differences with which we live.
These differences exist in terms of our life style, food, clothes, languages, festivals, and other
practices. Therefore, we all do similar things in different ways. In addition, we try to make sense
of others’ practices to develop a peaceful society. It is essential to understand that innovations
in technology and transportation have played a vital role in understanding diversities across the
world. Transportation helped people move from one place to another and therefore, we see
mixed culture at one place. It also helps people become familiar about other cultures.
On the other hand, our places of livelihood are also diverse. People living in Rajasthan will be
different from people living in Kashmir. People living in Kerala and Uttar Pradesh will also be dif-
ferent from each other in various manners. Their geographical conditions and situations shape
their practices such as food, shelter, clothes, and so on, and these form their culture. Therefore,
geographical condition is one of the important reasons for the existence of diversity.
We can understand diversity in two examples taken from the NCERT text book of Social and
Political Life (class VI). These examples are given in Box.
Ladakh is a desert in the mountainous terrain of the eastern part of Jammu and Kashmir.
Very little agriculture is possible here since this region does not receive any rain and is
covered in snow for most part of the year. There are very few trees that can grow in the
region. People depend on melting snow for drinking water during the summer months.
People rear sheep here; the sheep in this region are special because they produce the
prized pashmina shawls. People in Ladakh carefully collect the wool of sheep and sell it to
traders from Kashmir. Pashmina shawls are chiefly woven in Kashmir.
People consume meat and milk products such as cheese and butter. Each family owns
some goats, cows, and dzos (yak-cows). Although Ladakh is a desert, it attracted its share
of traders. It was considered a good trade route as it had many passes through which
caravans travelled to Tibet. These caravans carried textiles, spices, raw silk, and carpets.
Buddhism reached Tibet through Ladakh. Ladakh is also called Little Tibet. Islam was
introduced in this region more than 400 years ago and there is a significant Muslim population

Unit III Social and Political Life | 239
here. Ladakh has a very rich oral tradition of songs and poems. Local versions of the Tibetan
national epic, the Kesar Saga, are performed and sung by both Muslims and Buddhists.
Social and Political life (text book), Class VI, NCERT, Delhi (pp. 9)
Kerala is a state in the southwest corner of India. It is surrounded by the Arabian Sea on
one side and hills on the other. Spices such as pepper, cloves, and cardamom are grown
on the hills. Spices make this region an attractive place for traders. Jewish and Arab trad-
ers were the first to come to Kerala. The Apostle of Christ, St. Thomas, is believed to have
come here nearly 2000 years ago and he is credited with bringing Christianity to India.
Many Arab traders also came and settled down. Ibn Battuta, who travelled here a little
less than 700 years ago, wrote a travelogue in which he described the lives of Muslims
and says that they were a highly respected community. The Portuguese discovered the sea
route to India from Europe when Vasco da Gama landed here.
Due to these historical influences, Keralites practise different religions such as Judaism,
Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism.
The fishing nets used here look exactly like Chinese fishing nets and are called cheena-
vala. Even the utensil used for frying is called the cheenachatti, and it is believed that the
word cheen could have come from China. The fertile land and climate are suited to grow-
ing rice and a majority of Keralites eat rice, fish, and vegetables.
Social and Political life (text book), Class VI, NCERT, Delhi (pp. 10)
Kerala and Ladakh are not only geographically different; rather, they share a different history. Our
present is based on our past.
We can conclude by saying that diversity is a term which, in its narrow sense, is used to dif-
ferentiate people and groups from each other, but in its actual and broad sense, it talks and deals
with respecting and appreciating each other without any bias or stereotypes such as caste, class,
gender, religion, and so on. Diversity brings various people along to establish unity. Inclusion also
needs to be discussed with diversity. Inclusion is termed as a process where understanding each
other and valuing respecting others are the prime motto. It works to identify the needs of the
individual and groups and accordingly facilitates their developmental processes. Therefore, the
meaning of diversity is to have open ideas about various differences in culture and one’s way of
perceiving any phenomenon. It also promotes harmony and collaborative spirit among people.
People may have different goals and objectives but they work in collaboration and respect each
other’s points of view. Therefore, diversity would include the following:
• Respect different points of view and perspectives.
• Participate even if there are differences in the perspectives, ways of doing work, and context.

• Uniqueness in the way we perceive a profession or any other social concern.

• Variety of life styles, ethnicity, sexual choice, citizenship, and nationality.
• Fascination and openness towards integration of people belonging to different culture and
therefore, be enriched with different experiences.
• Heterogeneity, not homogeneity, is an essential feature of diversity. Diversity provides changes,
spaces, and opportunities to share experiences with each other.
It is also important to mention that most people in today’s society accept diversity and see it as a
positive and optimistic tool to develop a better society, which is heterogeneous and homogene-
ous as well. Similarly, diversity may be negative or positive. Let us take an example of education;
we do not know how diversity in education will work in a diversified society. We have to wait and
watch its impact. Various studies have been conducted which prove that poor cohesion and unity
or collaboration among castes, classes, races, gender, etc., has increased the problem in a diverse
society like India and if these are not dealt with effectively, we may develop a society that does
not develop the ability to understand the importance to co-existence and collaborative action.
Therefore, particularly in education, it is essential to have a diverse classroom so that a wide
range of experiences can be provided to learners in educational setting. Such diverse experiences
provide them with opportunities to develop a broad and comprehensive perspective. This will pro-
vide understanding about accepting others and their differences. Continuous engagement with a
diverse social context will develop an inclusive aptitude about social diversities and complexities.
Diversity also leads towards curiosity. This means that every child will get a chance to become
familiar with others. A child would want to know several aspects about others such as their way
of living, food, and culture. This exploration will develop a positive perspective about diversity.
It is important that students get familiar about all such aspects from the beginning of their edu-
cation. This will not only prepare them to understand social diversity but will also equip them with
tools to deal with it in a positive and constructive manner. It prepares learners to face the complexi-
ties of the real world and enhances their ability to deal with the world effectively and intelligently.
Everyone has a unique ability but they become more effective when they club together. A
school with diversity will always be beneficial and better because students learn more from oth-
ers’ perspective and evaluate their own perspectives.
It is important to understand that the society is diverse because humans live in the society and
possess a diverse nature. People within a community or group are also diverse from each other as
they understand and interpret their own culture as per their perspectives. Therefore, diversity is
deeply rooted in every social context. There are research studies which claim that diversity creates
problems in communication and many other kinds of processes. Such research believes that dif-
ferences in attitude, belief, and perspective make people uncomfortable to interact with others.
They tend to talk with people of the same group who have similar ideas and perspectives. In his
study, Harry C. Triandis argued that opposite groups did not attract each other. However, a large
number of people do not agree with this argument and argue that diversity also provides better
space and chance for development. The activities and cultural practices they are involved in make

them familiar and comfortable with others. This provides an attitude to work collaboratively and
individually at the same time.
DOES DIVERSITY MATTER

Diversity matters and there are many reasons for it. If we take an example of school and society,
we can understand this better. Imagine the demographic profile of a school, where it is located,
the kind of people that come to school to get educated, the teachers and other stakeholders of
the school, etc. In collaboration, these elements create a school’s demographic profile. In such a
way, a school becomes a place of exchange of cultural knowledge and practices. This provides a
comprehensive space to all stakeholders of school. Therefore, the demographic profile of a school
provides wide space to the learner. In this manner, diversity is something which acknowledges
and accepts the similarities and differences among people. This acceptance surely provides space
for new innovative practices, which at a larger level, changes the existing structure to a more
progressive one. This progressive way develops and increases the strength of individuals to lead
their own learning processes.
Diversity also matters because of its social importance. It provides space to interact with people
who do not have the same background and therefore have lived different experiences. Diversity
also helps us to know our capability to understand and deal with ideas that are different from
ours. It may include gender equality, diversity based on ethnicity, people with disability, sexual
orientation (LGBT), and so on.
It is also important to know and understand that diversity is nothing like ‘we and them’. It is
more about ‘us.’ Therefore, the ‘we and them’ perspective does not work here. We can under-
stand diversity in two ways. There is diversity that can be changed and diversity that cannot be
changed. Dimensions which cannot be changed includes age, race, gender, and so on, and those
which cannot be changed are salary, education, beliefs, etc. However, it is important to highlight
here that there are melting points in social lives which provide different meanings to diversity.
Melting point is a point where all cultures are mixed in a fashion and where there are no clear lines
that can be defined. However, for better understanding, we can explain it in four broad categories,
namely cognitive, affective, behavioural, and decision-making. Cognitive dimension deals with
conceptual understanding about diversity. Affective dimension helps in understanding the differ-
ences and commonalties. Behavioural dimension develops optimistic and positive inter-personal
relationships, and decision-making works towards ability to take decision in various situations.
We are not born with diversity. We learn everything from the society we live in. We learn to
walk, read, and talk after birth and every one does it differently. Therefore, our diverse education
system will increase the possibilities of developing an egalitarian society and provide space to
develop the following:
• High self-esteem
• High confidence

• Acceptance of one’s own self and identity with reference to his/her own culture
• Ability to understand every one’s needs and working together
• Understating to learn the usefulness of interaction among various cultures
• Better citizenship for the nation and the world
Diversity provides more opinions and ideas because there are many people with different perspec-
tives. It also develops a sense of concern as it helps to understand the situation of various groups or
community.
DIVERSITY AND DISCRIMINATION

In the first section of the chapter, you have studied the meaning of diversity in a comprehensive
manner. An optimistic picture of diversity was presented. However, it may happen that people
make fun of others on the basis of their caste, class, gender, background, etc. In such a situation,
one person feels alienated and stagnated. Such persons also struggle for their existence.
Discrimination is seen at many levels. It may be visible at home, in school, or in the society.
Discrimination is based on biased, unfair, and prejudiced perspectives which do not have any logi-
cal or scientific reason. It is based on some preconceived notion about any person, community,
system, or thinking. Such preconceived notion does not allow analysing the situation from all
possible perspectives; rather, it works on the principle of linear thinking where one cannot expect
diversion from the main line.
On one hand, understanding prejudices is a very easy task but on the other hand, it is a very
complicated, complex, and difficult process. It is easy because one can easily observe the dis-
crimination happening on the bases of prejudices. It is difficult because it is inherited in everyday
practice that people generally do not bother to analyse and simply follow it.
The challenge is to make people aware and take them out from the very obvious situation to a
situation which can be analysed. India is a diverse country. There are eight major religions in the
world and each one of them is practised in India. ‘We have more than 1600 languages that are
people’s mother tongues and there are more than a hundred dance forms.’ (Social and Political
Life, Class VI, NCERT, pp. 13)
We have already discussed that people would like to be associated with those having similar
line of thought and interest than who have different line of thought. In India, we somehow failed
to manage the importance of diversity and work more towards the discriminative line.
To understand this discussion, we can take an example of rural and urban life. There are vari-
ous perspectives about rural and urban lives prevailing without any authenticity. Some examples
are rural people are more honest than urban people, urban people are more civilised then rural
people, rural people are hardworking and urban people are lazy, rural people are dirty, whereas
urban people are clean and hygienic, and so on. Such perspectives become the bases of prejudices
about people and create discrimination between rural and urban people. However, we know that
there is nothing universal about human behaviour. Therefore, we can say that prejudice is a way

in which a person or a community is judged negatively to make them feel inferior. The Indian
caste system and its practice is one of the strong and appropriate examples of this discrimination.
Language is another such example. In India, English is considered more respected and pow-
erful, whereas other languages are considered inferior. Theoretically, one may argue that the
Constitution does not allow such discrimination but in practices, we also know that English
hegemony has been created in all fields. In such situations, people who speak a language other
than English are not only considered inferior; rather, they get less opportunity as against English-
speaking people. In the same line, we can prejudice about gender, education, income, geographi-
cal location, living style, clothes, and so on.
UNDERSTANDING STEREOTYPES
A stereotype is a way in which we provide a role to a person on the basis of preconceived notion
about gender, caste, class, etc. It can be called a ‘picture in our hand.’ To understand it effectively,
we can take the example of ‘gender.’ Before we discuss gender stereotypes, we must know and
understand the meaning of gender discrimination, gender bias, and gender role identity. Gender
discrimination is based on their being a boy or girl; gender bias happens when we prefer one
gender over another, and gender role identity means when we cannot reverse the gender role.
Gender role identity is the most dangerous for any society. It works on beliefs about character-
istics and behaviour associated with one sex as opposed to another (Wooflolk, Anita (2006)).
We are aware of the notion of gender discrimination and may take it for granted by saying
that it is very natural that we are born as a boy or girl. It also legitimates certain biases, stereo-
types, and discrimination such as girls speak softly, boys are rough and tough; girls are physically
weak and boys are strong; and boys are good at mathematics and girls in singing in our lives.
Generally, it seems obvious to many but it provides a specific role to boys and girls and socialises
them accordingly. Doing so also provides a specific quality to a person either as a boy or a girl.
Therefore, both boys and girls grow up with a specific role which they learn through socialisation
and develop a sense of being a boy or a girl and perform the specific role in the society.
Except gender, one can take many examples to explain the very idea of stereotype. An example
can be taken of children with disability, which has now changed to children with special needs.
People have various stereotypes about them as they cannot be intellectually bright, will be always
dependent on others, and their self-esteem will be low than a normal person, and so on, think
that as they need special care and attention, they are generally avoided in various outdoor activi-
ties such as educational excursions, and so on. Low confidence or low self-esteem is not a result
of their disabilities; rather, it is because of the social treatment they receive at various places such
as school, family, and society.
Largely, stereotypes do not allow us to perceive individuals equally; rather, they provide a lens
based on a preconceived notion which creates hurdles in looking everybody equally. It hinders
the process of understanding uniqueness in a healthy way. It always perceives uniqueness in a

form of discrimination. It also does not allow to see various unique categories, but develops less
categories to make generalisations about particular human beings or communities.
DEALING WITH INEQUALITY

The very concept of equality has evolved over a period of time. Today, it has a specific meaning
and is evolving further. However, the meaning of equality and the use of this term has two differ-
ent meanings altogether. We are equal as per the Constitution but actually, we are not. Inequality
prevails everywhere. Prejudices, biases, discrimination, and stereotypes create spaces for inequal-
ity. Inequalities can also be based on region, religion, caste, social status, economic status, lan-
guage, and so on. Some people face inequality because their culture is not valued like others.
There is possibility that one may face many kinds of discrimination and inequalities, such as one
can be poor as well as from a culture which is not valued by others. Discrimination and inequality
are universal phenomena and one can find them across the world. One can easily see racial dis-
crimination in Western countries. Therefore, discrimination and inequality may be of many kinds
and take a society away from egalitarianism.
Everyone works to earn livelihood. They may be teachers, engineers, peons, and sweepers.
The society does not take these jobs in a very simple manner; rather, there is a ladder or a system
which puts one at the top and others at the bottom. People at the top call themselves the upper
caste and feel proud to be one and others are made to feel inferior and are labelled as lower
caste. Discrimination based on caste works at an acute level where a person is discriminated in
social, economic, and educational levels. They may not be allowed to sit with other students.
They have to sit in a separate row or at the back. The experiences of Om Praksah Valmike in his
book Jhoothan, where he shared his experiences as a Dalit in school are relevant here. People
are prohibited from taking water from wells, prohibited to sit on benches on tea stalls, forced to
use different cups for tea, etc. One can spot many such examples while observing discrimination
and inequality.
Dr Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar fought for equality of citizens throughout his life. He was a suf-
ferer of discrimination. He is also known as the father of the Indian Constitution. Social discrimi-
nation reaches the root of the society. People feel insulted, rejected, exploited, and are not even
considered human beings at some places.
Inequality may also be seen in the family system, which is the highest hierarchical and the most
accepted system, where every right is in the hands of the man and women have to seek permis-
sion to exercise their own rights. Women also face problems in families whether they are working
or not.
Read the following lines:
• A well-educated person says I allowed my wife to become whatever she wants to be.
• There is no difference between me and my wife, she always supports me, and votes for the
same person as me.

• I think teaching is a good profession for women.

• The most important quality of my wife is that she is very tolerant but I am not.
Now, focus on the bold-cum-italic words. Each word shows a different kind of hegemony of men
over women, where every right is with women but men enjoy their power to allow women or
seek consensus in voting, establishing teaching profession as the best profession for women, etc.
Discriminatory analysis of these statements will help us understand that there is clear inequality in
the relationship of men and women. Needless to say, this discrimination or inequality exists before
birth and continues after death also, where there are different kinds of procedures to be followed
while cremating men and women.
STRUGGLE FOR EQUALITY

Inequality is part of every society and therefore, struggle for equality is also part of every society,
whether it is situated in Asia, Africa, or Europe. India has also struggled for its freedom from the
British. This struggle was two-fold—first, there was a struggle against the British and then, a
struggle for equality of Dalits, women, and other marginalised communities.
Women need not seek their identity with reference to men. Until women learn this, their exist-
ence will always be subject to approval of men. She has strength in her own way and should strive
for them, rather comparing with men. It is also important to highlight here that creating opposi-
tion will not benefit women; rather, women have to find ways to develop their own strengths to
make changes in their lives.
The Constitution provides various kinds of rights to all people, so that equality can be exercised
by all citizens. However, the very idea of liberalisation has again created a new kind of threat
to the entire struggle for equality. The Government is gradually moving towards privatisation.
Privatisation is making its presence felt in all sectors and has also included education in its trap.
Increased privatisation is also the violation of the basic feature of the Indian constitution and the
equality that we perceive is only an illusion.

➨ The idea of Civics education has been shifted to the idea of social political life due to the
following:
■
Civics was the origination of colonial legacy.
■
Civics simply describes government institutions which internalised their roles and processes.
➨ When we observe around us, we come to know of the various kinds of differences and dis-
similarities. These are called individual differences but if we analyse the situation, we will be
convinced that these are not differences, rather, these are uniqueness.
➨ Diversity adds many aspects to our lives. We make friends from diverse cultures and become
familiar of their rituals, food, clothes, languages, and festivals.

➨ Diversity can be of many types and may be related to caste, class, gender, tribes, language,
religion, culture, and so on.
➨ India is known for its diverse culture. There are various differences in our lives. These differ-
ences are seen in our life style, food, clothes, languages, festivals, and other practices.
➨ Our geographical condition also creates diversity. People living in Rajasthan will be different
from the people living in Kashmir; people living in Kerala and Uttar Pradesh will also be differ-
ent from each other in various manners.
➨ Diversity is a term, which in its narrow meaning, is used to differentiate people and groups
from others, but in its actual and broad sense, it talks and deals with respecting and appreciat-
ing each other without any kind of biases or stereotypes such as caste, class, gender, religion,
etc. Diversity brings various people together to establish unity.
➨ Therefore, diversity must include the following:
■
Respect different points of view and perspectives.
■
Participate even if there are differences in perspectives, ways of doing work, and contexts.
■
Uniqueness in the way we perceive a profession or any other social concern.
■
Variety of life styles, ethnicity, sexual choice, citizenship, and nationality.
■
Fascination and broadness of the integration of different people, with different culture,
and therefore, different experiences.
■
Heterogeneity and not homogeneity is an essential feature of diversity. This diversity pro-
vides changes, spaces, and opportunities to share experiences with each other.
➨ Diversity also leads to curiosity. This means that every child will get a chance to become famil-
iar with others.
➨ Our society is diverse and it is important that a student gets familiar with all such aspects from
the beginning of their education.
➨ Our diversified education system will increase the possibilities of developing an egalitarian
society and provide space to develop the following:
■
High self-esteem
■
High confidence
■
Acceptance of one’s own self and identity with reference to his/her own culture
■
Ability to understand every one’s needs and working together
■
Understating to learn the usefulness of interaction among various cultures
■
Better citizenship for the nation and the world
➨ Discrimination can be seen at any level. It may be seen at home, in school, or in the society.
Discrimination is based on biases, unfair, and prejudiced perspectives, which do not have any
logical or scientific reason behind them.
➨ Gender discrimination is based on being a boy or a girl, gender bias happened when we prefer
one gender over another, and gender role identity occurs when we cannot reverse the gender
role.

Check Your Progress

1. What do you mean by diversity? Discuss 6. How does liberalisation work against the
with reference to India with suitable notion of equality? Illustrate with appro-
examples. priate examples.
2. Diversity works as strength for a nation. 7. Why do we call family a most accepted
Do you agree/disagree with the statement? hierarchical system? Mention some exam-
Elaborate with suitable examples. ples and illustrate.
3. How would you explain differences and 8. ‘I allowed my wife to become a success-
uniqueness among individuals? Discuss ful lady; I never stopped her and always
with suitable examples. allowed her to do what so ever she wanted
4. How can you differentiate gender discrim- to do’. Discuss the given statement from
ination, gender bias, gender stereotype, gender inequality analysis.
and gender role identity? Elaborate with 9. Discuss with suitable examples how a
suitable examples from the Indian context. diverse educational system will increase
5. Certain differences cannot be removed but the possibilities of developing an egalitar-
many can be done. What are these differ- ian society.
ences? Answer the question with suitable
examples.
Objective Questions
1. What do you mean by handling with (b) removal of hinders within the school.
diversity? (c) strengthen the school capability.
(a) Dealing with conflicts among members (d) All of these
(b) Developing inclusive environment 4. Three levels of diversity are
(c) Providing space for individual (a) family, culture, and practical.
development (b) personal, interpersonal, and
(d) All of these intrapersonal.
2. What kind of diversity does a school (c) personal, social, and systematic.
manage? (d) All of these
(a) Race 5. ‘Picture in our hand’ represents:
(b) Culture (a) Bias
(c) Language (b) Discrimination
(d) All of these (c) Stereotype
(d) Gender role identity
3. Diversity management can be best
explained as 6. Prejudice can be explained by:
(a) understanding the similarity and dif- (a) Sexism
ferences among children. (b) Racism

(c) Casteism (b) civics is the origination of colonial

(d) All of these legacy.
(c) Both (a) and (b)
7. Secondary dimensions can be best repre-
(d) Neither (a) nor (b)
sented by:
(a) Occupation 11. Geographical situation of Kerala can
(b) Education be best explained by which one of the
(c) Geographical location following?
(d) All of these (a) Southwest part of India and sur-
rounded by sea on one side and hills
8. Gender discrimination can be best repre-
on the other side
sented by:
(b) Southwest part of India and sur-
(a) Chairman
rounded by sea from two side and hills
(b) Chairperson
on the other side
(c) Learners
(c) Southeast part of India and sur-
(d) None of these
rounded by sea from two side and hills
9. _______________ cannot be considered as on the other side
disability. (d) Southeast part of India and sur-
(a) Mental illness rounded by sea on one side and hills
(b) Blindness on the other
(c) Physical
12. Social division in India is based on:
(d) Perception
(a) Caste
10. NCERT developed Social science text book (b) Income
according the guidelines of NCF 2015 and (c) Education
changed from Civics to Social and Political (d) Language
Life. One of the reasons behind this change
was
(a) civics does not describe the govern-
ment institutions which were present
to internalise their roles and processes.

CHAPTER
Government 2
LEaRNING ObJECTIVES
• Understand the concept of government
• Know various functions of government
• Become aware about various types of government
• Understand India as a democratic nation
• Engage with various levels of government
• Familiar about the position of president in India with associated function and powers
• Understand the union and state government with their functions and powers
INTRODUCTION
It is difficult to define the term ‘Government’ with any fixed meaning, but people may define it in
various ways. Generally, government can be understood as a process that is made up of legisla-
tors, executives, administrators, and so on to run and function as an existing system. It takes vari-
ous kinds of decision from local to international level. At local level, we have local governments,
and at national level, we have national government, but both are obligatory. At international level,
we still do not have a good representative international government. In all countries, all works,
from basic to higher level, are done by the government. Therefore, many institutions are required
to do all these works. These institutions are in various forms. Based on these institutions, we have
different forms of government.
Various kinds of work are associated with government; therefore, it is difficult to provide a
simple definition to the government. It is a kind of act and procedure of governing, where public
policy is being controlled. It uses various authorities to fulfil many works. It has the responsibility
of internal and external security, to generate better health facilities, and to prepare themselves
and provide services at the time of natural disasters, such as earthquake, flood, etc. Along with
these, there are many other works performed by the government, and it will be difficult to discuss
all in this chapter alone here.
The government can be understood as a system of rule, which makes a system functional.
To make a system functional, government not only makes rules but also enforces them too. If a

250 | Chapter 2 Government
government makes any rules or laws, such as system of signals on roads, then it will also ensure
people to follow it and those who do not follow will be punished. Therefore, it is essential for a
government to make rules and enforce them. It is also important to mention that in democratic
countries, rights are not only in the hand of government, people also have right against govern-
ment. If one feels that wrong process has been used against him/her, they can take help from
judiciary.
TYPES OF GOVERNMENT
On the basis of power given to take decisions, make rules and laws, and enforce them, different
types of government such as democracy, monarchy, aristocracy, dictatorship, republic, democratic
republic, and so on can be defined.
Democracy simply means a governing system where people rule. Actual power and author-
ity reside in people. It may be of various kinds and two of them are direct and indirect. In direct
democracy, people actually participate in decision-making process, and therefore, they become
more responsible to follow those rules, whereas indirect or representative democracy is an altered
version of direct democracy. Increasing population made the direct involvement or participation of
people in decision–making process difficult. Therefore, they started electing people through elec-
tion to make rules behalf of all population. In this form of democracy, people’s representatives are
given power by people to govern them. India is considered as the largest democracy in the world.
A monarchy system is governed by the rule of a king or queen (emperor). These belong to a
family and generations keep continue ruling on the people. All the power resides with king/queen.
They are not elected by people, that is, they do not get their power of ruling from people; rather
they get it from family. Gradually, scenario has changed, and there is hardly pure monarch system
exists in world. They changed and surrendered their power to the people’s elected members such
as Britain.
In an aristocracy system, rules are governed by aristocrats. Aristocrats are the people who are
rich and educated. They were so powerful that they had good, strong, and powerful authority
in monarch system. They actually rule the system by making laws, and such system is known as
aristocracy.
When rule is governed by one person of a group, it is known as dictatorship, but it is interesting
to note that none of them accepts that they are dictators.
It is important to highlight that across the world no country has given right to women and
poor people easily. They had to struggle for their rights. ‘During the war, many men were
away fighting, and because of this, women were called upon to do work that was earlier
considered men’s work. Many women began organising and managing different kinds of
work. When people saw this, they began to wonder why they had created so many unfair
stereotypes about women and what they were capable of doing. So, women began to be
seen as being equally capable of making decisions.

The suffragettes demanded the right to vote for all women and to get their demands
heard they chained themselves to railings in public places. Many suffragettes were impris-
oned and went on hunger strikes and they had to be fed by force. American women got the
right to vote in 1920 while women in the UK got to vote on the same terms as men some
years later, in 1928’. (Social and Political Life, Class VI, NCERT pp. 32)
Most of the countries in the world are now democratic. There may be different forms of
democracy. Therefore, in the following sections, democracy is discussed in detail.
Democracy
In simple terms, democracy is a governing system where decision-making power is in people’s
hand or people elect member to take decision behalf of them. Universal adult franchise is one
of the important features of democracy, where every persons above 18 years have right to vote.
It works on the principle of individual rights and majority rules. It believes in decentralisation
of power, so that everyone can play a significant role in governance. It also makes sure that
various level of government should be approachable to all people. To break the hegemony, it
has necessary condition of timely election, where power resides in people’s hand. Another prime
characteristic of education is to protect human rights such as right to speech, right to practice
religion, right to freedom, and right to equality. However, what actually a government manages
to do is a different matter altogether.
In the democratic system, majority govern the system. Or it can also be said that the governing
power of democracy is with more than half of the people and that may be 51% or 100%. It is also
known as popular sovereignty. However, what is important to keep in mind is that 51% does not
mean that decision will always be correct. There is a possibility that 49% of people have to suffer
for a wrong decision that has been taken by majority. Therefore, rationality and logicality become
important need for successful democracy and education is must. Countries with lack of educated
people face many difficulties to make a successful democracy.
In a true democratic system, rights of people are preserved, and there will be no discrimination
based on caste, class, gender, ethnicity, and so on. The protection of rights is ensured through
written or unwritten constitution. In case of violence, one may acquire help from judiciary.
Therefore, the majority rule and minority rights work simultaneously.
Democratic governance is more suitable for plural society. A society with diversities has various
and conflicting needs and interests. A democratic system will respect all such diversities. Therefore,
it allows running many non-governmental systems. They are private, semi-government, and so on.
Political equality is another important characteristic of a democratic country. Everyone
is equal before law. Everyone is entitled for equal political rights such as right to vote. If we
take an example of Indian democracy, it is federal in nature. Indian state is a state of unions
(Article 1 Indian constitution), where states have their own agency, and in some matter, they
are under central rule. A good democratic government provides spaces for opinion development
about various crucial matters. People’s opinion is important for a successful democracy.

Democracy provides individual and collective rights along with individual and collective respon-
sibilities, and constitution and judiciary project them with rule of law. It is important to mention
that judiciary work independent.
Along with these features, another feature of democracy is its welfare nature. It does many
welfare works for the society to provide them opportunities to use their rights and perform their
responsibility.
Indian democracy
It has been discussed that democracy is the best available option for better governance, where
everyone participates and exercise their rights. We are also aware that it will be difficult to
everyone directly participate in every governmental task in a country like India. Therefore, there
is a provision for election (first election on adult franchise happened in 1952), which helps to
choose the elected representatives to run the government. However, actually, from 1952 to 2016,
the situation has not changed much, as there is poverty, illiteracy, etc., prevailing at its high level.
Whatever change has happened is not satisfactory. Therefore, it is important to work on many
areas to make a successful Indian democracy, such as elimination of poverty and spread literacy,
a sense of responsibility in elected members, awareness in voters about how to choose the right
candidate, making everyone capable to understand the value of one person one vote, visionary
leaders, work against social and political evils, strengthening the process of public opinion process,
working towards communal harmony and unity in diversity, developing healthy environment so
that everyone can exercise their rights, and a powerful opposition.
We have a federal form of government in India, where power is distributed between centre
and states. The centre takes responsibility for parliament, whereas states are responsible for
legislative assemblies of their respective states. This very nature of federal form has been declared
in the constitution of India.
Indian government can be understood with the help of three fundamental organs, namely
executive, legislature, and judiciary (detailed discussions are provided in further chapters). These
three organs have their different and specific roles to play.
Indian democracy is sovereign, secular, and socialist. Although, since 1991, it has moved
towards more liberal notion of democracy where more privatisation is favoured, social and
economic independence and equality are favoured under its socialist nature. This also ensures the
equality before law and equal opportunity along with equal social status. Secular nature provides
equal respect and freedom to all religions, where states do not intervene until it is necessary to
do so.
India has parliamentary democracy, where head of the nation is president, who is elected, and
therefore, India is also known as democratic and republic nation. The parliament is constituted
with upper house (Rajya Sabha) and lower house (Lok Sabha) and the President. Members of both
the houses are elected. As per constitution, all powers reside with the President, but the Prime
Minister uses this power with the help of cabinet that he selects from the elected members and

the President has to play a ceremonial role. As has already been discussed, the legislative powers
are divided between centre and states, but in some cases, centre has upper hand.
India is a democratic country since its independence. It is also an important point to remember
that India is the largest democracy; therefore, there are many problems in front of its successful
functioning. There are various challenges it has to face and resolve. These concerns are mainly
caste, class, gender, religion, language, and so on. Along with this, India is also facing problems
and challenges externally in the form of terrorism. In spite of the internal conflicts, entire India is
united against this external threat.
LEVELS OF GOVERNMENT
Government in India work broadly at three levels and these are central government, state
government, and local level government.
Central Government
Government at central level can be understood with reference to parliament (President, Lok Sabha,
and Rajya Sabha) and Prime minister and their powers. At central level, now, we will consider each
part of the government and try to understand it in detail.
The President
The President is the first citizen of India. This position is not nominated rather it is elected. All the
executive powers reside in the hand of the President. However, by practice and unsaid tradition,
the President does not use his power by him/herself; rather the Prime Minister uses his power,
who is elected by the people of India. Who can become President? The persons who have the
following qualifications are eligible to become the president of India:
1. Person must be citizen of India.

2. Age should not be less than 35 years.
3. Person must have eligibility to become member of Lok Sabha.
4. Person cannot be on any government job either at centre, state, or local. (Government-benefited
position does not include President, Vice President, centre and state ministers. The name of
president must be nominated by 50 voters. Person has to deposit `15,000 as security deposit.
Article 52 says that there will be a President in India. Article 54 talks about who will be participating
in the election of the President. The President is elected by a group of people, which includes the
elected members of both the houses of parliament and elected member of all the state assemblies.
The President will be elected by the process of single vote transferable system.
It is important to know that any dispute regarding election of president will be solved and
investigated by Supreme Court of India and its decision will be final. The tenure of a president

is minimum five years, but he/she can be elected again. Till now, Dr Rajendra Prasad is the only
President who was elected two times. If any president wants to resign, he/she has to submit res-
ignation to vice president. The President of India gets salary of `1,50,000 per month along with
various immunities such as free house, telephone, water, and electricity. The President also gets
office car and other facilities to perform his/her responsibilities. The President also gets pension
of `9,00,000 per annum.
Impeachment is the only process through which a president can be asked to leave the position.
Impeachment process against president can be stated on the severe allegation such as violation
of Indian constitution. After passing it from one house, it is to be sent to another house and that
house investigates about the matter. The president or his representative presents his part to the
house, and if the house finds the president to be guilty and passes the bill by two-third majority,
then the president has to leave the position from that particular moment. Impeachment has not
been used against any president of India till date.
It is important to know that if the position of president is vacant, then the vice president
will work as officiating president, and if he also fails in doing the role, then the Chief Justice of
Supreme Court of India will work as Officiating President of India. The new or next election for
president must happen within six months since the position is vacant.
Powers of the President

The President of India has many powers such as executive powers, legislative powers, financial
powers, judicial powers, military powers, diplomatic powers, and emergency powers. These
powers of the President are discussed in detail as follows:
1. Executive power: According to the Article 53 of Indian Constitution, the President is the head
of the executive. All union decisions are taken on his name. According to the Article 77, all
the members of central government are appointed by President. There are various positions
for which the president has power of appointing prime minter, council of minister, chief judge
of India, judges of supreme and high courts, controller and auditor general of India, attorney
general of India, governor, etc. The administration of union territories comes under the purview
of President. The centre and state governance are carried out in the name of president.
2. Legislative power: President is the essential part of Indian parliament as parliament is
constituted with Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and President. President can send summon and
prorogue to the parliament (both the houses). Once the prorogation is done, it is necessary to
summon the houses within six months. President has power to dissolve the Lok Sabha. Rajya
Sabha cannot be dissolved as it is the permanent house of the parliament. It is president’s
responsibility to address both the houses after election. All the bills passed by both the houses
of parliament need to be signed by the President and then they become Act. Certain bills can be
presented in Lok Sabha with prior approval of the President, such as name of states, alteration of
boundaries, money-related bills, restriction of any trade, and so on. The President can nominate

two members in Lok Sabha and 12 members in Rajya Sabha, if he/she feels that there is lack of
actual representation in either or both the houses. The nominated person must have excellency
in any of the fields such as arts, science, literature, social science, and so on.
3. Judiciary power: The president of India has some significant judiciary power. It is important
to know that president cannot be punished by any court. He has power of the appointments
of the judges of the Supreme and high courts. President can remove a judge with consultation
of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. He also has power to transfer the judges. The president also
has power to forgive and pardon (Article 72), relieve, postpone, and substitute the sentence
given to a person. However, he is free to use this power, and no one can force him to do so,
but, what does it mean? Is the power absolute? The constitution does not say anything in
this regard, but in practice, advice of council of ministers is taken by the president to take the
final decision. Along with president, head of all the states can also exercise this power. The
president can take advice from the Supreme Court about any issue that he feels crucial and
Supreme Court has to provide it (Article 143).
4. Financial power: The President is also the financial head of India, and therefore,
constitutionally, it is his responsibility to ensure financial stability in the nation. All the
financial meters can be presented in Lok Sabha with prior approval of the president such as
annual budget or any other bill that has financial implication. Without prior permission of the
President, any financial bills cannot be introduced in the Parliament. President is also the head
of Contingency Fund of India and he has power to dispose it. He can sanction money from
this fund during unexpected situations. The power of appointing the Finance Commission of
India resides with the President.
5. Emergency power: Article 352 provides power to the President to declare emergency if he
feels that there is a threat of war or aggression by any external force. He can do in favour
of India’s security. President has power to declare emergency in three situations, that is,
national emergency, state emergency, and financial emergency. National emergency can be
declared in the situation of war and/or any kind of external threat to the nation. However, it
is important to know that President declares national emergency only on the request done
by Prime Minister. The Prime Minister also takes consultation with cabinet ministers in this
regard. After emergency is declared, it must be approved by Parliament within one month of
it declaration. Emergency can be approved only for six months in one go but can be extended
after every six months for the maximum of three years. Fundamental rights get automatically
suspended during national emergency except right to life and personal liberty. Such kind
of national emergency has been declared three times in India, first, during India–China war
(1962); second, during India–Pakistan war (1971), and third, by Indira Gandhi in 1975–1977.
Indira Gandhi justified on account of international disturbance.
The state emergency can be declared because of two reasons. First, if a state fails to
run governance according to constitution (Article 356) and second, if a state violates the
instruction given by union government (Article 365). State emergency also need to be

approved by Parliament within two months. It can also be extended up to three years
through approval after every six months. However, in case of Kashmir and Punjab, time can
be increased more than three years by constitutional amendment. During state emergency, all
the power comes to governor’s hand and he runs the government in the name of President.
The state assemblies get dissolved and all money matters are approved by the Parliament.
According to Article 360 of constitution, the President has power to declare financial
emergency. This emergency can be declared if there is financial crisis in front of the nation or
there is situation of financial instability. This form of emergency also needs to be approved by
Parliament within two months. Financial emergency has never been declared in India so far.
6. Diplomatic power: The President enjoys many diplomatic powers. Decisions taken by
Parliament about any international treaties and contracts are done in the name of President.
Every nation has international relationships and so India has. The president has power
to represent India at various international forms. He also has power to appoint and send
diplomats such as ambassadors to other countries.
7. Military power: The President of India has power related to national military. President is
known as the supreme commander of Indian defence forces. After approval from Parliament,
President can declare state of war and state of peace. The chiefs of various defence forces
such as Army, Navy, and Air Force are appointed by the President.
8. Veto power: It is important to know that even after considering Indian President as a rubber
stamp; sometimes he has lot in his hand to exercise. he has lot in his hand to exercise. Veto
power is one of them. He can assent and withhold a bill. He has power to use veto. He has
three veto powers, namely absolute veto, suspensive veto, and pocket veto. Absolute veto is
used by President when there is a need to reject the bill. However, this cannot be done with
money bill. When President sends a bill back to parliament for reconsideration, he uses his
suspensive veto. However, if parliament passes that bill again without any change, President
has to pass the bill. It means that he can only delay such bill but cannot stop them. The pocket
veto is very powerful. The president has power to keep a bill pending with him for indefinite
time. The constitution of India has not fixed this time, and therefore, he can keep any bill
pending except money bill such as budget.
Lok Sabha
Lok Sabha is the lower house of the parliament, which represents Indian people, because this
house is constituted on the basis of direct election. It is the powerful house in comparison with
the upper house (Rajya Sabha). Lok Sabha can have maximum 552 member in total out of which
up to 530 come from states and 20 from the union territories. Two people can be nominated by
president from Anglo-Indian community.
After becoming aware about the composition of Lok Sabha, it is important to know how
these members are elected. First, we must know that these members are elected by universal

Table 2.1 Number of seats in Lok Sabha
S.No. State, Union Territories and President Number of Seats

1 Andhra Pradesh 42
2 Arunachal Pradesh 2
3 Assam 14
4 Bihar 40
5 Chhattisgarh 11
6 Goa 2
7 Gujarat 26
8 Haryana 10
9 Himachal Pradesh 4
10 Jammu & Kashmir 6
11 Jharkhand 14
12 Karnataka 28
13 Kerala 20
14 Madhya Pradesh 29
15 Maharashtra 48
16 Manipur 2
17 Meghalaya 2
18 Mizoram 1
19 Nagaland 1
20 Orissa 21
21 Punjab 13
22 Rajasthan 25
23 Sikkim 1
24 Tamil Nadu 39
25 Tripura 2
26 Uttar Pradesh 80
27 Uttarakhand 5
28 West Bengal 42
29 Andaman & Nicobar Islands (UT) 1
30 Chandigarh (UT) 1
31 Dadra & Nagar Haveli (UT) 1
32 Daman & Diu (UT) 1
33 Delhi (UT) 7
34 Lakshadweep (UT) 1
35 Pondicherry (UT) 1
36 Anglo-Indians by President (Article 331) 2

adult franchise, where all citizens of 18 years old are eligible to vote, but, his/her name must be
included in the voters list. There are a few constituencies reserved for SC and ST candidates from
there they can contest the election and get elected.
As per the required number of members in Lok Sabha, whole country is divided into many
constituencies and one member of parliament will be elected from each constituency. Secret
ballot is used for election where no one knows to whom one has casted their vote. Nowadays,
electronic voting machines are used for election. Members of Lok Sabha represent people of their
constituency. A member who receives maximum number of vote is declared elected and become
member of Lok Sabha. It means simple majority vote system is used for these selections. Who can
contest the Lok Sabha election is an important question to be discussed. The person who has the
following qualifications can contest the election:
1. S/he should be a citizen of India.

2. S/he should not be less than 25 years.
3. S/he should not be on any profit job under government.
4. S/he should not be ill minded and bankrupt.
5. S/he should not be declared criminal by any court in India.
6. S/he should meet any other qualifications declared by the Parliament.
Tenure of Lok Sabha

Tenure of Lok Sabha is for five years in normal circumstances, but in special situations, it can
be extended for one year. Special situation here means emergency. However, it is mandatory to
conduct fresh election within six months of declaration of emergency. President can also dissolve
Lok Sabha on the advice of Prime Minister; here also, Lok Sabha needs to be re-elected within six
months from the dissolved time.
The president has power to call session of parliament any time. Generally, there are two sessions
every year. There should not be gap of more than six months between two sessions. To hold a
meeting, minimum quorum should be 1/10. Due to lack of quorum, the Speaker can adjourn the
session. It is important to know that the Speaker is the Chairperson of the Lok Sabha. His work is
to organise the session neutrally.
Members of Lok Sabha enjoy many privileges, such as they are free to express their views in
Lok Sabha without any fear. No legal process can be taken up against them for this. They cannot
be arrested or detained before and after forty days of the session.
Powers of Lok Sabha

The various powers of the Lok Sabha are as follows:
1. Legislative powers: Lok Sabha is the lower house and the powerful house of the Parliament.
Any ordinary bill can be presented in either Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha. However, actually

majority of bills are introduced in Lok Sabha and all the financial bills are presented only in
Lok Sabha. Once a bill is passed from Lok Sabha, it is sent to Rajya Sabha and when both
houses pass the bill, it is sent to President for approval. After President’s approval, it becomes
a law. In deadlock situation, if Lok Sabha passes a bill, but Rajya Sabha is not ready to pass
it, then the President can call for a joint meeting of both the houses to resolve the issue, and
the decision taken is mandatory for both the houses. As more members of Lok Sabha will be
participating in this meeting, majority of time, the decision goes in favour of Lok Sabha.
2. Executive powers: All the ministers of the council take collective responsibility in Lok Sabha.
Prime Minister is the leader of the majority. Ministry can be dissolved by Lok Sabha by passing
no-confidence motion against them. Therefore, the swim and sink of ministers depends upon
Lok Sabha. The members of parliament has right to ask question to the ministers about their
work, polices, tasks, action, and so on. Members of parliament have right to criticise ministers
and their work. They have full right to accept or reject the bills introduced by ministers in
Lok Sabha. It is important to know that if Lok Sabha refuses to accept the cabinet decision
or rejects the proposed budget or passes a no-confidence bill against a minister, then it will
be taken as no-confidence bill against the entire Council of Ministers and all of them have to
resign.
3. Financial powers: Lok Sabha has many financial functions to do and therefore have many
financial powers also. Unlike ordinary bill, financial bill can only be introduced in Lok Sabha.
After it passes from here, it is sent to Rajya Sabha. Rajya Sabha can delay this bill for a maxi-
mum of 14 days and not less than that. After this, it will be considered as passed, whether
accepted by Rajya Sabha or not. However, if disputes arises, then that particular bill whether
money bill or not will be decided by the Speaker of Lok Sabha. The Speaker’s decision is final
and cannot be challenged. It indicates that financial control of the nation is in the hand of
Lok Sabha. All the taxes can be created, collected, changed, or discontinued only after the
approval of Lok Sabha.
4. Judicial powers: Lok Sabha has some judicial powers also. Impeachment process against
President can be introduced either in Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha and passed by both the
houses with two-third majority. Charges against Vice President are also heard in Lok Sabha.
Judges of Supreme Court or High Courts can be removed by resolution passed by Lok Sabha
and Rajya Sabha. Lok Sabha can also pass resolution to remove the officers like Attorney
General, the Chief Election Commission, etc.
5. Electoral powers: Lok Sabha participates in the election of the President. The Vice President
is elected by the members of both houses. The Speaker and Deputy Speaker are elected by
Lok Sabha within the members of Lok Sabha.
Rajya Sabha
Rajya Sabha is known as Council of States. The scope of second chamber was created by the Act
of 1919, but actually it came to existence in 1920. After many debates, it was decided that India

is a state with diversity, and therefore, only single-elected house may not be a very good idea, and
hence, a second chamber was created. The maximum number of members in Rajya Sabha could
be 250 in which 12 members are nominated by the President and 238 members represent vari-
ous states and union territories. Nominated members must have good contribution in the field of
arts, science, social science, technology, etc. The Forth Schedule of the constitution talked about
allocation of seats to the states and union territories for the Rajya Sabha. Population is the criteria
of allocation of seats.
Who is eligible to be a member of Rajya Sabha is an important point to be discussed here.
A person has to have some qualification to become a member of Rajya Sabha. Person should
be citizen of India and cross 30 years of life. He/she should also fulfil the other requirements
decided by the Parliament. He/she should not be mentally ill and should not have any government
profit job. A person selected as a member of Rajya Sabha cannot join any political party, and if
he/she wants to do, it should have been done within six months of becoming member in the
Rajya Sabha.
Election
Members of Rajya Sabha are elected by indirect election, which represent different states and two
union territories. These members are elected by the elected members of legislative assembly of
the concern state. The member representatives of union territories are elected by Electoral College
of that union territory. It is important to know that Rajya Sabha is a permanent house and does
not get dissolved. One-third members of the house leave their posts after every second year. If a
member leaves the post before completing two years, a process of by-election takes place. The
newly elected member will be in office only till the remaining time of the earlier member who left
the seat (whatever reason) in between.
The Vice President is the Ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha. Members of Rajya Sabha select
one Deputy Chairman. There is a provision of Vice Chairman in Rajya Sabha, who will become
active in absence of Chairman and Deputy Chairman.
Powers of Rajya Sabha

Rajya Sabha is the upper house of Indian parliament. It is also important to know that India gov-
erns on federal system; therefore, the legislative powers are divided into three lists, namely union
list, state list, and concurrent list. In normal situation, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha do not enter
in each other sphere. However, if Rajya Sabha thinks that some matters are important and need
immediate action, it can empower Parliament to take up state list issue by passing a bill with two-
third of its present members who participate in voting.
1. Legislative power: This house has some legislative powers too. Any ordinary bill can be
presented in either of the houses but should be passed from both the houses, and after
it is signed by the President, it becomes an Act. In the situation of deadlock between

both houses, a joint meeting is called by President to resolve the deadlock. However,
it is also important to know that Rajya Sabha can delay the bill, but at the end, it can-
not stop the bill to be passed, but this delay provides enough time to think about the
passed bill.
2. Financial powers: It has been discussed earlier that money bill can only be introduced in
Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha cannot stop this bill more than 14 days, and after 14 days, the
bill will be considered as passed. Rajya Sabha does not have power to do amendment in
money bills. Lok Sabha may accept or reject the suggestions given by Rajya Sabha. Therefore,
it is necessary to put a bill before Rajya Sabha, but Rajya Sabha has very little power about
money-related bills.
Combined functions of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha

There are various functions which Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha do collectively, such as changes
in the state boundaries or the names of any state, approval of the ordinances declared by the
President, any changes in the power of Supreme Court and High Court, qualification changes of
the Parliament and State legislature members, changes in salaries and other allowances of the
member of Parliament, and approval for the declaration of emergency.
State Government
India has federal form of governing system, where there are three levels of government: central,
states, and union territories. There are panchayats in villages, whereas urban areas have municipal
corporations. In hierarchy, state government comes under central government. Every state has
a state government for governance. We have 29 state governments that are governed by chief
ministers and governors. Council of ministers is headed by chief ministers of the respective
states.
The complete structure of state government can be understood with it executive, judiciary, and
legislative organs. The governor, chief minister, and ministers in a council collectively represent
executive. Governors are appointed by the President for five years. The chief minister of the state
uses all the power in the name of governor, same as it happens in central where all the power of
the President is used by Prime Minister. Judiciary is responsible to justice in state. The judiciary in
state is headed by Chief Justice. The legislature in state has two parts or divisions, namely Vidhan
Parishad (legislative council) and Vidhan Sabha (legislative assembly). Total member in legislative
council cannot be more than one-third of total member of legislative assembly. These elected
members are named as MLC (Member of Legislative Council). Similarly, legislative assembly cannot
have members more than 500 and less than 60. It is important to note that Sikkim is an exception;
here, it has only 32 members in its legislative assembly. These seats are fixed in all the states, but
they are different in number of seats allotted to each state. Elected members are called member
of legislative assembly (MLA).

Powers of state government

State government has many powers in its hand. Broadly, these are executive, legislative, financial,
and discretionary powers. All the executive power resides in governor of that state. The chief min-
ister is appointed by governor, who uses all the executive power in the name of governor. Chief
Minister also consults with council of ministers and the council of minister remains in office on the
pleasure of governor but actually governor is only a declaring authority, in reality Vidhan Sabha
uses this power. Governor also appoints Advocate General and judges of High Court. The welfare
schemes of SCs and STs are taken care by the governor. It is his choice to appoint a minister for
this or do it by him/herself. All the decisions taken by the council of minister is to be known by
governor. It is important to note that governor does not enjoy diplomatic and military power like
the President. The various powers of a governor are as follows:
1. Legislative power: As said earlier, as a governor can form the council of ministers,
he/she can also dissolve it. It is important to know that this is a formal power in governor’s
hand; actually, it happened on the advice of council of ministers. Every year, first session of
legislature is addressed by the governor. The bills passed by state legislature become law after
it is signed by the governor. Governor may send a bill back to legislature for reconsideration.
However, in case of money bill, it is not permissible. But governor has power to keep some
bills pending for President. Governor can also promulgate ordinance in case of absence of
legislature and there is an urgent need for a law. These ordinances will be effective not more
than six weeks from the new legislative announced. These need to be approved by legisla-
ture. Article 192 provides power to governor to disqualify the members of house of the state
legislature.
2. Financial powers: There are some financial powers in governor’s hand. All the money-
related bills can be introduced only with the prior permission of the governor. Governor
presents yearly budget in legislature. All the taxes, expenditure etc. cannot be used without
governor’s approval.
3. Judicial power: Governor has power to provide pardon or decrease the level of punishment.
Governor can also change one kind of sentence into other kinds. Governor also appoints the
judges of High Court in state. Governors of some states use some discretionary powers also
such as the governor of Assam who can use some powers related to tribal welfare, independ-
ent from ministry.

➨ Government can be understood as a process that is made up of legislator, executives, admin-
istrator, and so on to run and function as an existing system. It takes various kinds of decision
from local to international level.
➨ Democracy simply means a governing system where people rule. Actual power and authority
reside in people.

➨ A monarchy system is governed by the rule of a king or queen (emperor). These belong to a
family and generations keep continue ruling the people.
➨ In an aristocracy, rules are governed by aristocrats. Aristocrats are the people who are rich and
educated.
➨ Indian government can be understood with the help of three fundamental organs, namely
executive, legislature, and judiciary. These three organs have their different and specific roles
to play. Indian democracy is sovereign, secular, and socialist.
➨ India has parliamentary democracy, where head of the nation is president, who is elected, and
therefore, India is also known as democratic and republic nation.
➨ Government in India work broadly at three levels and these are central government, state
government, and local level government.
➨ Government at centre level can be understood with reference to parliament (President, Lok
Sabha, and Rajya Sabha) and Prime minister and their powers.
➨ All the executive powers reside in the hand of the President. However, by practice and unsaid
tradition, the President does not use his power by him/herself; rather the Prime Minister uses
his power, who is elected by people of India.
➨ The president of India has many powers such as executive powers, legislative powers, financial
powers, judicial powers, military powers, diplomatic powers, and emergency powers.
➨ President can use his emergency power under Articles 352, 356, and 360 of Indian Constitution.
➨ Lok Sabha is the lower house of Indian parliament, which represents Indian people, because
this house is constituted on the basis of direct election.
➨ Rajya Sabha is the upper house of Indian parliament.
➨ India governs on federal system; therefore, the legislative powers are divided into three lists,
namely union list, state list, and concurrent list.
➨ The complete structure of state government can be understood with it executive, judiciary,
and legislative organs.
➨ The governor, chief minister, and ministers in a council collectively represent executive.
➨ The legislature in state has two parts or divisions, namely Vidhan Parishad (legislative council)
and Vidhan Sabha (legislative assembly).
Check Your Progress

1. What do you understand by the term 3. On what basis you can say that India is a
‘Government’? Discuss the various func- democratic nation? Discuss some of the
tions of a government. challenges Indian democracy currently fac-
ing and how these can be handled.
2. What are various types of government and
on what basis we do this classification? 4. What is the election process of the
Discuss with suitable examples. President of India? Discuss the legislative,

executive, and financial power of Indian 7. Rajya Sabha has lesser power than Lok
President. Sabha, yet has great role to play in Indian
Parliamentary System. Discuss the given
5. What are the kinds of emergency power
statement with suitable examples.
Indian President have? Illustrate with suit-
able examples. 8. What do you understand by state govern-
ment? What are its various powers?
6. Discuss the composition of Lok Sabha.
What are it legislative, executive, and
financial powers?
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. ___________ is the minimum age eligibility (d) Both elected and nominated members
for president. of the State legislative council. All the
(a) 35 members of state legislative council
(b) 18 5. Money bills
(c) 21 (a) cannot be presented with prior per-
(d) 30 mission of President.
2. _____________ is known as head of the (b) can be introduced in either Rajya Sabha
state. or Lok Sabha, but both the houses
(a) President must pass it.
(b) Prime Minister (c) Both (a) and (b)
(c) Chief Minister (d) Neither (a) nor (b)
(d) Chief Justice of Supreme Court of India 6. The veto power of President means:
3. All the executive function of the state is (a) Forbid
done in the name of: (b) Double
(a) Prime Minister (c) Decide
(b) President (d) Support
(c) Both (a) and (b). 7. The President has:
(d) None of these (a) Pocket veto
4. Who does not take part in President election? (b) Absolute veto
(a) Only elected member of Lok Sabha (c) Suspensive veto
and Rajya Sabha (d) Qualified veto
(b) Elected members of state legislative 8. The President of India has power of prom-
assembly ulgate ordinances under which of the fol-
(c) Elected members of legislative assem- lowing Article:
blies of Delhi and Pondicherry (a) Article 52

(b) Article 123 14. Who elects Rajya Sabha members?

(c) Article 78 (a) Member of Lok Sabha
(d) Article 25 (b) The people of India
(c) Elected members of the legislative
9. Name the President who got elected two
assembly
times.
(d) Elected member of the legislative
(a) Dr Zakir Hussain
council
(b) Dr Rajendra Prasad
(c) Dr A.P.J. Abdul Kalam 15. In which situation, President addresses the
(d) Ms Pratibha Patil houses of Parliament?
(a) All the sessions
10. ‘Remission’ with reference to power of
president means (b) During emergency
(c) Every first session after election
(a) duration of the punishment shortened.
(b) because of some unexpected problem (d) None of these
like disability, the originally granted 16. The president has power to dissolve the
sentence is changed in lesser sentence Lok Sabha when:
(c) reduce harder punishment into lighter (a) Prime Minister advices
form (b) Chief Ministers advices
(d) dismiss the sentence (c) Lok Sabha suggests
(d) Rajya Sabha suggests
11. The union minsters are responsible to:
(a) Prime Minister 17. The term of Rajya Sabha is:
(b) President (a) Five years
(c) Lok Sabha (b) Six years
(d) Both Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha (c) Decided by legislative
(d) None of these
12. Supreme Court Judges can be asked to
leave the office by: 18. How many houses are there in the Indian
(a) Parliament Parliament?
(b) President (a) 4
(c) Chief Justice of India (b) 2
(d) Prime Minister (c) 5
(d) None of these
13. The age of a Lok Sabha member must be
minimum of: 19. Rajya Sabha is also known as:
(a) 25 years (a) Parliament
(b) 21 years (b) People’s house
(c) 18 years (c) Upper house
(d) 30 years (d) None of these

20. Lok Sabha is known as: 22. _________, __________, and ___________
(a) House of people make Parliament.
(b) Council of states (a) Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, President
(c) Parliament (b) Lok Sabha, Prime Minister, Rajya Sabha
(d) All of these (c) Vice President, Rajya Sabha, Vidhan
Sabha
21. There are _______
members in Rajya (d) None of these
Sabha. 23. Parliament starts with:
(a) 250 (a) Zero hour
(b) 245 (b) Question hour
(c) 219 (c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) 238 (d) None of these

CHAPTER
Making a Living 3
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Understand the idea of livelihood
• Explore the concepts of rural and urban livelihood
• Explore the market around us
• Critically review the market with reference to equality
INTRODUCTION
Livelihood is one of the most important economic activities in any country. In a developing econ-
omy like India, agriculture constitutes an extremely important aspect of the country’s GDP. It
increases economic activities, flow of money, and generates employment in the economy.
India is an agriculture-based economy. About 60% of our population is employed in the agri-
cultural sector or related fields such as fishing, foresting, poultry, or cattle rearing. A large portion
of our village population is heavily dependent on agriculture.
LIVELIHOOD
On the basis of demography and economics, the livelihoods in Indian society can be divided into
two major sectors:
1. Rural livelihood
2. Urban livelihood
Rural livelihood forms a major part of the Indian economy. It is not only the largest sector but also
accommodates the majority population of the country. However, as other sectors, this sector also has
its own problems and disadvantages. The rural population is mainly employed in crop-related activi-
ties. Other activities in the rural sector include small-scale industries, handicrafts, and other vocations.
Let us take a small illustration from Kalpattu village in Tamil Nadu, that is close to the sea coast.
Other than farming, the villagers are involved in small industries such as making baskets, pots,
bricks, bullock-carts, and so on.
Professionals who provide essential services to the village such as blacksmiths, nurses, teach-
ers, washer men, mechanics, and so on are also present.

268 | Chapter 3 Making a Living
There are also people who are involved in providing food such as idli, dosa, and upma in the
mornings. As every geographical area has its own crops, this village has paddy as its main crop.
Most families in the village earn their livelihood through agriculture.
Poor and landless labourers in the rural areas often spend a lot of time every day collecting
firewood from the forest, getting water, and grazing their cattle. The labourers do not earn any
money from these activities but they do them for the household. The family needs to spend time
doing such work as they are not able to survive on the little money they earn. Nearly two-fifths of
all rural families are agricultural labourers in our country. Some own small plots of land, whereas
others are still landless.
In times of difficulties and medical emergencies, the landless families have to borrow money
from moneylenders in the village. The moneylenders take undue advantage of their condition and
exploit them for their selfish ends. Sometimes, villagers have to sell their cattle to pay back their
loans.
As crops are grown in a particular season, the landless families are not able to earn money
throughout the year. Often, they have to travel long distances in search of work. This travel or
migration takes place during particular seasons when they do not get any work in the agricultural
sector.
On Being in Debt
It is often said that Indian agriculture is a gamble. Whether you earn or not, it is decided by the nature.
Many a time, when there is not enough rain, crops can also be ruined. Consequently, farmers
are unable to pay back their loans. They may even have to borrow money to help their families
survive. Soon, the loan becomes so large that no matter what they earn, they are unable to repay
and the deplorable condition of Indian farmers persists.
On the basis of the aforementioned account, we observe that there are three categories of
farmers in India as explained below:
1. Landless labourers: This category of farmers constitutes 20% of India’s total farming popu-
lation. They depend on the work they do on other people’s fields to earn a living. Many of
them are landless and others may own very small plots of land.
2. Small farmers: In case of small farmers, the land is barely enough to meet their needs. In
India, 80% of the farmers belong to this group. They lead a very hard and vulnerable life.
3. Big farmers: Big farmers constitute the rest, that is, 20%, of India’s farming class. They culti-
vate most of the land in the villages. A large part of their produce is sold in the market. Many
of them have started other businesses such as shops, moneylending, trading, small factories,
and so on.
Therefore, it can be understood that a majority of the country’s farmers are quite poor.

RURAL LIVELIHOODS
We have discussed how people in rural areas earn their living in various ways. Some work on
farms, whereas others earn their living on non-farm activities. Working on farms involves opera-
tions such as weeding and harvesting of crops. Hence, life revolves around agriculture in Indian
villages. There are other sectors coming up but agriculture remains as the major livelihood in rural
India.
URBAN LIVELIHOODS
With growing economic activities, there is a wide need for urbanisation. With the coming of lib-
eralisation in the early 1990s, India felt the need to rapidly increase urban areas and industrialisa-
tion. Therefore, in the last 25 years, urbanisation has increased by manifold in different parts of
the country.
To understand the economy of urban areas, we have to understand the following points:
Migrants
There are a large number of people who have migrated from villages to cities and semi-urban
areas in search of work. This category constitutes the majority of working and labour class in big
factories and other trades.
A part of these people provide different small services in the city life. They include vendors,
rickshaw pullers, barbers, cobblers, and other small workers in the city. They work on their own
and are not employed by anyone and therefore, have to organise their own work. They have to
plan how much to purchase, as well as where and how to set up their shops. Their shops are
usually temporary structures; sometimes, just boards or papers spread over discarded boxes or
maybe a canvas sheet hung up on a few poles. There are certain parts of the city where hawkers
are not allowed to enter. This is a big ambiguity and also shows a classist character of urban lives.
Vendors sell things that are often prepared at home by their families who purchase, clean,
sort, and make them ready to sell. They include people who sell food or snacks on the streets by
preparing most of them at home. There are almost one crore street vendors in the country work-
ing in urban areas. Street vending was seen as an obstruction to traffic and pedestrians. However,
with the effort of many organisations, it is now recognised as a general benefit and as a right of
people to earn their livelihood.
Businesspersons
Businesspersons are the second significant category of the urban economy. There are many people
who own shops in various markets in the city. These shops may be small or large and sell different
things. Most businesspersons manage their own shops or businesses. They are not employed by

anyone but they employ a number of other workers as supervisors and helpers. These are perma-
nent shops that are given a licence to do business by the municipal corporation.
Factory-Workshop Area
In the urban economy, the third significant sector is factory-like jobs. A large number of people in
the city work as casual labourers or as temporary staff. These kinds of jobs do not have a perma-
nent status. Working conditions, salaries, and other work-related benefits are not given to people
employed in this sector. This may include casual labourers who work as painters or people who
are employed in small factories or garment units. If workers complain about their pay or working
conditions, they are asked to leave.
There is no job security or protection if there is ill-treatment. They are also expected to work
very long hours.
In the Office Area

The other significant areas of urban economy where people are employed include office-related
jobs. These jobs have a permanent status. All regular employees of an organisation get regular
salaries on a monthly basis. These jobs continue for a longer period of time.
Other than salary, people employed in this sector get other benefits as follows:
1. Savings for old age

2. Holidays
3. Medical facilities for the family
There are many workers in the city who work in offices, factories, and government departments
as regular and permanent workers. They attend the same office or factory regularly. Their work
is clearly identified and they get regular salaries. Unlike casual workers, they will not be asked to
leave if the factory does not have much work.
We have discussed the different economic activities engaged by people in cities. It is interesting
to note that many people perform different kinds of work in cities. They have probably never met
each other but it is their work that ties them together and makes them a part of the urban life.
UNDERSTANDING MARKETS
Can we exclude our lives from the market? Certainly not. We have to visit the market for purchas-
ing many items whether they are rarely used or used in everyday lives. We buy food, clothes,
medicines, cars, and so on. There are weekly markets, street hawkers, permanent shops, local
bazaars, malls, and so on. These markets have a very important role to play in our lives.
The main objective of any market is to make things available for people and earn benefits.
A market cannot be understood as single unit, rather we have to understand it as a collective
agency, such as one shop is not a mall, one shop is a shop and not the market in its full sense.

In a weekly market, people set up shops for a few hours and vacate the place. This process
happens once a week; therefore, it is called a weekly market. These markets are known by the
name of the day they are placed such as Wednesday market, Friday market, and so on. Many
markets can be placed at a location on different days. These markets are very useful to buy things
for everyday requirements. One can bargain and get cheap things from these markets. There is
neither a need for huge investment for such markets nor one needs to employ people. One can
place his/her shop in these markets with the help of family members. The most important advan-
tage of such markets is that one can find all the required items at one place.
On the other hand, there are many neighbourhood shops that are permanent in nature. These
shops are also run by one or two people and fulfil the needs of people living nearby. These
shopkeepers buy things from other markets and sell them at their shops so that one can get the
required things easily without hassles. One can buy, milk, groceries, stationery, medicines, and
so on from such shops. There may be an exclusive shop for stationery or groceries or there may
be general stores which keep all these things in one shop. These may be permanent or roadside
stalls.
A mall is a bigger place having various shops or brands under a single roof. These are multi-
storeyed buildings where floors are divided among various kinds of needs such as one floor may
be given to eatables, another for men’s wear, one for women’s wear, and so on. They may also
be organised at random. Malls sell things on a relatively costly basis. A powerful brand culture has
become popular in India. Malls have played a very significant role in promoting this culture. This
brand culture has also popularised western life style in India.
It is also important to understand that the wholesale market is very important for other mar-
kets. People buy things from the wholesale market and sell them from their shops, weekly market,
or malls. However, one has to buy a large quantity from the wholesale markets.
Understanding Equality and Market

Various kinds of markets have been discussed in this chapter. However, these markets cannot be
simply seen as a place where people buy things, rather, they have further created specific kinds
of divisions in the society, which cannot be seen by the naked eyes but one has to analyse the
situation with reference to the population that goes to malls and the reason for going to malls.
One also has to understand that a person belonging to the middle class and lower class cannot
afford to buy things from malls but the society has created a kind of thought process where high
class and low class are determined by the market. If we take an example of a person working in a
mall, he/she cannot buy things from the mall as his/her salary does not allow the same. However,
he/she observes people and results in a kind of desire, which probably is not needed, and creates
issues in their lives. Advertisements capture the psyche of individuals and become the cause for
various problems. There are many such problems of markets which create problems in the society.
Therefore, we cannot separate economics from social life.


➨ Livelihood is one of the most important economic activities in any country. In a developing
economy like India, it becomes extremely important for the country’s GDP.
➨ India is basically an agricultural economy. About 60% of our population is employed in the
agricultural sector or work related to it.
➨ On the basis of demography and economy, livelihoods in the Indian society can be divided into
two major sectors—rural livelihood and urban livelihood.
➨ Rural livelihood forms a major part of the Indian economy. It is not only the largest sector but
also accommodates the majority of the population of the country.
➨ There are people who provide services that are essential to the village such as blacksmiths,
nurses, teachers, washer men, mechanics, and so on.
➨ Poor and landless labourers often spend a lot of time every day collecting firewood from the
forest, getting water, and grazing their cattle.
➨ Nearly two-fifths of all rural families are agricultural labourers in our country.
➨ Agriculture largely depends on the monsoon. When there is not enough rain, crops can be
ruined.
➨ We observe there are three categories of farmers in India that can be explained in the follow-
ing manner:
■ Landless labourers
■ Small farmers
■ Big farmers
➨ Big farmers constitute 20% of India’s farming class. They cultivate most of the land in villages.
➨ With growing economic activities, there is a wide need for urbanisation. With the coming of
liberalisation in the early 1990s, India also felt the need to rapidly increase urban areas and
industrialisation.
➨ To understand the economy of the urban areas we have to understand the following points:
■ Migrants
■ Businesspersons
■ Factory-workshop area
■ Office area
➨ We cannot exclude our life from markets. We have to visit markets for items rarely used or
used in everyday lives.
➨ The main objective of any market is to make things available for people and earn benefits.
➨ In weekly markets, people set their shops for a few hours and then vacate the place. This pro-
cess happens once a week, therefore, it is called a weekly market.
➨ Neighbourhood shops are permanent establishments. These shops are also run by one or two
people and fulfil the need of the people living nearby.

➨ A mall is a bigger place having various shops or brands under a single roof. These are multi-
storeyed places where floors are divided among various needs such as one floor may be given
to eatables, another for men’s wear, another for women’s wear, and so on.
➨ Markets cannot be simply seen as a place where people buy things; rather, they have further
created specific kinds of divisions in the society, which cannot be seen by the naked eyes but
one has to analyse the situation with reference to the relationship between the market and the
society.
Check Your Progress

1. What do you understand by livelihood? 5. Describe in brief with reference to the
Elaborate with suitable examples. urban market:
2. Explain rural and urban livelihood. Highlight (a) Migrants
the differences between the terms. (b) Businesspersons
3. Critically review the role of market with (c) Factory-workshop area
reference to the society. (d) Office area
4. Describe the market around you. What are
the constituents of the market?
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. A large portion of our village population is (c) Rural and urban livelihoods
dependent heavily on: (d) None of these
(a) Domestication. 4. __________ is a bigger place having vari-
(b) Water resources. ous shops or brands under a single roof.
(c) Agriculture. (a) Shops
(d) None of these (b) Malls
2. About 60% of population of India is (c) Weekly bazaars
employed in the _________ sector or (d) Marts
works that are related to it. 5. The main objective of any market is to
(a) private make things available
(b) government (a) for shops and traders.
(c) service (b) for people and earn benefits.
(d) agricultural (c) for farmers and poor people.
3. On the basis of demography and economic (d) for police and military.
basis, livelihoods in Indian society can be 6. Big farmers constitute the ____ of India’s
divided into two major sectors, namely: farming class.
(a) Agriculture and industrial livelihoods (a) 20%
(b) Urban and non-urban livelihoods (b) 40%

(c) 60% (c) Trade

(d) 80% (d) Factory
7. In ___________, people set their shops for 12. A large number of people have been
a few hours and then vacate the place. migrated from villages to the big cities and
(a) monthly market semi urban areas in search of:
(b) permanent market (a) Education
(c) yearly market (b) Electricity
(d) weekly market (c) Food
(d) Work
8. How much per cent of all rural families are
agricultural labourers in our country? 13. In the last 25 years, ________ has increased
(a) Nearly one-fifth by many fold in different parts of the
(b) Nearly two-fifth country.
(c) Nearly three-fifth (a) industrialisation
(d) Nearly four-fifth (b) modernisation
(c) communalisation
9. Weekly market, street hawkers, perma-
nent shops, local bazaars, and malls are (d) urbanisation
examples of: 14. People in rural areas earn their living in:
(a) Shops (a) One way
(b) Places (b) Two ways
(c) Names (c) Agriculture only
(d) Markets (d) Various ways
10. Businesspersons are the second significant 15. How much percentage of landless labourer
category of: farmers constitute India’s total farming
(a) Village economy population?
(b) Rural economy (a) 10%
(c) Urban economy (b) 14%
(d) None of these (c) 16%
(d) 20%
11. In the urban economy, the third significant
sector is:
(a) Office
(b) Agriculture

CHAPTER
Democracy 4
LEARNING ObjECTIVES
• Understand the idea of democracy along with its journey from the past to the present
• Become aware of the various kinds of democracies
• Engage with the merits and demerits of democracy and democratic processes
• Analyse democracy beyond a form of government
INTRODUCTION
Let us start this chapter with a few questions: what is democracy? Where did democracy come
from? Why should we value democracy? Is representative democracy actually a good democracy?
Is liberalism important for democracy? There are many such questions which need to be discussed
to develop a better understanding of democracy and democratic processes.
DEFINITION OF DEMOCRACY
Democracy is a form of government, where people participate in the decision-making process
directly or indirectly. In case of indirect participation, they select their representatives, who take
decision on people’s behalf. It can be further explained as a governmental process where the
government is elected by the people with majority and the highest power resides in the people
of the nation.
We can also say that democracy has some characteristics such as election, active participation,
human rights, and rule of law. All these characteristics get combined and create a democratic way
of governance.
It is interesting to know that the term ‘democracy’ stands completely against the system of the
rule of elites, where only a few powerful people of the state take all the decisions about the rest
of the people. It is also important to know that an elite class has largely ruled and were enjoying
the status of democratic citizens. Women and slaves were not included in this category.

276 | Chapter 4 Democracy
It is also important to highlight here that democracy stands opposite to other kinds of govern-
ments such as monarchy or power enjoyed by one or a few. It is also a fact that in today’s world,
democracy is mixed with monarchic and oligarchic characteristics.
If we try to find out a common definition of democracy, we will not be able to reach any
conclusion. Although, as has been said earlier on equality, freedom and rule of law are necessary
characteristics of democracy. Democracy provides equal opportunities to exercise the rights and
considers all citizens equal before law. A few examples are as follows: in democracy, every vote
carries equal value, anybody in the nation who fulfils the minimum eligibility can become a repre-
sentative and the Constitution and the judiciary enable accessibility of rights to all.
Occasionally, democracy is used as a part of liberal democracy or representative democracy,
which includes political pluralism, right to fight elections, equality before law, due process of law,
human rights, civil rights, and so on.
If we have a look at the various nations across the world, we will be able to make more sense
of democracy and democratic governments. Let us examine the democracy of a few nations.
• United Kingdom: It works on the Westminster system but the dominant way is parliamentary
sovereignty, where judiciary plays an independent role.
• America: Here, democracy works on the principle of separation of power.
• India: The Constitution of India provides legitimacy to parliamentary sovereignty and the
Constitution is subject to judicial review.
Rule by majority is another important characteristic of the democracy, which somehow allowed
minorities to be oppressed if some legal processes are not decided. These legal processes also
ensure that legal help is accessible to all. The election should be procedurally acceptable. The term
of a government should not be very less so as to restrict itself to take up any long-term reform. It
should not be very long so as to make it authoritative. Providing voting right does not help much
in democracy unless voters are educated and rational thinkers. They must have the capacity to use
their votes appropriately and freely. Political collectivism and positive social constriction are two
important features of a democracy.
A HISTORICAL VIEW
Democracy is associated with Greek thought with reference to the city-state of Athens. It was a
direct democratic process, which was working on two bases—a random selection of people on
various governmental positions and legislative assemblies. There were direct processes of deci-
sion-making and law making. Everyone could speak and vote. It is also important to mention that
women and slaves are not considered eligible citizens in Athens.
It is interesting to know that democracy in Athens was purely direct as decisions were taken by
assembled citizens rather than the court of law and were also directly controlled by the citizens.
It is also important to know that individual rights are not safe or secured as we can see today,
but it was ensured that one person cannot suppress another as decision were taken collectively.

The Roman Republic can also be discussed here for their contribution to democracy. Here, a
few were considered citizens who had the right to vote and got elected. Therefore, important
posts are in hands of wealthy people or families. Rome was the first nation in the West to intro-
duce the Republic form of government; however, it is important to understand that we cannot call
it a complete democracy. Most nations relate their democracies with Rome and Greece as power
was used by people’s representatives and there was a nominated head of the state.
During the middle ages, there were various kinds of governing systems in place but only a few
were enjoying their rights to participate in the processes. Various systems which prevailed can be
seen in form of a vast range of initial changes in democratic processes. For instance, Norway was
working with Frostating, India (south) was governed by Cholas, and so on.
The modern period offered more strength to democracy. The power of England Parliament
increased. Various new legislations came into existence such as the Habeas Corpus Act 1679,
which provides various liberties to people. A civil war occurred in England during 1642–1651 and
the Bill of Rights was accepted in 1689. In Virginia (North America), representative government
started in 1961.
In 1707, the British Parliament was established when the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom
of Scotland got merged because of the Acts of Union. Here, it is important to know that only a
few people—about 3%—participated in the election.
The Corsican Republic (1755) is known as the first nation in modern history that engaged with
the democratic Constitution and provided rights to all people to vote who were above 25 years of
age. The Constitution has provided voting right to women. America also adopted its Constitution
in 1787 after the American Revolution. Their Constitution provided an elected government and
protection to civil rights. However, voting rights were not given to all people but slaves system
was ended. Voting rights were reserved to a few White wealthy people. For the first time, due to
the French Revolution in 1848, universal male suffrage in France was given.
Liberal democracy came into existence as a result of various revolutions, wars, declarations,
and so on. The First World War and the Second World War created a situation where women
came out from houses, worked, and started contributing to the economy. However, the right to
suffrage was not given to all women. In 1893, New Zealand was the first nation to provide the
right to vote to women.
TYPES OF DEMOCRACIES
As discussed earlier, there is no common definition of democracy. One can find many kinds of
democracies across the world—in theory and practice. However, it is important to keep in mind
that all forms of democracy are completely different and exclusive from another; rather they share
different characteristics under a larger umbrella called democracy. It is very clear that the two
forms of democracy—direct democracy and representative democracy, also known as indirect
democracy—work behind all other kinds of democracy.

Direct Democracy
A political system where every person participates in decision-making personally is known as direct
democracy. The Athenian democracy can be considered one of the examples of direct democracy.
In direct democracy, people have voting rights for many decisions such as constitutional changes,
reforms, laws, change in rights, and so on. There are still few ways used and can be called a part
of direct democracy. These include initiatives taken by citizens, referendum, recall, etc.
Representative Democracy
Representative democracy is a form of government where representatives are elected by the peo-
ple. In India, we have representative democracy. Along with this, it is also a republic as it has the
elected head of the state and not the nominated head as in Britain. This means that it is not nec-
essary that democracy will always come with a republic system. These representatives are elected
and represent a specific constituency or area. Even after declaring one representative democracy,
it carries some feature of direct democracy such as referendum, and so on.
Parliamentary Democracy
Parliamentary democracy is a form of representative democracy and can be appointed and dis-
missed; it is different from the presidential system. The power of the government is used by an
executive body, which itself is subject to continuous review. The Legislature keeps a check on
the work of the executive body. In a parliamentary system, the Prime Minister can be removed
from his/her office by the Parliament on proving that the Prime Minister is not discharging his/her
deities appropriately. This is done with a ‘No Confidence’ motion in the legislature through vote.
This decision will be taken with majority. There must be a loyal opposition in every parliamentary
democracy. The political party who gets the second highest vote will sit in opposition.
Presidential Democracy
A democratic system where the President is the head of the state and elected through fair election
is known a presidential democracy. The President is also the head of all the executive powers. The
President can be on his/her post for a fixed period of time and the election will also be conducted on
a pre-decided date. Cabinet ministers are also appointed by the President. It is important to know that
the President is a very powerful person and cannot be easily removed from his/her position. Similarly,
the President also cannot easily remove the members of the Parliament. Here, one controls the other.
Other Kinds of Democracy

Today, it is difficult to simply label any governing system as purely democratic, as there are
various aspects that work together to run a system. These combined forms are called hybrid
democracies such as governing system of Switzerland. Inclusive democracy is another kind of

democracy which argues to incorporate democracy in the dimension of live and not only in politi-
cal processes. Such democracy will work towards a more liberal and egalitarian society.
Today, in the globalised world, the idea of cosmopolitan democracy is advocated by many
political theorists. It is also known as global or world democracy. The need for world democracy
was felt because whatever decision taken at the national level has a direct or indirect impact on
the world or citizens of other nations. They are not party to it as they have not voted for/against
it. Therefore, it was thought that the democracy is a global phenomenon than a very local one.
However, it is a reality that not such system is in place which can ensure a cosmopolitan democ-
racy approach. Though some agencies are created, it is also a fact that they are also working
under the pressure of the First World nations. The idea of creative democracy is favoured by John
Dewey. The fundamental idea is to enhance the capacity and capabilities of an individual so that
he/she can understand social relations. Here, democracy only means to encourage the abilities in
individual to understand rationally and taking decision critically.
The whole idea behind democracy is to democratisation, where every individual has the liberty
and right to equality, which provides the space, chance, or opportunities for the development of
a critical human being who lives peacefully and also accepts the rightful co-existence of others.
Let us summarise the points discussed on democracy in this chapter with reference to the
points mentioned in the box.
■
A system of governance based on election and people’s participation.
■
Direct and representative democracies are the two broad forms of democracy.
■
People and political participation and contestation are the fundamentals to democracy.
■
There are various kinds of institutions in all democracies, which have their merits and
demerits.
■
One person, one vote, and one value are the followed norm.
■
There are various systems under democratic governance such as parliamentary democ-
racy, presidential democracy, and hybrid democracy.
■
In the parliamentary system, power resides in the hand of the legislature, whereas in the
presidential system, most of the power resides in the hands of the President.
We have studied and understood the characteristics of a democracy. It is also important to understand
that we need to be aware of the merits and demerits or views against and in favour of democracy.
VIEWS AGAINST DEMOCRACY

Democracy has many good features which distinguish it from other kinds of governing systems.
The views against democracy can be understood as follows:
• Leaders keep changing in a democracy. This leads to instability.
• Democracy is all about political competition and power play. There is no scope for morality.

• Many people have to be consulted in a democracy and it leads to delays.

• Elected leaders do not know the best interests of people. It leads to taking bad decisions.
• Democracy leads to corruption as it is based on electoral completion.
• Ordinary people do not know what is good for them; they should not decide anything.
(Democratic Politics, Chapter 2, NCERT, pp. 32)
It is important to know that democracy cannot perform miracles. We know that issues such as caste,
class, gender, and poverty are still not solved in our nation and many nations across the world. However,
it is also important to know that democracy provides liberty to people to decide and choose but it can-
not ensure a perfect life, because decisions may contradict among leaders. Democracy provides the
opportunities to change the government from time to time to enhance the efficiency of the system.
VIEWS FAVOURING DEMOCRACY

Irrespective of various limitations and demperits, democracy is favoured due to many reasons as
follows:
• Democracy is relatively more accountable than other kinds of governing systems. It is more
accountable to the people of the nation.
• People participate in decision-making directly or indirectly.
• Opportunities are given to take quality decisions.
• There are opportunities to explore and understand various kinds of differences and conflicts.
• Citizens get more respect, agency, and dignity in a democracy.
• There is scope for self-corrective measures in a democracy. It provides the chance to critique
and evaluate the democratic processes within a democracy.
We have to understand democracy as an approach and may have more broad perspectives but
here, we have discussed its merits and demerits with reference to the government. We also dis-
cussed minimum qualities of a democratic government. It is also important to know that we have
a representative democracy in most nations. Views favouring and against democracy will surely
help in distinguishing between democratic and non-democratic forms of government. However,
we must keep in mind that democracy is not simply a form of government; rather, it is a way of
life. My family is very democratic and always involves me in decision-making, and my teacher
provides a chance to participate every learner in the class. These examples explain the mean-
ing of democracy in situations apart from a government system.
REQUISITES FOR SUCCESSFUL DEMOCRACY

Economic development, political enlightenment, and education are necessary for a successful
democracy. Economic development is a necessary condition for democracy; if a nation is eco-
nomically sound, it will provide enough opportunities to citizens, who will be able to contribute
in a democracy. Economically developed nations can provide the necessary facilities to citizens.
Sufficient resources will provide strength to people, which, in turn strengthens the democracy.

Political enlightenment will make citizens more aware about political processes and practices
and also provide strength to the democracy because people will be able to know their rights and
responsibilities. Politically enlightened people will use their right to choose with critical perspective.
Education is one of the important conditions for a successful democracy. Educated people can
make better use of democracy for the national development. They also know how to vote and
how to choose representatives. They are well aware of their rights and responsibilities, which
strengthens the democracy and democratic processes.

➨ Democracy is a form of government, where people participate in the decision-making process
directly or indirectly.
➨ Election, active participation, human rights, and the rule of law are some essential characteris-
tics of a democracy. All these aspects get combined and create a democratic way of governance.
➨ It is also important to highlight that democracy stands opposite to various other kinds of gov-
ernments such as monarchy where power is enjoyed by one or a few people.
➨ The United Kingdom follows the Westminster system but the dominant way is parliamentary
sovereignty, where the judiciary plays an independent role.
➨ In the USA, democracy works on the principle of separation of power.
➨ In India, the Constitution of India provides legitimacy to parliamentary sovereignty and the
Constitution is subject to judicial review.
➨ Rule by majority is an important characteristic of democracy, which somehow allowed minori-
ties to be oppressed, if some legal processes are not decided.
➨ Democracy in Athens was purely direct because not only the decisions were taken by assem-
bled citizens; rather the court of law was also directly controlled by the citizens.
➨ A political system where every person participates in decision-making personally is known as
direct democracy.
➨ Representative democracy is a form of government where representatives are elected by the
people.
➨ Parliamentary democracy is a form of representative democracy and can be appointed and
dismissed; it is different from the presidential system. The power of the government is used by
an executive body, which itself is subject to continuous review.
➨ A democratic system where the President is the head of the state and elected through fair
election is known a presidential democracy.
➨ Hybrid democracies, inclusive democracy, cosmopolitan democracy, and creative democracy
are also understood as forms of democracy.
➨ There are various views against democracy as follows:
■
Leaders keep changing
■
Delay in decision-making

Inabilities of leader may result in danger

■
Common people do not decide anything

■
➨ The various views against democracy are as follows:

■
More accountability
■
Quality decisions
■
Respect for differences
■
Participation in decision-making
■
Opportunity to critique
Check Your Progress

1. What do you understand by democracy? 5. Explain the merits and demerits of democ-
2. Discuss the differences between direct and racy with suitable examples.
representative forms of democracy. 6. Apart from direct and representative
3. Differentiate some characteristics of democ- democracy, what are the various types of
racy from other forms of governing systems. democracy?
4. How and when can a democracy become
successful? Discuss the requisites for a
good democracy.
Objective Questions
1. Democracy necessarily should have: (b) Everyone has the right to vote and
(a) Elections and rights each vote has equal value
(b) Social mobility (c) A person can vote only once
(c) Economic dependency (d) None of these
(d) None of these
4. Democracy should be based on:
2. How does economic development (a) One-party system
strengthen the democracy? (b) Multiparty system
(a) It helps the rich become richer (c) Free and fair election
(b) It provided opportunity to people to (d) All of these
participate in the economic growth of
5. A good democracy provides:
the democracy
(a) Rights to citizens
(c) It reduces conflicts
(b) Opportunities to criticise
(d) None of these
(c) Right to education
3. What is the meaning of ‘one person, one (d) All of these
vote, one value’ in democracy? 6. Democracy is a good governing process
(a) One person can vote for anybody but it has few demerits such as:

(a) Slow decision-making (a) Legislative

(b) Corruption (b) People
(c) Exploitation (c) Judiciary
(d) All of these (d) Cabinet
7. Democracy can provide: 13. The right to vote was given for the first
(a) Education to all time to women by:
(b) Jobs to all (a) The USA in 1884
(c) Homes to all (b) Britain in 1879
(d) All of these (c) France in 1784
(d) New Zealand in 1893
8. Decision-making in democracy is better than
any other kinds of government because 14. India is a:
(a) people participate in decision (directly (a) Parliamentary democracy
or indirectly). (b) Presidential democracy
(b) it delays the process. (c) Representative democracy
(c) there is no corruption in democracy. (d) None of these
(d) None of these 15. Creative democracy is favoured by:
9. Which of the following kinds of democracy (a) John Dewey
is the most prevalent in the world? (b) John lock
(a) Direct democracy (c) Aristotle
(b) Representative democracy (d) Plato
(c) Social democracy 16. Democracy is s system where:
(d) Political democracy (a) Minority rules
10. Democracy is spreading across the world (b) Majority rules
because of (c) Elite rules
(a) intervention of foreign nations. (d) None of these
(b) people’s struggle. 17. When someone criticises a democracy, it
(c) people’s desire to be free. means
(d) Both (b) and (c) (a) person is aware about issues of
democracy.
11. __________, political enlightenment, and
(b) democracy is not a good system.
economic development are important for
(c) democracy is insufficient to serve the
better development of democracy.
need of the people.
(a) Education
(d) None of these
(b) Social mobility
(c) Quick decision-making 18. Democratic government is:
(d) None of these (a) Popular
(b) Powerful
12. In a democracy, the government takes
(c) Legitimate
decisions on the behalf of the:
(d) Useful

CHAPTER
Understanding Media 5
LEARNING OBjECTIVES
• Critically understand the media
• Critically review the role of media in democracy
• Explore the relationship between media and people
• Know What, and how and why media advertise
• Understand the role of media in political and economic development
INTRODUCTION
Media is an umbrella term which incorporates TV, radio, telephone, Internet, and many more.
Media can be understood as a process of communication, which may be two-way or one-way.
In this chapter, we will try to understand the term ‘media’ in its comprehensive manner, which
influences our everyday experiences. Therefore, we can also say that the role of media is to inter-
act with the society. In this sense, media can also be seen as a means for something. Media can
influence millions of people at once.
This chapter will also help us understand the use of media in a democratic nation. The media
provides strength to democracy and how democracy also provides space to open media are dis-
cussed. The combination of media and democracy leads to a good system, which facilitates better
standard of living in the society.
Today, it is very difficult to think about human life without media. Media influences every
sphere of our lives. Most information is obtained from the media. It may be print or electronic
media. It is important to know that the Internet and such media are recent developments in this
filed. It has been hardly 20 years of development of such media. Rapid development of technol-
ogy is the prime reason for the growth of media. It is evident that we were more inclined to print
media and the electronic media became widely prevalent in recent years. It is also important to
know that different techniques are used in electronic and print media. Undoubtedly, the electronic
media reaches people faster than other kinds of media.
Media enables to create changes in our thought process. We are able to relate with the world
with the help of various kinds of media such as the Internet and television. However, we must

aware of the fact that the media affects our lives to a greater extent. It also affects our decisions
and our way of life. Media has made this world very small but simultaneously, we should also
know that a specific kind of agenda gets promoted through media.
There is an idea in Gestalt psychology—‘what we see is different from what we perceive.’ This
simple line has various implications on media, and one of them is what is shown in the media
and what we see are not reality. These are created for a purpose and the purpose is only ‘selling’.
Although the media itself is not wrong, it is wrongly used. However, it will be very difficult to see
system without the media. It is difficult to segregate media from our life, but we need to develop
a critical vision about it.
DEMOCRACY AND MEDIA

Media has a great value in democracy if it is used properly. If the media is unorganised, it can
create issues which can never be resolved. Therefore, evolved media would be beneficial and con-
tribute to a successful democracy. Democracy works on the basis of right to expression, and the
media provides such space and therefore, has become the fourth pillar of democracy. Through the
media, we become aware of the issues and problems prevailing in the society and political system.
One may become aware of one’s rights and responsibilities. All these things can only happen
when the media is not biased towards any particular ideology and political power.
The media can organise certain activities to make people participate in a democracy through
participating in their programmes. To accomplish this, media has to organise debates, talks, and
campaign about various issues. The idea behind such programmes would be to make people
aware about such issues and they will be able to analyse the mode of governance so that they
make a better choice of electing and rejecting the current party in the future. In this manner, neu-
tral media can work to establish a better democracy.
Awareness that is spread through media makes people capable to take action against vari-
ous issues and problems of the society. A collective voice can be raised against such issues. It is
important that news must be presented in a balanced manner. Balanced news means that one
newspaper or news channel may present one perspective and another news channel may provide
a different perspective about any problem or issue; until we read and understand both perspec-
tives, we will not be able to understand the true picture of the situation for analysis.
However, a fundamental question here is with regard to who can write a free or an unbiased
report. Media organisations that work without any pressure of political power will be able to write
a free analysis without any bias. What is to be telecasted through the media should be free so that
everyone becomes aware about problems.
It has been established through various ways that democracy is a system of people, by the peo-
ple, of the people, and for the people. Freedom and democracy are associated with each other.
As far as my analysis of democracy is concerned, I feel it is more suitable for a liberal economy.
Freedom must be ensued through media. This freedom will also provide the space to review and
critically analyse the prevailing system.

286 | Chapter 5 Understanding Media
Media can also be seen as a tool between people and the state. It provides information to
the people about the decisions taken by government/state/judiciary, and so on. Media work to
develop and break opinions. For this purpose, media has to win the confidence of people. This
becomes the fundamental requirement to make the media powerful and actually democratic.
One also needs to be aware that we must use our cognitive ability to interpret the media
projection. One should not simply follow what has been shown and presented on media. Such
attitude and behaviour will also be against democratic spirit. A critical and aware citizen can
understand and use democracy in its actual sense. In the absence of such abilities, democracy will
lose its strength. Media need to be seen as a bridge between people and state. Reporting about
social issues such as caste, class, gender, homosexuality, child labour, and so on prepare a broad
agenda for the future and further discussion and action.
We know that transparency is important in democracy. How can we work to make the system
actually transparent and accountable? Media is a tool, which can work as a tool for transparency.
Media should be transparent and not work for petty interests. Media should understand the con-
dition and work for the benefit of the society.
The media makes people aware of the loopholes of the democracy or how the democratic
process is being used. By doing so, it keeps a check on the activities that take place in the name
of democracy. People also become aware about the processes adopted by people sitting in power
and taking decisions for others.
We must be aware of the fear that we are living in a world where new knowledge is being
generated and that knowledge and information reach us through the media. To what extent are
we able to critically deal with this information? Does our education system inculcate abilities in
us to be critical and reflective? Or are we simply stuck in the web of all kinds of information?
Therefore, education becomes another important need for a successful democracy. Media has
a great role to play in the promotion of education. It is also important to keep in mind and one
must be aware that over coverage of any content may dilute the seriousness of the issue and
many also divert the central point of the issue. This may cause disturbance in social lives of people
in form of riots and so on. We all need to acknowledge media as the fourth pillar of democracy.
Although there are issues with the use of media in a democracy, it is also a fact that appropriate
use of media will develop a better democracy, which will serve good for all. We understand that
democracy in India facing difficulty but the media can play a significant role to establish successful
democracy.
WHAT IS TO BE ADVERTISED AND HOW

Media has to play a great role about what we will be able to know in detail and what we will not
be able to know at all. There are various events happening around us but it is also true that the
media does not write and show everything. How do the media select what to show and what not
to show? There must be some agenda for showing selectively. This agenda must be governed by
a liberal economic perspective.

Important and unimportant news are decided on the basis of saleability. If a college organises
a programme and some locally active person who actually works for the community is invited,
the media may not give coverage. On the other hand, if some political leader or big industrialist
attends the event, the media will cover the event. It is now apparent as to which news become
important and which does not.
The media also presents sensitive issues such as caste, class, gender, and so on. It is aware of
the fact that such issues will become the base of their publicity. Here, it does not mean that entire
media works in this manner. There must be genuine cases as well. Nevertheless, majority of media
houses use these issues to make money and direct monitorial benefits.
It is not true that media will always work under any political pressure. Sometimes, they present
important news related to social concern. Such news include problems of water paucity in some
areas, issues of cleanliness, crime, and so on. Therefore, the print media publishes various kinds of
information; some are politically governed, some are economically governed; and some are meant
for social awareness. However, the actual task of media is to present the true picture of issues.
Another important aspect of the media is ‘local media.’ Such media deal with local issues and
problems which may be not of much interest to everyone. Examples include community radio
discusses local issues and shares information with farmers.
An example is the Khabar Lahriya, a fortnightly newspaper that is run by eight Dalit
women in Chitrakoot district in Uttar Pradesh. Written in the local language, Bundeli, this
eight-page newspaper reports on Dalit issues and cases of violence against women and
political corruption. The newspaper reaches farmers, shopkeepers, panchayat members,
school teachers, and women who have recently learnt to read and write.
Social and Political Life, class VII, Page 77
In democracy, various ways media play a very important role in our everyday life and enable peo-
ple to know of the various actions taken by the government. This awareness is important for plan-
ning the agenda for future action. However, as emphasised earlier, the content of a news channel
and newspaper is also very important. Therefore, whenever we read or watch any news, we must
ask a few questions as follows: What kind of information is delivered? What is the perspective?
Why is news given? Why are some perspectives left out? These questions will provide a critical
outlook while reading and watching any news.
UNDERSTANDING ADVERTISING CRITICALLY

We are surrounded by various kinds of media which present different advertisements. These may
be related to beauty products, education, movies, furniture, and other aspects of our lives. These
may appear good at the first glance and help us decide what to take or buy. Do we also critically
analyse what we buy or do we simply get influenced by advertisements? In a liberal economy,
everything is saleable and companies use ethical or unethical ways to sell their products. Companies

make several claims such as increase in height if one drinks a particular drink, increase in fairness
if one uses a particular beauty cream, and so on.
We must thoughtfully choose the products that we plan to buy. We must ask several questions
as follows: What is the use of the product? Do we really need it? Why are such products adver-
tised? How real is the claim done by the company?
At the international level, it is very interesting to know that after 1990, the cosmetic market
raised and established itself rapidly in comparison with others. India was seen as a market
for such products and continuous winners such as Miss World, Miss Universe, and Miss Asia
Pacific pageants belonged to India. Suddenly, there seemed to be an abundance of beauty
in India. If we analyse this trend critically, we can see a very clear liberal market strategy, in
which, the need was first generated and then the market was launched.
When we move behind branding, it troubles us. It also creates a social stratification in the society,
where the rich wear only brands and other local clothes available in local markets. Generally, brand-
ing is done to make differences in various products. Slowly, it became a reason for division in society.
Branding actually came from cattle grazing. Cattle of different owners grazed together in
ranches and they often got mixed up. The owners thought of a solution. They started mark-
ing their cattle with the owner’s sign by using a heated iron. This was called ‘branding’.
Social and Political Life, class VII, Page 82
You must be able to recall the advertisements of ‘Nirma’ and ‘Colgate’. These brand names gradu-
ally become synonyms with the products. You will also often hear ‘Nirma lana hai’, but actually we
will buy some other brand. The same can be said with Colgate as well. However, there are many
brands available that one has to tell the name of the brand when he/she goes to buy anything.
There are larger ethical issues with advertisements. Although there are guidelines that need to
be followed, to what extent are these followed and how have they been manipulated are matter of
concern.
The customer is very confused in a market. After knowing the details of the product, one faces
problems in deciding what to buy, and is left with trial and error. The trial and error method fills
the pockets of capitalists. Capitalism uses our power of imagination to earn money by branding a
product, and makes us imagine that until we do not buy a given product, we cannot live a good
life. If we do not serve a particular brand of rice to guests, we are poor in hospitality and begin
thinking of buying expensive brands of rice, though there is not much difference among the
brands. Similarly, many relations such as mother and child, education and child have been used
by companies to use people’s emotions to sell products. Some examples are if you use a particu-
lar soap for your child, you will be a good mother. Such advertisements simply play with love
and emotional attachment between a child and mother. Therefore, we must be wise and critical
enough of such advertisements and not follow them blindly.

Companies cleverly use famous actors and actresses to sell their products which gain emo-
tionally attached buyers. People simply feel and show their trust not to the produce but to the
presenter. Famous people are used in such ways to sell products.
MEDIA CAN BE A TOOL FOR POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

There are various ways by which media can contribute to political and economic development.
Economic development is obvious to all but political development means effective and better use
of politics in favour of masses. Few such points are disused here.
Monitoring Government Action and Empowering People about

Their Exploitation
This is possible when the media plays a free, fair, and strong role towards issues. This strength will
reduce the level of corruption. Corruption will be minimised as people will be having information
and information provides voice to the people.
Strength to Strong Economy to Work towards Stability

The continuous engagement of media with economic issues provides strength to the nation. The
economic growth is related to good political coordination. Media can develop good political coor-
dination, which eventually helps to develop better and useful policies to strengthen the economic
structure and growth. This coordination also reduces the political risk of deadlock.
Developing Public Opinion

Media has the power to change public opinion about various issues and therefore, the responsibil-
ity of media is crucial. It plays a major role of reforming a society as it contributes in the develop-
ment of people’s attitude.

➨ Media has a great role to play in a democratic nation. There is a need to understand how it
provides strength to democracy and how democracy also provides space to open media.
➨ Today, it is very difficult to think about human life without the media. Media influences every
sphere of our lives. Most information is received by the print or electronic media.
➨ It is important to critically engage with the media as it works on the principle of Gestalt—
‘what we see is different from what we perceive.’
➨ Media has a great value in democracy if used properly. If used in an unorganised manner, it can
create issues which can never be resolved. Therefore, the evolved media would be beneficial
and contribute to a successful democracy.

➨ Media can organise certain activities to keep people participating in a democracy by participat-
ing in their programmes. Media has to organise debates, talks, and campaign about various
issues.
➨ Awareness spread through media makes people capable to take action against various issues
and problems of the society. A collective voice can be raised against such issues.
➨ Media working without any pressure of political power will be able to write a free story with-
out any bias.
➨ One also needs to be aware that we must use our cognitive abilities to interpret media’s pro-
jection. One should not simply follow what has been shown and presented in media. Such
attitude and behaviour will also be against democratic spirit.
➨ Media is a tool, which can be used for transparency, except that media itself should be trans-
parent and should not work for pity interests.
➨ Media makes people aware of the loop holes of democracy or how the democratic process
is being used. By doing so, it keeps a check on the activities that take place in the name of
democracy.
➨ In the process of selecting news to be shared, media may be governed by political or economic
pressure. In such a situation, media will not be able to contribute to democracy.
➨ We must learn to analyse advertisements and should not follow them blindly. A critical view of
advertisements will surely help in deciding what to buy.
➨ Media can also be a good tool for political and economic development by developing
co-ordination between various institutions of politics and economy.
Check Your Progress

1. What is media? Give some examples to 6. What is a brand? What is the need to
explain the role of media in our lives. brand a product and how does branding
affect the social system?
2. What is the need to understand advertise-
ments critically? Illustrate with examples. 7. How can media contribute to political and
economic development? Illustrate with
3. Elaborate with an example as to how
examples.
the media is an important aspect of a
democracy. 8. Select any product of your choice and
explain the strategies used by you to adver-
4. Unorganised media can damage the
tise it.
democracy. Discuss with appropriate
examples.
5. What are the important points to be kept
in mind while watching and buying a prod-
uct being sold through advertisements?

Objective Questions
1. The first use of internet was: 7. The combination of ___________ and
(a) E-mail _________ can provide a better life to
(b) Chat rooms citizens.
(c) Blogs (a) media and government
(d) Discussion groups (b) media and democracy
(c) media and people
2. Social media target college-going youth
(d) media and judiciary
because
(a) they are important for them to create 8. Sometimes, what we see on the media is
a market. fake and incorrect and this very idea can
(b) they are more interested in brands. be best understood by the saying ‘what
(c) they use mobile more than others. we see is different from what we perceive.’
(d) None of these This saying is associated with:
(a) Humanism
3. Blogs can be understood as
(b) Gestalt
(a) web page deals with online books.
(c) Behaviourism
(b) websites which are business-oriented.
(d) All of these
(c) search engines.
(d) None of these 9. The fourth pillar of democracy is known as:
(a) Parliament
4. Social media provide strength to:
(b) Judiciary
(a) Users
(c) Media
(b) Markets
(d) People
(d) None of these 10. Advertisement uses __________ to sell
products.
5. How does the use of technology enable
(a) feeling and emotions
the consumer?
(b) money
(a) It provides better opportunities to
(c) thinking
explore
(d) None of these
(b) It provides scope for better
measurement 11. Media can be a tool for economic and
(c) It provides additional information political development because
(d) None of these (a) it can reduce the conflict between var-
ious political institutions.
6. Why is media important for a democracy?
(b) it provides new avenues to new busi-
(a) It makes citizens critical.
ness houses.
(b) It provides space to criticise the
(c) it is the only way to run a better busi-
government.
(c) It helps people decide whom to vote. ness in a democratic nation.
(d) All of these
(d) None of these

12. Media is a good example of ____________ 14. Social influence of a brand

in a democratic country. (a) creates social stratification.
(a) right to free speech and expression (b) makes people’s lives better.
(b) right to chose (c) provides confidence in people.
(c) right to life (d) All of these
(d) right to equality 15. Media plays a major role in democracy by:
13. What works behind advertisement? (a) Developing public opinion
(a) Political and economic factors (b) Monitoring government
(b) People’s needs (c) Criticising policies
(c) Social needs (d) None of these
(d) National needs

CHAPTER
Understanding
Gender Perspective 6
LEARNING OBjECTIvES
• Explore the concept of gender
• Understand the difference between sex and gender
• Understand gender beyond male and female
• Be aware of the issues and challenges with reference to gender discrimination
INTRODUCTION
The term gender is used very often but not understood correctly. People use this term with-
out understanding it completely. Our understanding of gender is based on socialisation that we
have gone through in family and society. Later, education also contributes to this understanding.
Gender has been largely understood as something which is concerned only with women. When
we say ‘gender’, it simply presents a picture of women. Actually, gender includes all aspects of
it and incorporates boys, girls, and the third gender, which may include homosexuals, eunuchs,
and so on. This chapter will try to redefine the meaning of gender in a broader sense, where it is
not only restricted to women but also provides a better lens to perceive gender beyond radical
feminism.
One may find the terms ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ being interchangeably used. This interchangeable use
is not correct. We need to understand that sex is biologically determined and gender is socially per-
ceived. We are born with a sex and society put us in the category of gender, which should not be
associated with one’s biology. Sex is related to sex chromosomes, hormones, reproductive system,
etc. Sex is used to identify whether a person is male or female, but gender is a complex phenom-
enon which is socially constructed and can be understood with reference to relationships of indi-
viduals with the society. Biology, sense of being male or female, and expression of behaviour relate
to one’s sense of feeling male or female. They give a better understanding about one’s gender.
They provide information on how one perceives himself/herself and how others also perceive them.
It is important to understand that we cannot understand gender as a binary system like 0
and 1, where both are distinct from each other. We have to understand gender as a multiple array
system. When we talk about 0 and 1, refer to sex organs, and when we refer to multiple arrays,

294 | Chapter 6 Understanding Gender Perspective
multiple aspects and dimensions of social, political, cultural, and economic aspects which actually
construct the notion and idea of gender are being discussed. One may not agree, but there are
multiple arrays that provide better space and scope to understand gender as a multiple construct
which is beyond sex. Saying that ‘gender is a social construct’ also limits it in a very narrow sense.
The kind of socio-economic and political scenario around us and the environment develop our
understanding of gender. Family, parents, peers, school, curriculum, and policy have their roles to
play in shaping the idea of gender. It is also important that the developed idea of gender is rein-
forced by society in one way of another. From pre-natal period to death, everything is categorised
under gender and that too, under male or female. For example, toys, clothes, education, colours,
social behaviour, and interpersonal relationships are all gendered. Gender role is taught to kids
from very first day they take birth and this continues till they die.
This role division also creates a kind of hegemony of one gender over other, which is commonly
known as patriarchy. Here, one gender is considered superior and others are the subordinates.
This superiority and subordination can be observed in all spheres of the life and this gradually
becomes a tool for exploitation. What is more interesting to know is the movement which origi-
nated about women rights and equality and has also failed to evolve from the epistemological
boundaries of the existing dominant idea. It started a struggle to become a man, which led it
to fights on the line ‘woman can do all what a man does.’ This statement troubled the entire
discourse equality, where men were considered as an aim which need to be achieved by women.
The agency, authority, and equality which should be the base of such movement were under-
mined. Though there are evidences which show that women struggle for being the way they are,
such handful of work could not overcome the idea of making men and women equal in scenes
what a man can do and what a woman can also do.
Another idea which needs to be shared here with reference to gender discourse is that the
work done by women was degraded by feminist movement and it was tried to prove that the
work done by women are of a lower level. Thought patriarchy also contributed to this idea.
However, the argument which is more important is that the movement which originated to estab-
lish equality suddenly changed to become like a man. This is a root cause for a genesis-based
problem in the feminist movement.
We are discussing all these issues of genesis of feminist movement to provide a better base and
foundation to understand gender.
There is no second thought with regard to the idea of equality among genders. However, it
is also significantly important to think and work to achieve the objective rather equating one’s
identity with others. The objective of such movement needs to be changed towards developing
self-identity, which is not dependent on others’ approval.
GENDER BEYOND MALE OR FEMALE

Stereotypical thinking can limit gender with reference to male or female. We must know that this
category does not represent the gender in its complete sense. There are people of third gender,

and within the third gender, there are various sub-categories. The whole idea of gender must
also talk about the people of third gender. It includes people who belong to categories such as
eunuchs, homosexuals, transgenders, asexuals, and so on. These people have their own issues
and their concerns must be addressed under the discourse of gender. Therefore, gender discourse
is a very vast discourse.
In this regard, we also need to understand that this variation in gender is a normal part of
human lives across the world and history has evidences to prove the same. This variation is due
to biological, social, and social reasons. However, the larger agenda should be equality of all peo-
ple, irrespective of their gender and sexual orientation. The very debate of natural or unnatural
orientation should not suppress a person’s right to be the way he/she would like to be. The divi-
sion of work, preference for a colour, or talking in a specific way does not make a person culprit.
Associated stereotypes need to be questioned. This very thinking needs to be imparted because
an ill-thinking process will create hurdles in the path to equality.
It is also important to understand that there are various privileges given to one gender over
another; such privileges create unwanted discrimination in all spheres of life, in family, and in pub-
lic places. Can we consider every one equal without such biases or is it beyond applicability? These
are two fundamental questions which need to be resolved. If we are already working with the
notion that an existing situation and gendered thinking cannot be changed, there will be hardly
any effect for all the efforts taken. If there is optimism in the working style and thinking pattern,
there will be some changes. Therefore, one has to think which idea he/she belongs to.
TERMS RELATED TO GENDER

Gender has become a vast discourse and many terms, ideas, and phrases are being used. Some
are needed, some are enforced, and some are used politically. Some use gender issues as a plat-
form for professional development. Here, we will be discussing commonly used terms in gender
discourse.
Sex (Biological)
Sex is a biological concept, which is directly related to reproductive organs and makes the first
distinction between a man and woman. It is purely physical and has no direct relation with the
society. Some studies show homosexuals as a result of socialisation. A majority of studies are in
favour of the biological determination of gender. The sex of a child is determined at the time
when it is conceived. XX chromosomes produce a female child and XY produce a male child. The
third sex—eunuch—is also a biological construct. Here, we are not talking about transgenders.
Gender Identity
What a person thinks about oneself as a male, a female, both, or nothing; he/she is constructing a
gender role identity. It is important to know that gender identity is not developed completely alone,

rather all possible aspects (political, social, economic, etc.) contribute in one’s understanding of
gender identity. Generally, people develop their gender identity according to their biological sex, but
for some, it is not the same. They develop their gender identity different from their biological sex.
Expression of Gender
Expression of gender refers to the way people represent and express their gender identity to oth-
ers. This expression can be done through hairstyle, voice, behaviour, and so on. The expression
of gender is also related to one’s gender identity. Sometimes, people do not feel comfortable to
behave as per their biological sex and they behave opposite to it. Sometimes, they suppress their
feelings as the society does not accept them. We have gender classified as per our biological sex,
second, we behave opposite to our biological sex, and third, we suppress our feelings and do
not behave the way we want to do. Social pressure, expectation, systems, and structure encul-
turate a person to behave in a certain way and the opposite behaviour is considered unhealthy.
The expression of gender has become so strong and powerful tool to label a person that there is
hardly any space outside or beyond this categorisation.
Gender Role
Gender role represents the kind of role expected by the society. Each gender has been assigned a
role and one has to behave accordingly to fit in the system. Therefore, it has become an impor-
tant aspect that we must adopt. These assigned roles are somehow gendered. A specific role is
expected from a male and a female. Masculinity is associated with man and femininity is associ-
ated with female. Any role beside these will not be acceptable as healthy in the society. Such
people may be called eunuchs, transgenders, or homosexuals. Transgender is generally used in a
broad sense and any person whose interest falls beyond or outside the interest of male or female
are labelled as transgenders.
Orientation towards Sex

There are two clear categories in the society about sexual interest. These are called heterosexual
and homosexual. Homosexuality is not considered natural and not legal in many nations across
the world. On other hand, heterosexuality is celebrated with pride and legalised. Some may have
not sexual orientation and will be called asexual people. It is important to note that other than
heterosexuals, all other sexual orientations are not seen in good spirit across the world. However,
they do exist and have their own way of living.
Fluidity in Gender
This is a term which represents gender in a more open and flexible manner, which also opens
the cage of fixed gender notion like a good boy and nice girl orientation. It provides fluidity in

sexual and gender preference. At one time, one may feel like a boy and at other time, like a girl.
It appears as if one may live life the way he/she would like to live without any kinds of forced
restrictions. It is neither based on any kind of consensus about gender identity, gender role, etc.,
which is generated forcibly.
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN GENDER EQUALITY

Over a period of time, gender has become a sensitive issue, not because there is some problem
which pre-exists, rather, because of the way it has been interpreted and understood. It provides a
rationale to enfold the realities of gender issues as far as there are concerns. A few of such issues
and challenges are discussed here.
Inequality
Inequality with reference to gender prevails across the world. Unequal status, unequal rights,
unequal salaries, and unequal lives are features of gender inequality. From birth till death, one sees
countless fixed notions about male and female, where women have to suffer as they are expected
to look after homes; similarly, the baggage of running a family is on the shoulder of men. The ideas
of inequality in gender are not intended to show one gender better than the other, rather, it is
concerned with the kinds of role that have been defined to discriminate between genders. Yes, we
all have to understand that there will be a huge difference between men and women in rural and
urban areas. All such issues create problems between genders and become a cause for inequality.
Accountability and Responsibility

It is important to understand that whether rights are given or not, until they are not exercised,
they do not make any effect on people’s lives. Whatever rights have been made to promote
equality for men and women, there are hardly any monitoring systems to ensure that these rights
reach the right people. There is a clear lake of impunity with reference to women. This happened
because of the poor judiciary system in India which provides space to exploit women. The pro-
cess gradually became a part of any social system. There is a need to develop a specific kind of a
stricter system where everybody is held responsible. Therefore, in the absence of clear account-
ability and responsibility, the whole idea of gender equality is misunderstood by common people
and academicians.
Perceiving Women’s Contribution

There is a specific way which has emerged and evolved over a period of time to develop a linear
perspective about women’s contribution in various sectors of social, political, and economic lives.
This linear thinking perceptive gradually starts expecting a specific role by both the genders (exclud-
ing the third gender). Women’s contribution was seen in family and later in markets, but is largely

seen with reference to family. This means that women working outside were mostly associated with
work which is more related to house-related work. Gradually, their direct contribution in the market
was recognised. However, they are largely associated with a few professions such as teaching, nurs-
ing, and so on, where there is less scope for men. Moreover, even after working outside, she was
not exempted from family work or household work. In this way, the human rights of independent,
working women were prohibited. It is also important to know that financial contribution to promote
women’s education, jobs, business, and so on need to be strengthened with reference to women.
Policy-level Issues and Poor Monitoring

If we really want equality among genders, we have to work on a multi-sectorial approach, which
includes education, health, legal, social, and economic sectors. Policies must be developed keep-
ing women’s issues and challenges in view. Generally, policies work on a standalone basis where
an individual gets defeated and is not facilitated. Policies are made in favour of the capitalist
world, where social justice, equality, and all such issues are not dealt effectively. Irrespective of
whether policies are working properly or not, there are implementation-level challenges and other
such questions and concerns that are not taken care of. People must be made aware of these poli-
cies. Hardly, any work is done in this regard. There are countless policies that people are not aware
of. The monitoring system is equally poor at national, regional, and local levels.
Inappropriate and Insufficient Research

It is an important point to highlight that the kind of research in this field is mislead, misguided,
and one-sided, where one gender is always seen as an exploiter that exploits the other gender.
The focus needs to be given on gender equality than gender rivalry. This rivalry leads to a kind of
opposition, which, in reality does not help either gender and creates a kind of tension. Therefore,
there is a strong need to generate a healthy research and discourse as far as gender equality is
concerned. In the absence of such discourse, research conducted would present a limited and a
one-sided perspective, which will not help in the long run to develop an egalitarian society.
Unattended or Neglected Field and Issues

There are various issues and concerns that are unattended, untouched, or touched very superfi-
cially. The government has also made polices, rules, and regulations but there is very little obvi-
ous impact. Such issues include female foeticide, marginalisation, sexual violence, public health,
education, and so on. All such issues need to be addressed on priority.
A Little Demand by a Person Who Gets Exploited

Our society, particularly India, has many kinds of stigmas related to certain actions. Women and
other oppressed sections do not dare go to the police or avail any such services, which are devel-
oped for them. It may also be seen that social pressure becomes more effective than legal one.

The oppressed are bound in a moral dilemma through socialisation and as a result, they do not
dare question the social system. On other hand, we know that the judicial system in India is not
so active so as to automatically take cognizance of such issues.
Such social pressure and stigmas demotivate a person to raise voice against the social system.
Such stigmas include the following:
• What will people and the service provider feel about me?
• Native or biased perspectives about certain issues such as women should not do this or that
task.
• Socialisation through morality such as, if a woman is raped, her life is finished.
• Aspiration for life and expected role to be played in the future.
• Threat of economic dependability.
• Hierarchical system of decision-making.
• Poor legal knowledge.

➨ The term ‘gender’ is used very often but not understood correctly. People use this term with-
out completely understanding it. Our understanding of gender is based on the socialisation we
have gone through in family and society.
➨ Sex is a biological concept which is directly related to reproductive organs and makes the first
distinction between man and woman. It is purely physical and has no direct relation with society.
➨ One may find the term ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ interchangeably used. This interchangeable use is
not correct. We need to understand that sex is biologically determined and gender is socially
determined. We are born with a sex and society put us in the category of gender, which should
not be associated with one’s biology.
➨ It is important to understand that we cannot understand gender as a binary system like 0 and
1, where both are distinct from each other; rather, we have to understand gender as a multiple
array system.
➨ The kind of socio-economic and political scenario around us develops our understanding
about gender.
➨ It is also important that the developed idea of gender is reinforced by society in one way or
another. From pre-natal period to death, everything is categorised under gender—male or
female.
➨ The role division in society creates a kind of hegemony of one gender over other, which is
commonly known as patriarchy.
➨ Another idea which needs to be shared with reference to gender discourse is that the work
done by women was degraded by feminist movement and it was tried to prove that the work
done by women are lower levels of work.
➨ A stereotypical thinking can limit gender with reference to male or female. We must know
that this category does not represent gender in its complete sense. There are people of the

third gender and within the third gender, there are various sub-categories which need to be
acknowledged.
➨ It is also important to understand that there are various privileges given to one gender over
another, which create unwanted discrimination in all spheres of life, in family, and in the public
space.
➨ A person’s idea about oneself as a male, female, both, or nothing provides them a gender role
identity.
➨ Expression of gender refers to the way people represent and express their gender identity to
others.
➨ Gender role represents the kind of role expected by the society. Each gender has been assigned
a role and one has to behave accordingly to fit into the system.
➨ The term sexual fluidity represents gender in a more open and flexible manner, which also
opens the cage of fixed gender notion like a good boy and nice girl orientation. It provides
fluidity in sexual and gender liking. One may feel like a boy at one point of time, and at other
times, like a girl.
➨ If we really want equality among gender, we have to work on a multi-sectorial approach,
which includes sectors such as education, health, legal, social, economic, and so on.
Check Your Progress

1. What do you understand by the term ‘gen- 4. ‘We need to understand gender discourse
der’? Discuss how it is different from the beyond male and female.’ Discuss the
term ‘sex’. statement with suitable examples.
2. What is gender in quality? Illustrate 5. Elaborate upon ‘gender identity’ and ‘gen-
with suitable examples from the Indian der expression’ with suitable examples.
context. 6. Discuss the following:
3. Discuss the problems women have to face (a) Gender fluidity
due of gender discrimination. How is patri- (b) Policy-level issues and poor monitoring
archy responsible for poor condition of (c) Inappropriate and insufficient research
women across the world?
Objective Questions
1. A system where all spheres of life are dom- 2. ___________ is more related to masculinity
inated by male is known as: and femininity.
(a) Elite society (a) Sex
(b) Egalitarian society (b) Sexism
(c) Patriarchy society (c) Gender
(d) None of these (d) Patriarchy

3. The term gender role refers to 8. Myth of protection represents

(a) expected action from a man and (a) man as a defender and woman as
women. sheltered by man.
(b) male superiority over women. (b) the challenges raised in contemporary
(c) biological difference between man role defined for women.
and woman. (c) women need protection of men.
4. Gender socialisation means 9. Division of gender with reference to
(a) family plays a more vital role with ref- women represents
erence to girls than boys. (a) specific role defined for women.
(b) favouring boys over girls. (b) increased representation of women
(c) favouring girls over boys. across the world.
(d) playing with one’s own gender. (c) over burden on women.
5. Which one of the following is correct with (d) None of these
regard to gender and media?
10. Globalisation impacts gender as
(a) Movies only show the changed role
(a) it does not make any change in the
of men and women as they happen in
women situation.
the society
(b) it provides progressive opportunities
(b) Media always show the progressive
to women.
role of men and women to be per-
(c) it changes the equality rubric between
formed in society
men and women.
(c) Men are shown in modern roles,
(d) None of these
whereas women are shown in tradi-
tional roles 11. ________ is not a form of feminism.
(d) None of these (a) Post-modern
(b) Liberal
6. The doors of service sectors are open for
(c) Environmental
women but are more open in which of fol-
(d) Behaviourism
lowing fields?
(a) Semiskilled 12. The idea of double burden with reference
(b) Government sector to gender represents
(c) Private sector (a) working in field and home.
(d) Provisional (b) gender equality.
(c) social and personal life of women.
7. Which perspective is used to study linguis-
(d) All of these
tic sexism?
(a) Consensus perspective 13. If a person has more than own wife, such
(b) Conflict perspective a system is known as:
(c) Feminist perspective (a) Polygyny
(d) Interactionist perspective (b) Polyandry

(c) Matrifocality (c) social system to be organised in a bet-

(d) None of these ter way.
(d) social system to be followed as work-
14. Which one of the following is not incorrect?
ing in present.
(a) Men are stronger than women
(b) Man possesses political power 16. Exogamy is a system which favours
(c) Patriarchy exists in the world (a) marriage outside the group.
(d) All of these (b) marriage in the group.
(c) a system in Brahmins.
15. Dowry must be seen as
(d) All of these
(a) social evil but necessary.
(b) social evil to be removed.

CHAPTER
The Constitution 7
LEARNING OBJECTIvES
• Understand the concept of Constitution
• Explore about the need of Constitution with special reference to India
• Become aware of the processes of making of Indian Constitution
• Elaborate the Preamble of the Indian Constitution along with specific features of the Preamble
• Know about the processes of amendment in the Indian Constitution along with important
amendments
INTRODUCTION
In the last few chapters, we have studied democracy, government, and other concepts. It is impor-
tant to know that there is a need to have some rules and laws which govern a system efficiently.
These rules will be meant for the government and the citizens. Such rules and laws are known as
the Constitution. The Constitution decides and provides the rights, power, and responsibility to
people and the government. The rule of the nation is governed on the basis of its Constitution.
In this chapter, we will largely discuss the Indian constitution and its concerns and procedures.
There are some important questions which we will be exploring and we will try to understand the
following in this chapter: what is the need for a Constitution? Who made the Constitution and
how was it made? What are the processes to make the necessary changes in a Constitution? What
are the basic values that a Constitution carries? What is the broad framework of the Constitution?
The Constitution is the guiding force for any nation. It guides the legislature, executive, judici-
ary, and the people. There are nations that have unwritten Constitution such as Britain. However,
nations like India need a written and well-spelt out Constitution. As there were differences and
diversities at the time of freedom, to protect the rights of all, a written Constitution was required.
It is interesting to discuss how the Indian Constitution was made. It will provide rationale to
the Constitution, because we will also be able to know the contemporary situation and context.
Before we move to discuss the making of the Indian Constitution, it is important to know why we
need a Constitution at all.

304 | Chapter 7 The Constitution
NEED FOR A CONSTITUTION

We are aware that after freedom from the colonial period, there were the oppressed and the
oppressor in the society. To provide them with equal rights and to protect people from fear,
a written Constitution was needed. A Constitution was needed so that everybody’s rights and
interests can be safeguarded. The maker of the Constitution was sure that everyone should get
all the rights equally. They wanted to provide substantial social and economic rights to all citizens
of India. A Constitution develops a feeling of trust towards each other, because it ensures security
for all. The Constitution also explains how the government will be elected, the kinds of powers
that will be used by it, and the manner in which it will be used. Along with this, the Constitution
also limits the powers given to the government. It was kept in mind that the government cannot
exploit the rights of the citizens. The Constitution carries values which motivate citizens to make
a better and good society.
An important point to keep in mind is that all countries having the Constitution may not be
necessarily democratic but all democratic countries must be having a Constitution, either written
or unwritten.
MAKING OF THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

What is the supreme law in India? The answer is very clear—the Constitution of India. The
Constitution of India provides a framework of the rights, responsibilities, basic political principles,
procedures and processes, power and duties, directive principles, and so on. Dr Bhimrao Ramji
Ambedkar is the architect of our Constitution.
The Constitution is not a creation of the Parliament; rather, it is made by a constituent assem-
bly, which had many members and was adopted by the people of India. The constitution assembly
adopted the Constitution on 26 November 1949. This accepted constitution became effective
from 26 January 1950. We celebrate this day as Republic Day every year. This document became
the governing power or document other than the Government of India Act, 1935. Sovereignty,
secular, socialist, and democratic republic are some important features of the Indian Constitution,
which ensured justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity of the people of India.
It is important to know that the Indian Constitution is a pool of many other Constitutions.
Things appropriate to our context have been taken from various Constitutions of the world. Along
with these Constitutions, various legislations available in India were also used. Some of such docu-
ments were the Government of India Act 1858, Indian Council Act 1981 and 1982, Government
of India Act 1919 and 1935, and so on.
The constituent assembly was an elected body of provincial assemblies. It took two years,
11 months, and 18 days to complete the draft of the Constitution. There were a total of 389
members in the constituent assembly. On 29 August 1947 a sub-committee was constituted to
draft the Constitution. Dr B. R. Ambedkar was the chairperson of this committee. Some 2,473
amendments were disposed and discussed.

Dr Ambedkar, Jawaharlal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Vallabhbhai

Patel, Ganesh Vashudev, and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad are some of the important personali-
ties who contributed their wisdom in drafting the Indian Constitution. Anglo Indians were
represented by Frank and Mookerjee represents Paris. Space was given to the marginalized
and minorities to contribute in the framing of the Constitution. It is also important to know
that initially, Sachidananda Sinha was appointed the president of the constituent assembly;
later, Rajendra Prasad become the elected member of the constituent assembly. Various sub-
committees were constituted to speed up the work, such as the committee which was looking after
for fundamental rights were constituted in chairmanship of Ambedkar along with other members.
On 4 November 1947, the committee prepared a draft and submitted it to the assembly.
Around 2,000 amendments were placed over a period of two years. After deliberation, the
Constitution was adopted by the assembly on 4 November 1949. Totally, 284 members signed
the Constitution. This day is known as National Law Day.
It is interesting to know that the Indian Constitution is the largest written Constitution in the
world. When it was accepted, it had 395 articles, 22 parts, and eight schedules. There were
80,000 words written in the complete document. According to available data, in 2015, there
are total 448 articles, 25 parts, 12 schedules, five appendices, and 98 amendments to the Indian
Constitution.
THE PREAMBLE OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

After becoming aware of the process of making of the Indian Constitution, we must understand
the important features of the preamble of the Indian Constitution. There are various features
one can talk about but it is important to know that no change can be done in the preamble of
the Indian Constitution. Before explaining the features of the preamble, let us have a look at the
preamble of the Indian Constitution as follows:
We, the people of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into
a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic and to secure to all its
citizens;
Justice, Social, Economic, Political;
Liberty of thought, Expression, Belief, Faith and Worship;
Equality of status and opportunity; and to promote among them all;
Fraternity, assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of
the nation;
In our Constituent Assembly this, twenty sixth day of November 1949 do

hereby Adopt, Enact and Give to ourselves this constitution.

It is important to know that the terms—socialist, secular, and integrity—were added to the
Constitution later in 1976 by the 42nd Amendment.
We, the People

The Constitution of India starts with the words, ‘We the people.’ These words have a deep mean-
ing, which establish power in the people of India. It also makes a person feel that the Constitution
is our creation and is not imposed on us by any government. It also shows a sense of unity. It
means that the Indian Constitution believes in popular sovereignty. Popular sovereignty means
that the ultimate source of power is people.
Sovereign State
As per the preamble of the Indian Constitution, India is a sovereign state. It declares that India is
no longer a dependent country; rather it is an independent nation, free to take its internal and
external decisions without any external pressure. India is a free nation to make its internal and
external policies without intervention from outside.
Socialist State
Initially, the term ‘socialist’ was not incorporated in the preamble. Later, in 1976, it was added by an
amendment. The term ‘socialist’ was incorporated to provide social, economic, and political rights
and justice to the people of India. When we say socialism, it also means that the state will take
responsibility for many things in the nation such as education, food, and so on. It is also important
to highlight India a socialist democracy, but in the past few years, especially from 1991, India has
adopted the idea of liberalism, moving more towards privatization. This is mentioned as the term
‘liberalization’ is not incorporated in the preamble but we are moving toward liberalization.
Secular State
The preamble of the Indian Constitution declares India as a secular nation, where three things
need to be understood. First, the state does not have any religion; second, the state will not dis-
criminate on the basis of religion, and third, every individual has the right to follow any religion
he/she wants to. Secularism was also included in the preamble by 42nd amendment in 1976.
It does not mean that India was not secular before 1976, but it means that the secular nature
became evident by the preamble after adding the term ‘secularism’.
Democratic State
As per the preamble, India is a democratic country, where election decides the government, and
establishes a fair system. The citizens of India were allowed to participate in all political processes.

The elected government is responsible to the people and if people feel that the govern-
ment is not working properly, in the next elections, they can reject that party and choose
another one. The democratic nature also includes equal opportunities for all without any kind
of discrimination.
Republic State
India is declared a Republic state by the Constitution of India. It means the head of the nation will
be elected rather nominated or being a Monarch. It also means that the head of the state can be
in his/her office for a fixed number of years and there will be an election for the new head of the
department after a fixed time. The President is the head of India, and is elected for a period of
five years. There are no educational qualifications to become the President. Any citizen of India
can become the President.
Justice
Preamble ensures justice for all. The people of India have a right to justice against any kind of
discrimination, social, economic, or political. Social justice ensures that there will be no socially
privileged person in the society; rather, everyone will share equal social status. There will be no
discrimination on the basis of caste, colour, religion, region, etc. Everyone enjoys equal social
rights and justice. Similarly, economic justice talks about not discrimination on the basis of eco-
nomic situation or condition. It also means that economic resources need to be shared among
people. It should not be in the hands of a few. Opportunities must be given to all citizens to earn
their livelihood. Right to political justice is also provided by the Indian Constitution. It means that
everyone has a right to participate freely in political processes. It favours equal political rights to
all without any discrimination and provides the right to freedom.
Liberty
The Indian Constitution also provides liberty to all its citizens, which includes liberty of thinking,
expression, faith, belief, and so on. Right to freedom also represents the right of liberty. The rights
with reference to liberty also ensure and work towards secularism.
Equality
Various types and kinds of equalities are given by the Constitution. It is considered the third objec-
tive of the Indian Constitution. The other two objectives are justice and liberty. It entails the idea
of natural equality, where no discrimination is favoured and equal status of individuals is accepted.
Equality provided by the Indian Constitution also talks about equality before the law and equality
about all aspects of lives.

Fraternity
The success of any nation depends upon the fraternity among people. As a fourth objective, the
Constitution promotes the feeling of fraternity. Collaboration, collectivism, and associations are
the provided by ideas of fraternity. By doing so, a kind of faith is developed in national unity,
which further enhances and strengthens the dignity of a nation.
It is important to know that the Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949 after the
signature of the current president of the constituent assembly. The philosophical foundation of
the Constitution is discussed in the preamble.
Procedure of Constitutional Amendments

We understand that the Indian constitution is supreme in India, but there is a procedure to make
needful changes as per time and requirements. There are three ways of making amendments to
the Constitution. These are as follows:
• Some regulations can be changed with a simple majority of the Parliament, such as establish-
ing new states, reconstruction or reorganization of states, and establishing and dismissing the
‘Vidhan Parishad’ in states.
• Some provisions can be changed with two-thirds majority of both the houses of the Parliament,
along with the approval by a majority of state assemblies, which necessarily should not be less
than half. This is applicable to election of president, power of central and state executives,
central judiciary, and so on.
• Most amendments to the Indian constitution can be done on the basis of two-thirds majority
in the Parliament, but the majority must be the majority of the total number of member in the
respective houses.
It is also important to know that only the centre can initiate the amendment bill. States do not
have this right. Any change in the federal nature of the state must be passed through the states.
SOME IMPORTANT CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS

Table 7.1 Amendment in constitution
Amendment Amendment in constitution Applicable Where amendment was done

number since
1st Special provision for socially and 18 June 1951 Articles 15, 19, 85, 87, 174, 176,
educationally backward people. 341, 342, 372, and 376.
Logical and reasonable limit on lib- Two new Articles were added—
erty to expression. 31A and 31B
Schedule 9 was added.
2nd The clause of upper limit in parlia- May 1953 Article 81 1 (b)
ment was removed
(contd)

Table 7.1 (Contd)
Amendment Amendment in constitution Applicable Where amendment was done

number since
4th Property rights restricted April 1955 Article 31, 35
6th Change in the list of taxes with refer- September Article 269 and 286
ence to the centre and state 1956
8th Increase the time period of seat res- January 1960 Article 334
ervation for SC/ST and Anglo Indians
in Lok Sabha
10th Including Dadra and Nagar Haveli in August 1961 Article 170 and a new article was
the list of union territories added 371 A
15th Increase the recruitment of high October 1963 Article 124, 128, 217 and 316
court judges from 60 to 62
26th Privy Purse was abolished December Article 366 was amended
1971
35th Including/ incorporating Sikkim March 1975 Article 80 and 81 was amended
73rd Panchayati Raj was accepted as 3rd April 1992 Part 9 was added
level of administration in village
74th 3rd level local administrative bodies June 1992 Part 9A was added
(urban )
86th Right to Education till 14 years of age December Amended Article 45 and 51 A and
2002 added into Article 21 A
92nd Incorporated Dogri, Bodo, Maithili, January 2004 8th schedule was amended
and Santhali as official language
93rd OBC reservation (27%) was accepted January 2006 Article 15 was amended

➨ The Constitution is the guiding force of any nation. It guides the legislature, executive, judici-
ary, and the people.
➨ The Constitution was needed to protect people from fear, danger, and ensure that everybody’s
rights and interests are safeguarded.
➨ Countries having a Constitution may not be necessarily democratic but all democratic coun-
tries must be having a Constitution—either written or unwritten.
➨ The Constitution of India is the supreme law of the nation.
➨ Dr Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar is the architect of our Constitution.
➨ The Constitution is not a creation of the Parliament; rather, it is made by a constituent assem-
bly, which had many members, and was adopted by the people of India.
➨ The constitution assembly adopted the Constitution on 26 November 1949. The Constitution
became effective from 26 January 1950.
➨ The constituent assembly was an elected body of provincial assemblies. It took two years,
11 months, and 18 days to complete the draft of the Constitution.

➨ On 4 November 1947, the Committee prepared a draft and submitted it to the assembly.
Around 2,000 amendments were placed over a period of two years.
➨ When the Constitution was accepted, it had 395 articles, 22 parts, and eight schedules. There
were 80,000 words written in the compete document. According to available data, in 2015, there
are 448 articles, 25 parts, 12 schedules, five appendices, and 98 amendments to the Constitution.
➨ There are various features of the Preamble as follows:
■
We, the people
■
Sovereign state
■
Socialist state
■
Secular state
■
Democratic state
■
Republic state
■
Justice
■
Liberty
■
Equality
■
Fraternity
➨ The procedure of amendment in the Constitution is possible in three ways—simple majority,
two-thirds majority but above the simple majority of both the houses respectively, and two-
thirds majority along with the approval of states.
➨ There have been 100 amendments till date.
Check Your Progress

1. Why does a nation need a Constitution? 5. Why do we call India a sovereign nation?
Discuss with special reference to India. 6. Discuss the procedures of amendment in
2. Describe the making of the Indian the Indian Constitution.
Constitution. 7. Discuss any three important Constitutional
3. Discuss the important features of the pre- amendments.
amble of the Indian Constitution.
4. The Indian Constitution provides right to
justice. Discuss with reference to social,
political, and economic justice.
Objective Questions
1. The constituent assembly adopted the 2. On __________, the Indian constitution
Indian Constitution on: implemented or came into effect.
(a) 25 November 1948 (a) 25 January 1950
(b) 26 November 1949 (b) 26 January 1950
(c) 20 October 1949 (c) 15 August 1947
(d) 26 January 1950 (d) 14 August 1947

3. Article __________ makes provision for (c) People of India

national commission for scheduled castes (d) B. R. Ambedkar
and scheduled tribes. 10. It took __________ days to complete the
(a) 337 draft of the Indian Constitution.
(b) 338 (a) Two years, 11 months, and 18 days
(c) 334 (b) Two years, 10 months, and 18 days
(d) 339 (c) Two years, 11 months, and 17 days
4. The panchayat system was introduced in (d) Two year, 12 months, and 17 days
local administration at the:
11. The national day is celebrated on:
(a) Village level (a) 4 November 1949
(b) Urban level (b) 5 November 1949
(c) State level (c) 26 January 1950
(d) None of these
(d) 15 August 1947
5. The meaning of panchayat is: 12. How many members must sign the
(a) Government of a village Constitution?
(b) Government by self (a) 284
(c) Gram Panchayati Raj (b) 2482
(d) All of these
(c) 360
6. __________ is the chairperson of the rules (d) 365
committee. 13. When the Constitution was accepted, it
(a) The prime Minister had:
(b) The president (a) 395 Articles and 8 Schedules
(c) The speaker
(b) 395 Articles and 10 Schedules
(d) None of these (c) 395 Articles and 12 Schedules
7. __________ was the president of the con- (d) None of these
stituent assembly.
14. At present, there are ________ and
(a) B. R. Ambedkar __________ in the Indian Constitution.
(b) Jawaharlal Nehru (a) 448 Articles, 12 Schedules
(c) K. M. Munshi (b) 395 Articles, 11 Schedules
(d) Mahatma Gandhi
(c) 448 Articles, 11 Schedules
8. Anti-defection is related to: (d) 395 Articles, 12 Schedules
(a) Fifth Schedule
15. The terms ‘socialist’ and ‘secular’ was
(b) Eighth Schedule incorporated in the Preamble by the:
(c) Tenth Schedule (a) 42nd Amendment
(d) Seventh Schedule (b) 44th Amendment
9. The constitution is a creation of the: (c) 48th Amendment
(a) Parliament (d) None of these
(b) Constituent assembly

16. India is a sovereign state. It means (c) may or may not be republic.
(a) India can take all the decisions (inter- (d) None of these
nal as well as external) independently. 19. The first amendment in the Indian
(b) India can take internal decisions inde- Constitution was done on:
pendently but not external decisions. (a) 18 June 1951
(c) India can take external deacons inde- (b) 12 June 1952
pendently but not internal decisions. (c) 18 June 1952
(d) None of these (d) 12 June 1951
17. We call India a Republic nation because 20. OBC reservation was accepted by the:
(a) the head of the state is elected. (a) 93rd Amendment
(b) the prime minster is elected. (b) 94th Amendment
(c) the head of the nation is nominated. (c) 90th Amendment
(d) Indian is a democratic nation. (d) 99th Amendment
18. All democracies
(a) are republic.
(b) need not be republic.

CHAPTER
Parliamentary
Democracy 8
LEARNING ObjECTIVES
• Become familiar about Parliamentary democracy
• Understand the differences between Parliamentary democracy and Presidential democracy
• Explore the versions within the different forms of Parliamentary democracy
• Elaborate the various features of the Parliamentary form of government
• Evaluate the merits and demerits of the Parliamentary democratic system of governance
INTRODUCTION
India is a parliamentary democracy. The legislature provides powers to the executive and the
executive is answerable to the legislature. It is important to know that in a Parliamentary democ-
racy, the head of the government and the head of the state are two different people, but in a
presidential democracy, the head of the state and the government would be the same person. The
latter is seen in America and the legislature does not provide power to the executive. The United
Kingdom and India can be seen as examples of Parliamentary democracy. Here, it is also important
to know that the idea of a prime ministerial government emerged from the United Kingdom. The
Westminster model of Parliamentary democracy prevailed in Commonwealth nations. A nation
where there are two houses—upper house and lower house—is called a ‘Bicameral Legislature’.
In a Parliamentary democracy, there are two houses; one will be elected by the people and
is called a lower house and the second would be the upper house, where members would be
appointed on various criteria.
There are many countries in the world which follow the Parliamentary democracy but their
way of working and functioning would be different. This difference may occur due to the process
of the election of the prime minister, and the kinds of approval that the executive needs from
the legislature. The form of accountability of the executive towards the legislature will also be
responsible for this variation.
Therefore, we can say that the Parliamentary government system carries a harmonious relation-
ship of the legislature and executive. If we understand the Parliamentary democracy as discussed,

314 | Chapter 8 Parliamentary Democracy
it will give an understanding that the legislature is supreme but over a period of time, this power
has been shifted to the Cabinet.
To have a good and comprehensive understanding of the Parliamentary democracy, a few
important characteristics have been discussed here.
Prime Minister is Appointed by the Head of the Nation but Elected

by the People of the Nation
The prime ministers work as a representative of the people as elected by the adult franchise,
where, every citizen above 18 years of age participates in voting and votes for any political party.
The party that receives the highest number of votes is declared the winner. The president appoints
the prime minister from the winning party, but the prime minister is actually elected by the people.
Vote of Confidence
The party that receives the highest number of votes has to gain vote of confidence within a given
time; failure of which will lead to no formation of government and the party that received the
second highest number of votes will be called to gain vote of confidence and this continues till
the government is not formed.
Power of De facto
The prime ministers of some nations have the power of de facto, which enables the prime minister
to call for an election. Examples of such nations are Denmark, New Zealand, etc. The parliaments
of some nations such as Israel have the right to vote for a new party or a re-election against the
current government.
Constitutional Ruler
It is important to know that all the posts get power from the Constitution. The state head has all
the power but these powers are used by the Council of Ministers and therefore, the head of the
state will not be the head of the government. This is also called titular rule.
No Separation of Power
In all kinds of Parliamentary government, there is absence of separation of power, rather all parts
or departments of the government work in harmony and share various functions and powers.
Lower House Has an Important Role in the Government

In a Parliamentary Government, the lower house has an important role to play than the upper
house. The lower house forms the government because it wins the election; therefore, more
power resides in the lower house which forms the ministry.

Accountability towards the Legislature

It is important to know that all elected government or public representatives are accountable
towards the legislature for their actions and decisions. Such provisions are done so that a control
can be maintained over executive.
Collective Accountability
There is collective accountability of ministers. It works on the principle of ‘swim together and
drown together.’ The cabinet ministers are collectively responsible for any action and the ministry
has to remain responsible for the concerned minister.
Prime Minister is the Leader of the Nation

In a Parliamentary democracy, the prime minister is the head of the nation. S/he is a leader of the
majority party and after becoming the prime minister, s/he enjoys many powers on the name of
the president of the nation. His/Her status is equal to all the members of the cabinet but actually,
s/he has more decision-making power. In reality, the prime minister is the actual leader of the
nation and guides the nation’s policies and associated actions.
Existence of Opposition
There is a great need to ‘create check and balance’ in all forms in a democratic nation. In such a
situation, there is a great need of opposition in the democracy so that a kind of check or control
can be maintained on the existing government. Existence of such opposition raises question to
the government, which keeps control over the monopoly of the government. Therefore, a strong
opposition strengthens Parliamentary democracy.
Powerful Cabinet
The cabinet has to play many roles in a Parliamentary system and therefore, loss of power is being
used by the cabinet ministers. The cabinet has to draft many policies, keeping national and inter-
national agenda in focus. It also takes necessary actions to pass various kinds of bills to effectively
run a system. The cabinet also determines or fixes the agenda of the legislature at centre. The
annual budget and other financial matters are also taken care of by the cabinet.
PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRACY IN INDIA

The reason for India’s road to Parliamentary democracy has a history. When India became inde-
pendent in 1947, a crucial question was raised as to the kind of political system India will be
adopting, on which all political and institutional structures will be developed. It was not very
easy to take a decision because there were diversities in terms of caste, class, gender, and so on.
These existed in their own interests and desires in a free nation. People like Jay Prakash Narayan

were in favour of a rational and scientific system in polity. Mahatma Gandhi was in favour of a
decentralised system, where moral ethics should be the guiding principles of polity. The need
for economic development and political stability required immediate agenda. Accountability was
needed towards the people of the nation.
Here, it is important to highlight that the effect of the colonial nation (Britain) certainly influ-
enced our political system and therefore, the Parliamentary democracy was simply adopted as a
tool or device to run India as a nation, where the President is the head of the state and uses all
powers through the prime minister (head of the government). The judiciary has its own significant
role to play.
The executive comes from the legislature and is also accountable towards it. The prime minister
is the head of the executive. This head is not permanent and there is a provision of periodic elec-
tions. This provision was done to keep a control over the executive and its functioning.
Political parties are another important feature of parliamentary system. There are parties with
varied ideologies which work effectively in favour of Parliamentary democracy. Sometimes, these
parties make the Parliamentary process difficult.
Unorganised and unstable rules and legislature create problems for the smooth functioning of
a Parliamentary democracy. Such a system will not be able to work for social welfare. Nor will it
be able to deal with and cater to the needs of the people of a diverse nation.
The Parliamentary system is also taken up at the state level, where ministers enjoy their autonomy
and respect the federal form of system and unity of the union. Here, the state is independent but has
a close relationship with the centre and keeps the Parliamentary spirit alive. However, it is also impor-
tant to understand that in India, the Constitution is supreme and not the Parliament. The Parliament
works according to the Constitution but can make necessary changes in the Constitution as per the
need. These changes are subject to project the fundamental rights of the people of the nation.
In brief, we can say that all the rules are legitimised by the Parliament. It is the responsibility of
Parliament to maintain all kinds of individual and collective actions of members. It is also interest-
ing to know that the Indian parliamentary system is different from the Westminster model. Here,
the heads of the state are elected and not nominated like in the Westminster model. In India, the
head of the state works as a rubber stamp, but another view says that s/he has substantial powers.
When we refer to the Indian Parliament, we talk about Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and the
President collectively. These agencies have their specific roles to play which we have already
discussed in the earlier chapters. It is also important to know that the President has enough
powers with reference to the legislature. Any bill takes form of a legislation after it is signed by
the President. Generally, the President does not stop it, but s/he may stop it if s/he feels there
are some issues in the bill. In such cases, the bill will be sent back to the Parliament. The prime
minister exercises more power than the President and therefore, this system is called the ‘Prime
Ministerial form’ of government. The other ministers work under the supervision of the prime
minister. If we evaluate our history, we can easily understand that instead of the prime minister,
the Prime Minister’s Office (PMO) has become more powerful. Today, the PMO plays an important
role in crucial decision-making.

There is a fusion of the legislature and the executive in the Indian government, where the
executive is selected out of the legislative and the executive is a branch of legislative in a sense.
Here, it is important to highlight that if there is a government of a majority party, there is hardly
any discussion on issues and policies; rather, the entire process becomes a mockery because with a
clear majority, the ruling party can make laws and regulations as they want. The other house may
create some delays but finally, the bill will get passed in favour of the majority party in the Lok Sabha.
In all such discussion on Parliamentary democracy, one cannot forget the role of people of the
nation in this regard. People give a mandate to a political party through adult franchise to form
the government. Sometimes, this mandate is clearly given to one party and sometimes, there will
be collation of two or more political parties. If we examine our history, such kind of clear mandate
was given to Rajiv Gandhi, and was not given to other leaders of the Congress; but in 1989, the
Congress faced great defeat in elections. Similarly, if we analyse the elections of the present gov-
ernment, we will be able to see that the BJP won at the centre with clear majority, but was badly
defeated in the Delhi elections. What is more important here is that the people of the nation have
the power to change their mandate during elections and the Indian Parliamentary democracy has
seen this massive change in people’s mandate. All such events have made the Indian government
unstable many times but the roots of Parliamentary democracy have not been shaken. Today, we
see a mature and strong Parliamentary system. Though, there are some issues and problems, they
are a sign of the developmental attitude of any governing system; therefore, we must take it as a
positive side of an evolving Parliamentary democratic system.
In brief, the executive head is not directly elected by the people of the nation, but s/he holds
a position of a leader of a majority party, which receives clear mandate to form the government.
The prime minister selects his/her ministers of cabinet (Members of Parliament only). The cabinet
is accountable to the Parliament and if it loses confidence in the Parliament, the prime minister
has to leave the office.
The following features are present in a Parliamentary system:

■
Power is centred on the Parliament.
■
The head of the state and head of the government collectively constitute the Parliament.
■
The head of the government is appointed by the head of the state. The President
appoints the prime minister, the leader of majority party.
■
Cabinet ministers are collectively responsible to the Parliament.
■
The head of the state can dissolve the Parliament as per the suggestions of the head
of the government.
■
Collegiate system provides more power to the executive.
■
The appointed prime minister has full power to select ministers for the cabinet.
This discussion provides us a comprehensive understanding of the Parliamentary government

system. With this understanding, we will be able to evaluate the merits and demerits of the
Parliamentary democratic system.

ADVANTAGES OF PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRATIC SYSTEM

Collectiveness and Togetherness of the Executive and the
Legislature
In a Parliamentary democratic system, the executive is a branch of the legislative and therefore,
there is a possibility that laws will be made easily at the right time. It is known as a quick legisla-
tion, though a government may be made up after collation of various parties. In such cases, the
situation may not be the same and various kinds of conflicts can be aroused. This system is differ-
ent from the Presidential system, where election of the executive is different from the legislature
and there are possibilities that a member of the legislature and executive belong to different
political parties.
Division of Power
In a Parliamentary governmental system, power is shared or divided at various levels and sectors
but in a Presidential system, power is centric to the President. Therefore, collegial executive is the
strength of the Parliamentary system. One can also say that the power is spared our in various
political structures.
Permanent Upper House

The Parliamentary system has one permanent upper house. The members change after a period of
time; in India, it is one-third members every two years. The members are given a total time period
of six years. This House provides strength to Parliamentary democracy as it represents the point
of view of states. It provides time and space for discussion on any bill to make it more effective
for the masses.
CRITICISM OF PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRATIC SYSTEM

One of the critiques of the Parliamentary system is that in almost in all forms of Parliamentary
democracy, the head of the state is not directly elected by people of the nation. Therefore, the
head of the state does not have actual political and other kinds of power.
A collegial system is good for quick legislation but if we analyse this system, we will know that
the executive becomes more powerful indirectly and the executive is a branch of legislature.
In the absence of a clear mandate, a kind of malfunctioning can be created in the Parliament,
which hinders the process of legislature and executive.
The permanent House of the parliament has a great role to play in legislation. However, it has
very limited power on various kinds of bills in comparison with Lok Sabha. This power decreases
as far as the financial bill is concurred.

Another point which is important to mention here is that there is no independent body (in the
true sense) which can oppose the decision taken by the Parliament. Therefore, there is hardly any
substantial control of the legislative power of the Parliament.

➨ India is a Parliamentary democracy. In a Parliamentary democracy, the legislature provides
powers to the executive and the executive is answerable to the legislature.
➨ In a Parliamentary democracy, there are two houses—one will be elected by people called the
lower house and the second would be the upper house, where members would be appointed
on various criteria.
➨ There many countries in the world which follow Parliamentary democracy but still their way
of working and functioning would be different. This difference may occur due to the process
of election of the prime minister, and the kinds of approval the executive needs from the
legislature.
➨ The prime minister is appointed by the head of the nation but elected by the people of the
nation.
➨ The prime ministers of some nations have power of de facto, which enables prime ministers to
call for elections. Some such nations are Denmark, New Zealand, etc.
➨ In a Parliamentary government, the lower house has an important role to play than the upper
house.
➨ The elected government or public representatives are accountable towards the legislative for
all actions and decisions.
➨ There is collective accountability of ministers. It works on the principle of ‘swim together and
drown together.’
➨ The existence of an opposition raises questions to the government, which keeps control over
the monopoly of the government. Therefore, a strong opposition strengthens Parliamentary
democracy.
➨ Mahatma Gandhi was in favour of a decentralised system, where moral ethics should be the
guiding principles of polity.
➨ The executive comes from the legislature and is also accountable toward it.
➨ Unorganised and unstable rules and legislature create problem for the smooth functioning of
parliament democracy.
➨ The head of the state can dissolve the Parliament on the suggestion of the head of the
government.
➨ The collegiate system provides more power to the executive.
➨ The collectiveness and togetherness of the executive and legislative, division of power, and
permanent Upper House are the most important positive aspects of Parliamentary democracy.

Check Your Progress

1. What do you understand by the Par 4. Write a brief note about the following:
liamentary democratic system? Discuss (a) Role of opposition in Parliamentary
with examples. democracy
2. What are the differences between (b) The power of de facto
Parliamentary democracy and Presidential (c) Power of the Upper House in the legis-
democracy? lative processes
3. How are parliamentary democracy cabinet 5. Discuss the merits of a Parliamentary
ministers collectively responsible towards democracy with appropriate examples.
parliament? Give a few examples to sub- 6. What are the demerits of a Parliamentary
stantiate your points. democracy? Argue with suitable examples.
Objective Questions
1. We cannot consider the Indian Parliament (a) Supplementary question
as a sovereign institution because (b) Questions
(a) it does not abide by the Constitution. (c) Both (a) and (b)
(b) it can make laws on the centre list as (d) None of these
well as the state list. 5. How are members of the Rajya Sabha
(c) the judiciary system of India can elected?
review the laws made by the Par (a) Through the elected members of the
liament and suspend them if found state legislature
unconstitutional. (b) Elected directly by the people of a par-
(d) None of these ticular state
2. Who has the power to decide on election (c) Through the state legislative council
petition? and assemblies
(a) Judiciary (d) Through the state legislative council
(b) Parliament 6. The duration of a member of Rajya Sabha is:
(c) Election commission (a) Six years
(d) None of these (b) Five years
3. The tenure of a member of Lok Sabha is: (c) Three years
(a) Two years (d) None of these
(b) Four years 7. PMO has:
(c) Five years (a) Conventional base
(d) Six years (b) Constitutional base
4. Which one of the following methods is not (c) Both (a) and (b)
correct by which the legislature keeps con- (d) None of these
trol over the executive?

8. The Parliament can make laws on: 12. The cabinet ministers are accountable
(a) Concurrent list only towards the:
(b) Union list only (a) President
(c) State list (b) Government
(d) Both (a) and (b) (c) Parliament
(d) Judiciary
9. A ‘bicameral legislature’ represents
(a) legislature which is elected. 13. The Executive is responsible to the:
(b) single assembly. (a) Parliament
(c) parliamentary form of government. (b) President
(d) combination of lower and upper (c) Governor
house. (d) None of these
10. The members of lower house of the 14. The power of de facto means the
Parliament are elected by: (a) Prime minister can call for an election.
(a) People directly (b) President can call an election.
(b) People indirectly (c) Election commission can call an election.
(c) Appointed (d) None of these
(d) None of these 15. Mahatma Gandhi was in favour of a
11. The Indian Parliament comprises the: (a) decentralised political system.
(a) Prime minister (b) centralised political system.
(b) President and Lok Sabha (c) Both (a) and (b)
(c) Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha (d) None of these
(d) Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and the
President

CHAPTER
Social Justice and the

Marginalised 9
LEARNING ObJECTIvES
• Become familiar with the concept of marginalisation and the marginalised
• Explore the reasons for marginalisation
• Elaborate upon the issues, concerns, and challenges of the marginalised
• Understand the situation of marginalised groups in India
• Understand the way to improve the marginalised situation
INTRODuCTION
Understanding marginalisation is an easy as well as a complicated concept. In a broad sense, we
are all marginalised in some way or the other because we share different ideas, perspectives, per-
sonality traits, culture, and so on. When we try to understand marginalisation in its political sense,
it carries a different meaning altogether. Margins refer to the area left blank or ignored, like when
we write on a note book, some space is left on all sides of the page. This left-out page is called a
margin. Similarly, in a society, there are people and groups that are left out from the main stream
and pushed or left at the margins in the process of various kinds of development—whether it is
education, social, economic, and political reforms. Their participation is made negligible in various
sectors. Overall, people left aside from the mainstream are called the marginalised. However, the
ideas and discourse of marginalisation do not end here; rather, it begins here. It is important to
see marginalisation in the framework of diversity, inclusion, and mainstreaming with reference to
equality as a right and as a value simultaneously.
EXPLORING MARGINALISATION
Have you observed or can think of some marginalised group around you? What language do they
speak? What kind of festivals do they celebrate? If we take an example of an adivasi, can you
explain who they are and how they live near you? The term ‘adivasi’ means original inhabitants who
generally live near or in the forest. ‘Around 8% of India’s population comprises adivasis and many

of India’s most important mining and industrial centres are located in adivasi areas—Jamshedpur,
Rourkela, Bokaro, and Bhilai among others. Adivasis are particularly numerous in states such
as Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Andhra
Pradesh, West Bengal, and in the north-eastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura.’ (Social and Political Life-III, NCERT Textbook, pp. 83)
However, it is also important to highlight that they have now migrated to various places and
regions across India. We also need to understand that the adivasi is not a homogenous category.
The total percentage of adivasis in India is about 8 per cent of the total population.
All marginalised groups have to face stereotypes. For example, adivasis are presented as people
who resist development, education, social change, etc. Their clothing styles, thinking patterns,
and way of living are presented in a preconceived notion. You must have attended various school
programmes where adivasis are presented as a person in a colourful dress, headgear, and a spe-
cific kind of dance. Such preconceived notions and stereotypes mislead new learners and they are
stuck with such stereotypes.
It is also important to understand developmental aspects with reference to adivasis in detail.
Adivasis are experts in their surroundings. However, the modern definition of development does
not allow adivasis’ lives enter in its domain. The whole idea of development has reduced to infra-
structural development with huge buildings and fast life. Continuous intervention in the lives of
adivasis has created a conflict zone where Adivasis are being exploited. The argument behind
doing so is that the government wants to bring them to the mainstream but this very idea goes
against the strength of diversity. ‘A recent survey report by organisations working among adivasis
shows that 79 per cent of persons displaced from Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and
Jharkhand are tribals. Huge tracts of their land have also gone under the waters of hundreds of
dams that have been built in independent India.’ (Social and Political Life-III, NCERT text book,
pp. 86).
Thus, the marginalised sections have been classified on the basis of various criteria such as
caste, class, language, race, religion, gender, and so on. It is important to know that all these
groups may overlap with each other such as an economically backward person can also be a
social outcaste or may belong to the minority language group. One person or a group can also be
excluded from active political participation.
We also need to know that there is no need to mix marginalisation and minorities. There
are people who may be a part of the minority but many not be marginalised, such as people
of any business house. Here, we must conduct tri-fold discussions about marginalisation. First,
what is the process of marginalisation and second, whom are we considering as marginalised
and why are many groups marginalised? The existing and evolving theoretical perspective such
as Marxism, new classical theory of Economics, among others came up with the discourse of
social exclusion.
The base of a new classical Economic perspective towards and about marginalisation is to
view marginalisation from an individual point of view which moves ahead to cultural resistance

324 | Chapter 9 Social Justice and the Marginalised
and individualism. On the other hand, the Marxists’ view believes that marginalisation pre-
vailed due to capitalism. According to Marx, the observed agreement and consensus in society
is fake and a forced consensus created by the police, army, or illusion is presented by capitalists.
Consequently, many people are left out and gradually become marginalised.
India also has various kinds of marginalised groups but fails to explain who we are consider-
ing as the marginalised or minorities. This ambiguity is still present in the Indian context. There
is always confusion about it as we call Muslims as a minority and sometimes as marginalised
sections too. Similarly, women are considered as marginalised groups as well. Such confu-
sion leads towards faulty policies and poor implementation of such policies. In this globalised
world, we need to understand that a nation like India has failed to fulfil the basic needs of its
citizens. Marginalisation cannot be understood from a certificate; rather, new dimensions have to
be added so that benefits can be extended to the poor and needy sections. There is a need for a
strong monitoring process not only to monitor the benefits, rather to find out and locate people
who are actually marginalised.
People and children begging on signals are not hidden. I, you, and the politicians see them and
talk in meetings and conferences but do not do anything to take them out from such situations.
We argue that we need a system and individual help will not work effectively and keep waiting
for a systemic change. Meanwhile, generations of such people have passed by and lost some-
where in their dark worlds. Policies such as right to education and so on are being celebrated.
Such dichotomy always hinders progressive change and we keep changing our stand and argu-
ments for debates in conferences. These people have merely become a group of data collection
for researchers.
Further, we must know that the economic system, social structure, and their networking with
each other play a crucial role to understand the whole idea of marginalisation. Understanding
these two aspects separately will not help unfold the idea of marginalisation. The combined per-
spective may take us to the reasonable notion of equality, if not, ideal form of equality.
The liberal world also imposes a special kind of hierarchy in various forms. One such form is a
job or a service, where ‘who gets what’ is somehow pre-decided such as who cannot speak good
English will hardly get a job in an established private sector and policies will also promote the
same. On the other hand, educational policies argue for education in the mother tongue, and this
contradictory stand creates huge unemployment among the educated people.
ANALYSING MARGINALISATION
After exploring the ideas and a few important concepts related to marginalisation, we must try
to understand reason for their poor situation. One may attribute many reasons for this but avail-
ability, accessibility, and approachability are the basic concerns which need to be analysed. These
three aspects can be analysed with reference to education, rights, and various kinds of services.
There is no proper procedurally institutionalised way, process, or structure to make goods and

services available, accessible, and approachable to all. The following dimensions help us to under-
stand further problems and concerns about the marginalised:
1. They have been left at the margins and therefore, have become disadvantageous.
2. They have to face countless prejudices, biases, and preconceived notions.
3. They face ignorance and rejection and are treated as if they are not human beings.
4. They face problems in the name of mainstreaming.
5. They live in the interiors and all development takes place far away from these places; there-
fore, they do not get immediate facilitation.
6. They face extreme poverty which forces them to live in the worst situations.
7. Governmental schemes do not reach these people and groups.
To have a broad perspective on marginalisation, we can take two examples to elaborate. Let us
take the example of Dalit women. Later, in the chapter, we will try to understand the issues and
problems of the aforementioned groups along with how can we move ahead to facilitate them to
have a dignified social, political, and economic life.
Dalits
We are a socialist nation which ensures rights and equality for all people through the Constitution.
However, on other hand, we are also a liberal nation where a majority of things are left in the
hands of the market. The very idea of welfare state was evolved as a safeguard for liberalisation
and the state changed its role to ensure and provide fundamental things to people in a welfare
state, where education—after being a fundamental right—has become a welfare task of the
government. In such a situation. it will be tough to provide and ensure equality among people.
Dalits can be taken as an example, where one can see a huge gap between policy and practical-
ity. They face problems from hunger to sexual abuse and sometimes, it reaches to the level of
death. One can find many examples where Dalits face problem even at their own places, which
sometimes work as a push factor for them and they migrate to different places. These problems
are economic, social, and political. It is known that a majority of people in the Dalit community is
poor without proper jobs. Most of them are still working in unorganised sectors or as agricultural
labourers. Some are still engaged as scavengers. At one side, we talk about a progressive nation
and on the other hand, we fail to provide needful support to people. Their basic needs are water,
food, shelter, and clothing; education comes very late in their lives. All programmes launched in
this regard hardly reaches them. Though it is important to highlight that within the Dalit com-
munity, those who have reached a higher level are not more concerned about the rest of the poor
Dalits and begin considering themselves as a separate category.
There is a great need to break this gap between Dalits and non-Dalits. Attitudinal change is
needed than physical transformation. The mindset needs to be changed than clothes and per-
spectives need to be changed than only demands. Their isolation is not merely economical; rather

it is deeply rooted in the conscious and unconscious nature of social life. The main target needs to
be changed and should focus on this conscious and unconscious nature of social life.
Women
Women are always treated as second-grade human beings, who are subordinate to men in a
social system. Women face problems, or rather, discrimination, in many aspects of life. The family
starts this discrimination and there is no end to it. The family is a well-accepted hierarchical sys-
tem. Though, constitutionally, men and women are equal in all spheres of life, reality is something
different. Most decisions of a woman’s life are taken by men, whether they are fathers, husbands,
or sons. What a women studies, how she lives, what she wears, are all decided by men. However,
there are women who are independent and have understood the importance of being free and
therefore, are living a free life because they have a sense of achievement which other women do
not have. Gradually, there is change happening but not in the required form. Constitutional assur-
ance also somehow failed to provide equal space and justice.
It is important to know that women have significantly contributed to agriculture and associ-
ated fields; yet, they never had control over economic tools. Economic tools refer to productive
assets such as land, technologies, and so on. They face a venerable situation because of the
prevailing socio-cultural practices, rituals, and traditions. Further, polices and schemes made for
women largely fail to deal family-driven biases and practices.
It is also interesting to know that property rights have been given to women constitutionally
and legally but in reality, women are socialised in such a way that they themselves leave the prop-
erty or transfer it to the brothers in family. Therefore, there is a great need for social policy. The
government has to change his attitude about policy-making and policy implementation.
Certain steps need to be taken by the government to provide space to women to be equal to
men. The state has to ensure its policies which are egalitarian not in terms of theory but also in
practice. It must ensure that women also have control over assets and not only income. When
we refer to women control, it does not mean that everything needs to be taken back from men
and put him in a situation of have nots, rather it means to ensure equal rights and responsibilities
towards available assets. As has been said earlier, social policies need to be strengthened. Social
polices need to be based on in-depth studies of social context so that the root problem can be
addressed. Social policy can be seen as a strong base for women empowerment.
Finally, the challenge of the government is to develop an inclusive environment where men
and women get equal spaces to lead their lives without discrimination, exploitation, and biases.
It is important to keep in mind that this inclusion should not be integration and not mainstream-
ing. Recognising diversity and working towards a cohesive social system should form the base of
governmental policy and practice.
In this discussion, we have seen Dalits and women as marginalised groups and tried to explore
and understand their problems along with a few workable solutions; social policy is one of the
strong solutions proposed.

There is also a need to implement social justice. Social justice means that the issues are emerged
from social lives and economic and political aspects utilise them as per their needs. Therefore,
there is a great need to work towards social justice, where everyone gets equal space, whether
they are minorities of cities, villages, or ethnic groups.
DOES MARGINALISATION MATTER

Yes, marginalisation matters because we all are human beings and are born equally and this
character of humanness is fundamental to all of us, which entitles us to be equal, and if nothing
like this happen, our self, personality, existence and entire life is threatened. We have to work
towards optimism where everyone can breathe freely and not be burdened with any baggage of
marginalisation. This optimism to live together motivates us to think and work towards abolishing
marginalisation and not the marginalised. Therefore, there is a need to address the issues of mar-
ginalisation within the various social categories (religion, caste, classes, family, etc.) to go beyond
these categories for a just society. The basic thought behind optimism is humanity.
What Needs to be Done for Social Justice

There are many things which can be done to provide space to exercise one’s rights. In this regard,
a few broad ideas are discussed. Many sub-points can be merged within these points.
Promoting Fundamental Rights

The Indian Constitution provides various fundamental rights to all its citizens to live with dignity
and peace without any kind of exploitation. These fundamental guidelines have compelled states
to make laws for the marginalised. Article 17 of the Constitution states that untouchability has
been abolished—what this means is that no one can henceforth prevent Dalits from educating
themselves, entering temples, using public facilities, etc. It also means that it is wrong to prac-
tice untouchability and that this practice will not be tolerated by the democratic government.
In fact, untouchability is a punishable crime now.(Social and Political life, Class VIII, chapter 8,
p. 95, NCERT).
There are many other Articles and provisions which provide strength to the marginalised com-
munity in India as follows:
Article 14: Equality before law
Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on the basis of caste, class, religion, etc.
Article 16: Right to equal opportunity of employment
The Constitution of India provides equal space and opportunity to all its citizens to seek justice
if something wrong has happened to them or if they have faced any kind of exploitation. It is
important to highlight that the judiciary system is very complex and expensive and that majority
of people are not able to use the judicial process.

Working toward Social Policy

Social policy is a relatively new term which argues beyond political outlook and orientation of
rights. It argues in favour of policies based on social need and for social development with social
optimism. All these elements of social policy will take policies to a different level to create a
humane and peaceful society, where one is not only entitled to use his/her rights but also actu-
ally practise those rights. Examples given in the discussion regarding property rights explain this
scenario in an effective way. Policies based on social orientation will be able to deal with various
kinds of problems related to policies and their implementation.
Promoting Social Justice by Making Laws Especially for the

Marginalised
To promote social justice, there is a great need to frame special laws for marginalisation. As we
know, there are common rights given to everyone by the Constitution. However, some laws are
needed especially for the marginalised to make them equal to all so that they can equally access
common rights. These special provisions such as education, economic and political rights excel
their ability to exercise their rights. These special rights would be for a certain duration and after
the tenure, there should be a review to scrutinise people who have reached a particular level.

➨ Understanding marginalisation is an easy and a complicated concept. In a broad sense, we
are all marginalised in some way or the other, because we share different ideas, perspectives,
personality traits, culture, and so on.
➨ Around 8% of India’s population comprises adivasis.
➨ Adivasis are particularly numerous in Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha,
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, and in the north eastern
states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura.
➨ Thus, the marginalised have been decided on various criteria such as caste, class, language,
race, religion, gender, and so on.
➨ Adivasis are presented as special persons. People think about them with a pre-conceived
notion and bias which create a misleading understanding in the learner about them.
➨ Intervention in Adivasis life has created a conflict zone between adivasis and rest.
➨ We also need to know that there is no need to mix marginalisation and minorities.
➨ The base of new classical economic perspective towards and about marginalisation is to see
marginalisation from an individual point of view which moves ahead to cultural resistance to
individualism.
➨ The Marxists’ view believes that marginalisation prevailed due to capitalism.
➨ India also has various kinds of marginalised groups but it always fails to explain who we are
considering as marginalised or minority.

➨ Marginalisation cannot be understood from a certificate; rather new dimensions have to be

added so that the benefits can reach the poor and the needy.
➨ We must know that the economic system, social structure, and their networking with each
other play a crucial role to understand the whole idea of marginalisation.
➨ The liberal world also imposes a special kind of hierarchy in various forms. One such form is
the job or service, where ‘who gets what’ is somehow pre-decided.
➨ We are socialist as per Constitution but actually our all policies and practices are liberal in
nature.
➨ There a need to work in social policy if we would like to bring in changes.
Check Your Progress

1. What do you understand by the term ‘mar- 5. Knowing that existing polices and pro-
ginalisation’? Take a few examples from visions are not facilitating marginal-
the Indian context to elaborate. ised groups, what would you suggest to
2. How will you differentiate between the improve their situation and make them
marginalised and the minority? Elaborate empowered?
with suitable examples. 6. What do you understand by ‘social policy’?
3. Discuss the constitutional provisions avail- Discuss with suitable examples. How
able to protect the rights of the marginal- can social policy become a power-
ised? Take a few examples to elaborate. ful tool to work towards more inclusive
4. Discuss the issues and challenges faced by policy-making?
a Dalit as a marginalised group. Provide
suitable arguments to support your answer.
Objective Questions
1. Which one of the following statements is 3. The reason for marginalisation is presence
correct? of:
(a) The marginalised cannot be a minority. (a) Various regions
(b) The marginalised must be a minority. (b) Various religions
(c) The marginalised may or may not be (c) Various languages
minority. (d) All of these
(d) None of these
4. Why are a few people marginalised?
2. Adivasi areas are found in: (a) They are in a minority
(a) Gujarat and Rajasthan (b) To benefit a few people
(b) Tamil Nadu and Kerala (c) Both (a) and (b)
(c) Jammu and Kashmir and Haryana (d) None of these
(d) All of these

5. Who are called adivasis? (c) Both (a) and (b)

(a) Tribals (d) None of these
(b) Inhabitants 11. Generally, people associate marginalisation
(c) Both (a) and (b) with:
(d) None of these (a) Disadvantages
6. The total percentage of adivasis in India is (b) Poor and powerless
__________ of the total population. (c) Prejudices
(a) around 5% (d) All of these
(b) around 8%
12. Marginalisation has become a reason for:
(c) around 3% (a) Equal rights
(d) None of these
(b) Unequal education
7. Where do adivasis live? (c) High social status
(a) In forests (d) Freedom for all
(b) Near forests 13. Migration happens due to the:
(c) Near cities (a) Pull factor
(d) Everywhere (b) Push factor
8. Adivasis are (c) Both (a) and (b)
(a) necessarily primitive. (d) None of these
(b) necessarily traditional. 14. The relatively strong way to deal with the
(c) necessarily backward. issues of minority and their rights is to
(d) None of these work towards:
9. Important metals are found in: (a) Political policy
(a) Cities (b) Social policy
(b) Rivers (c) Economic policy
(c) Forests (d) None of these
(d) All of these
15. Marxism believes that marginalisation
10. __________ and linguistic minorities are exists because of:
given special provisions by the Indian (a) Capitalism
Constitution. (b) Socialism
(a) Regional (c) Conflict
(b) Religious (d) Consensus

Unit IV
Pedagogical
Perspectives and Issues
Chapter 1 What is Pedagogy

Chapter 2 Issues and Challenges of Teaching-Learning Social
Science
Chapter 3 Classroom Processes, Activities and Discourse
Chapter 4 Developing Critical Thinking
Chapter 5 Sources: Primary and Secondary
Chapter 6 Evaluation in Social Science

CHAPTER
What is Pedagogy 1
LEaRninG objEctiVES
• Understand the concept of pedagogy with respect to various thinkers
• Engage with issues, challenges, and concerns about pedagogy and pedagogical processes
• Visualise the role of teachers with respect to pedagogy
• Understand the pedagogic beliefs of various schools of thoughts
• Develop critical perspective about participatory approach to pedagogy
• Explore the comprehensive environment for comprehensive pedagogy
intRoduction
Pedagogy, methodology, and teaching strategies are used interchangeably; however, there is huge
difference between these terms and using them interchangeably will ruin the actual meaning of ped-
agogy. Actually, pedagogy is a larger concept, and it is not possible to just study it in a classroom con-
text. In its wider sense, it is a process of explaining, elaborating, and engaging with any phenomena.
Therefore, it becomes comprehensive method rather than simple methods and strategies. In other
words, it can also be said that methods and techniques can be part of pedagogy. In a classroom
context, pedagogy deals with many things together, which includes learner, learning, knowledge,
textbooks, methods, techniques, discussion happening in class, classroom environment, and so on.
Pedagogy in its actual sense can be understood as a practice with praxis along with theoretical
construct. It deals with the concern of how to teach or provide opportunities to learner to learn
reflectively, which provide enough opportunities to understand, and analyse the social life and
social events. Pedagogy provides a comprehensive outlook towards life and associated concerns.
Paulo Freire can be taken as an example where he talked about his way of teaching ‘critical
pedagogy.’ It provides a wider, critical, and reflective process to challenge the oppression of the
suppressed. It liberates learner from slavery mindset, and provides knowledge and consciousness.
Critical pedagogy managed to do this because it incorporates the background of the learners,
their contextual issues, their experiences, and so on. Therefore, pedagogy is an outlook and way
to perceive, learn, establish, and use of knowledge to become liberate.

334 | Chapter 1 What Is Pedagogy
Therefore, we have to understand it very clearly that pedagogy is not only teaching in a class
or transacting content to the learners but also associated with thinking and practicing it. Teaching
is a very specific task, whereas pedagogy has to deal with larger concerns.
In recent past, numerous works have been done on pedagogy with respect to various disci-
plines including sciences, social sciences, and languages. These works provide a comprehensive
understanding about pedagogy not only on particular subject but also in general. ‘Critical peda-
gogy,’ ‘Social pedagogy’, and ‘Folk pedagogy’ can be taken as examples.
Before we move ahead to understand the pedagogy and pedagogy in detail, we should under-
stand the very meaning of education so that we can make better sense of pedagogy and peda-
gogical processes.
Education
Although it is very difficult to summarise the meaning and nature of education in few worlds, some
understanding about what education is all about is essential. Therefore, we will try to discuss about
education rather than presenting any definition. It is a fact that we generally replace education with
schooling, which limits the meaning of education in a well-surrounded concept: however, it actu-
ally does not help to understand the meaning of education. What is taught by teacher is not educa-
tion, rather what one construct out of that would be education. Education is not something that
can be given. This can be proved with a very simple example: let us imagine that we are teaching
in a class and talking to everyone equally, but can we make sure that every student will learn the
same thing from our teaching. Precisely not; this is because what you talk is information for them
and what they will construct out from that information will be their knowledge.
Freire also criticised the banking concept of education and he discusses about education that
liberates. Education provides criticality, reflectivity, and consciousness and this results in a self-
aware and educative person. Education cannot be understood as money that can be given to
anyone, rather it has been constructed with one’s efforts. Education can be understood in terms
of bringing out your abilities, and therefore, along with individualised process, it is a social process
too. Dewey called education as a process of living rather than a preparation for future. Pestalozzi
talked about the development of hand, head, and heart is education, and Gandhi favoured the
development of heart, mind, and soul together is education.
Therefore, we can say that education is not only about knowing or gathering information but
also developing knowledge; using this knowledge, we make life better, humane, and peaceful.
TEACHERS’ ROLE IN PEDAGOGY

It is important to understand that the teacher’s role in education and pedagogical processes
had been changing. It has moved from ‘giver’ to ‘facilitator’. This shift that is presented here is
explained in a simple manner; however, it is not that simple. It carries a full historical legacy with
it. However, we are not discussing it here in extensive details. Still, we must know that assumption

Unit IV Pedagogical Perspectives and Issues | 335
about learner, learning, and knowledge has changed over a period of time, and therefore, the role
of teacher has also changed. Further, now, we do not perceive learner in a passive role, rather
accept their agency in learning process. Similarly, the idea of learning has also changed and it has
moved from ‘given’ to one’s ‘own construction.’ Along with this, the meaning of knowledge has
also moved from universal facts to contextual realities. These shifts have also changed the role
of teachers from who knows everything and fills knowledge into empty pictures to a facilitator
of learners who are in the process of constructing their own meanings and knowledge. Teachers
have to develop trustworthy relationship with learners where learners may discuss all their issues,
concerns, and challenges without any kind of hesitation. Environment that provides space to learn
is very important for learners. Their agency as a student must be accepted and respected by the
teacher.
Table 1.1 beautifully explains the various schools of thought and their understanding of peda-
gogy along with suitable examples.
Table 1.1 Pedagogy understanding by various schools of thought
School of thought Pedagogic understanding Examples

Behaviourism Teacher centric, learner at receiv- Lecturing, common way of teaching,
ing end, explicitly visible outcome of mastery over skill
learning
Constructivism Child centric, learner as active con- Project work, individual teaching pro-
structor of knowledge, teacher as cesses, focus on adaptation rather than
facilitator on recalling
Social constructivism Child centric, learning as social pro- Collaborative learning, learning as com-
cess, knowledge is socially embedded munity practice, reciprocal teaching–
learning process
Critical theory Learner a reflective human being, Evaluating, exploring, elaborating, criti-
knowledge is contextual and carries a cally reviewing, focusing on both theory
hidden agenda, engagement in social and its implication (praxis)
life with critical view
CREATING CONTEXT FOR PEDAGOGY

There are many theorists who have worked extensively about pedagogy. Here, we are not talking
about pedagogy in class, rather pedagogy as a concept in broader sense. However, we would like
to talk about three major contributions in this field named Paulo Freire, Bernstein, and Bruner.
Freire’s book Pedagogy of the Oppressed is classic in this regard and it soon became the reference
material for almost all educationists. Freire was more interested in questioning the suppression,
and therefore, he discussed about critical pedagogy to make people liberate. Bernstein elabo-
rates about the class and culture and their role in people’s life; further, he explained how few
people rule over other’s life and control them. Finally, Bruner is associated with folk pedagogy,

who argues about the role of socio-culture context in learning process. He floated the idea of
‘socially embeddedness’, ‘contextual knowledge,’ and so on.
Pedagogy cannot be understood only in terms of teaching practice in a class. Moreover, it is
an experience all together, where it is an art, science, and craft also. Therefore, it is very clear
that pedagogy is not an instrumental process, rather it is a constructive process that incorporates
‘be with learner’, ‘provide caring’, and ‘associative learning and education with lives.’ In this
context, to be with learner means to hold their hand whenever they need support in their devel-
opment process. They should feel comfortable about the availability of someone in needful situ-
ations. This availability of teacher will develop trust, faith, and commitment in learners. Similarly,
caring means that teacher should have caring nature towards learners. Teacher should be there
when learner needs care and support in learning process. The sense of caring cannot be given or
developed in one day, rather it takes enough time to develop such concerns. Finally, associative
learning or education in daily life means to make linkage between school education and daily life.
It is important that what we learn should be utilised in life. Although, we would like to assert here
that utility does not only mean the way it has been perceived by pragmatic school but also it has
more comprehensive meaning all together.
It is to be understood that a good teaching does not provide or deal with techniques for learn-
ing, rather it provides space and opportunities to engage with the discourse, which takes them
to the search for identity, harmony, and integrity. Therefore, fixed methodological process and
techniques will not help learner to be developed at their best.
Still there are three basic questions which we would like to highlight here: is pedagogy age spe-
cific?, can pedagogy be seen outside the school?, and is pedagogy an art, science, or craft? Yes,
as far as school teaching is concerned, pedagogy is age specific. It is because learners understand
the world through the lenses of their own experiences, and as they grow older, their experiences
also get widen. Therefore, pedagogy needs to be changed as per age or developmental level of
learner. What are their abilities, capabilities, and so on? However, the second question says that
can pedagogy be seen outside the school and it has more elaborate answer. Of course, as dis-
cussed earlier in the chapter, pedagogy has to be seen in a wider context. Here, it means the way
pedagogy has been understood by Freire, Bornstein, and Bruner. It is a way of understanding and
acting in actual life, and it may be understood with respect to education, politics, and our daily
life. Finally, third question needs to be discussed separately. Those who believe pedagogy as sci-
ence says it is an organised way of helping others to understand certain things. This entire idea
moves around technical rationality and objective rationality, which takes it epistemology base or
stance from scientific approach or method. However, the ideas of pedagogy as art or craft move
around the social science paradigm. When we say social science paradigm, we mean its subjective
nature, which actually understands pedagogy as a reflective and subjective process. The work of
Donald Schon’s can be referred here as a master piece. It perceives pedagogy as a tool that helped
in day-to-day life, which helps a person to decide or chose the life they want to live. In all, we
have to see pedagogy in a comprehensive way that is not restricted to teaching–learning process.

Teaching may be one of the important aspects of pedagogy but not synonym of pedagogy; how-
ever, it can be said that teaching is a necessary condition of pedagogy but not sufficient condition.
HOLISTIC SENSE OF PEDAGOGY

To understand the meaning of pedagogy, we may ask few questions to a teacher: what they think
about themselves as a teacher? What and how they understand about education? What is their
view about learner, learning, knowledge, and society? What role they see of learner in education
and learning process? What kind of citizens they want to produce for the future? Where they
want to see our future society? Understanding these questions and their answers will facilitate
our thinking about pedagogy. Generally, pedagogy is misunderstood with teaching, which actu-
ally restricts its scope to few methods and techniques of teaching. However, abovementioned
questions indicated that the notion and concept of pedagogy is far deeper than teaching, which
moves from an individual student to the development of society.
The question is what is the quality of a teacher or who is a good teacher or which is important
for a teacher: teacher with good subject knowledge or good pedagogical understanding? Surely,
content is important but pedagogical strength is an essential quality of a good teacher. However,
what pedagogy is all about has been understood differently by different people. Teachers, doc-
tors, lawyers, engineers, and policy makers have taken pedagogy in different ways.
As we know science has dominated social science for good number of years with the name and
for the sake of ‘scientific methods’, where everything was looked and studied around this method.
This approach need to be criticised and discredited. It imposes positivism on social science, and
therefore, on pedagogy also. The positivism is largely associated with reductionist, deterministic,
and independent, which failed to explain pedagogy comprehensively. Therefore, interactionist and
interpretive perspective came up with good strength that deals with socially constructed, creative,
and liberal perspective that provides a better understanding to pedagogy. Further, Watkins and
Mortimore (1999) discussed about pedagogy as ‘craft’, which was discussed earlier. However, this
idea was also not able to sustain longer as it failed to incorporate the critical reflective perspective
during pedagogic processes along with the very nature of learner, learning, knowledge, and society.
A different perspective was shared by Beetham (2007) regarding pedagogy. He argued peda-
gogy as a process of facilitating and guiding learning process and try to establish a close rela-
tionship between teaching and learning including learner and knowledge, where one person
consciously facilitates the learning of another one. Furthermore, Moon (2009) explains pedagogy
as a multidimensional process that includes theoretical understanding, belief system, and so on;
however, it actually executed with respect to learners in actual live situations. In this sense, they
make sense of pedagogy with respect to theory, its understanding, and its applicability in daily life.
From this point, the whole idea of pedagogy moves beyond the classroom; further, it is dis-
cussed with respect to socio-political and economic lives that will make a learner to know the
importance of their contribution to the development of democratic, humane society. For this,

Theory
Understanding Application
Figure 1.1
pedagogy gets associated with policy, politics, culture, and rationality to explain itself as a social
process, which is deviated from the dominated positivism.
Learner has a very special place in entire pedagogical process where he/she has to see and
evaluate his/her position with respect to policy and power relation. The knowledge given or
presented to them influenced the way they will understand the social and political life. Therefore,
it becomes important to develop abilities in learners to become evaluative and critical as they have
no control over the knowledge decided for them. Whose knowledge and who decides and how it
is decided are the questions that need to be analysed by learners. These abilities will be developed
in an democratic school setup where respect, rights, responsibility, humanity, collaboration, and
so on are integral part of the school system; hence, largely it can become social system with the
help of the learners who will get education from such school systems. Further, such society will
strengthen democracy; it not only strengthens political democracy but also economic democracy
(Bowles and Gintis).
Here, we reject the idea of mechanistic and universal way of explaining pedagogy; rather,
we favour the idea of multiple perspectives, which is very much contextual. We do not consider
pedagogy as simply balancing the view of learners, rather it is providing challenge to the existing
scenario; this very idea also questions the concept and process of equilibration given by Piaget,
where a child try to do equilibration in the situation of dis-equilibration. Pedagogy provides criti-
cality than simple adaptation in a democratic society. It also provides ample opportunities to
learners to use their agency in school as an active participant in learning process to develop critical
thinking and make citizen aware about liberal democracy. Pedagogy does not satisfy the curiosity
of learners, rather it motivates to raise questions. It helps to raise doubts and promote the process
of being to becoming. However, all this is possible with a participatory approach. Next section will
deal with the understanding of participatory approach of pedagogy.
EXPLORING PARTICIPATORY APPROACH TO PEDAGOGY

It is an approach that can be understood with respect to inclusive perspective. This approach is
in favour with the idea of social justice where all are respected and given opportunities to grow.
It deals with the idea of collaborative task where teachers and learners work together to set and
achieve the goals. These goals are set to deal real-life complexities, so that a better life orientation

can be given to learners. It believes in various ways to achieve a goal but the ways must be based on
social justice and equality. Another aspect that is important to highlight here is that this approach
tries to make sense of teaching, learning, and knowledge in a wholesome perspective and it does
not see them in isolated manner. Therefore, participatory perspective does not deal only teaching
and learning processes but also it engages with the knowledge development process; further, it is
also used in social life to deal various kinds of problems, issues, and challenges. It works with two
folds of objective: for dealing with immediate support, help, or scaffolding and for dealing with
future concerns.
Participatory pedagogy uses education for all approach; that is, education for disabled and
non-disabled learners. In this pedagogy, everybody is treated at par but with special needs.
Therefore, it does not favour the idea of individualised process of education; rather, it favours
inclusive process of education. It does not argue for the success of the school, rather it talks about
the appropriate environment in schools that can facilitate the learning.
Ever changing nature of education and influence and role of political and economic powers
in education create a very uncertain environment for teachers and learners; this is what we call
knowledge keeps changing as per the power struggles. Participatory pedagogy tries to deal with
all such issues to some extent. Largely, participatory pedagogy constituted with various con-
cepts or ideas or aspects such as inclusive understanding, individualised process of learning and
instruction, and diversity.
Inclusive understanding is one of the important requirements for participatory pedagogy.
Inclusion is a term, which is very complex and unclear to many of us. However, it is sure that it is
not only for children with special needs but also deals with larger perspectives. Inclusive teacher
needs to know about him/herself with respect to others so that a comprehensive environment
can be created in a class to provide better opportunities for learning. Inclusion rejects the idea
of any kinds of differences in school and tries to make sense of these differences with respect to
social and economic capital, equality, justice, and community acceptance. Wider differences will
increase the differences in the school, and in future, this difference will develop a sense of ‘I’ and
‘others.’ To avoid all such situations, a positive mindset needs to be developed. This positive mind-
set will help learners to understand themselves with respect to prevailed social scenario. For this,
a healthy community of practice needs to be developed where learner will actively engage with
the concerned issues and aspects. They will be able to talk and analyse about dominant ideologies
and will make sense of themselves. Further, they will also be able to develop their self-belief sys-
tem rather than an imposed system. This ability of creativity will make them actually sensitive and
reflective human beings, who will largely contribute towards creating better citizens for the world.
Individualised process of learning and instruction is another important aspect of participa-
tory pedagogy. Today, we all are aware of the fact that everybody perceives the world from their
own lenses that are acquired through their life experiences. Therefore, it is important to know
how children learn and how they understand the given or available situation. The process of
understanding and learning is very much individualised; however, society and our environment

influence our individuality. The kinds of book we read, the kind of media we are exposed, the
kinds of choices available to one, and so on are important contributing factors in our understand-
ing; it is not only about ourselves but also about others. These sources provide information and
we construct our own meaning based on those information. However, reality is not so simple;
this construction is highly governed from the exposure we have gone through. Further, most
importantly, we have no choice, which is based on free will; rather, we have to choose from the
available choices. In such a complex scenario, how one can claim to be independent and exercise
their free will. Participatory pedagogy will provide spaces for a person who will not only choose
from the available options but also develop options to choose. For this, an individualised but col-
laborative learning process is needed.
Diversity is also a very significant dimension of participatory pedagogy. First, the idea of diver-
sity may look in contrast with individualised process; however, actually it is not. Furthermore, it
is an approach to deal with individualised process and individualised process helps to understand
and deal with diversity. Therefore, there is no necessary contract between these two terms. It is a
fact that our society is with numerous diversities, and therefore, our classes will also be with full of
diversities. Participatory pedagogy views diversity as an opportunity than problem, but converting
this diversity into opportunity is a challenge for which teachers need to be prepared. This will not
end with teacher’s preparation but the mindset of society also needs to be inclusive. We will not
recommend that they need to change; however, there is a need to understand others’ perspective
and how others perceive a thing wrong, which we might think that it is absolutely correct. This
can happen only when we become sensitive towards diversity. Further, this will include various
dimensions simultaneously; these dimensions include students, flexibility, knowledge about sub-
jects, evaluation and classroom context, and environment.
Use of Participatory Pedagogy

It is not only enough to simply talk about criticality or critical thinking about pedagogy but also
it is necessary to implement and see the use of this pedagogic perspective. It is also important
to understand the participatory pedagogy emerged from constructivist and situated cognition
approaches, where communities of practices are favoured. The application part of this pedagogy
may be understood with reference to Personal Learning Styles Pedagogy (PLSP). The PLSP incor-
porates the understanding of individual needs and learning processes. It not only discussed about
the baseline pedagogic processes but also talked about learner’s choice, centric role of learner,
respecting initiating point of learner, providing space for meta-cognitive thinking processes,
importance of facilitation and support, incorporating contextualised engagement, and so on.
The personal learning style pedagogy works around many dimensions. First, one has to under-
stand and explore the learners’ knowledge, beliefs, and understanding for providing appropri-
ate support and facilitation. Here, it also becomes important to explore the learning histories
of a learner so that a holistic understanding can be developed about the learners’ experiences,

which will help to develop a need-based environment for better learning. Second, one has to be
careful for choosing learning style for learners. This style cannot be selected arbitrarily, rather a
thoughtful engagement is required for this purpose. Obviously, the first point will facilitate in
selecting the style. An integrated perspective will facilitate learning, where integration is needed
between the learners’ past experiences, which cause for their belief system and the style that
the learner tends to be engaged with. This integration will surely develop the comprehensive
perspective for learning. This integration will also happen between cognition and socio-cultural
context of learners. Third, one needs to be aware not only about learners’ context, but also their
sensitivities. This sensitivity will develop a sense of belongingness with learners and their asso-
ciated issues and concerns. It also incorporates the emotional needs of the learners, develops
positive environment, and respects new beginning of learners with full emotional support along
with their social context. Fourth, one has to develop an optimistic learning environment, where
many things will have to be taken care; for example organising learning resources and integrated
teaching processes which incorporate cognition, attitude, and social context, helping learner to
engage in positive, critical, reflective thinking processes, and so on. This environment must provide
space for engagement, elaboration, exploration, and construction. Largely learning environment
must include criticality, authenticity, reflectivity, analytical, meta-cognitive process, and so on.
Fifth, one has to respect and accept learners’ agency in class, where learners have space not only
for choosing from available options but also developing options of their choice. Learner’s voice
and existence should be not only acknowledged but also accepted. Such learner’s agency will
automatically develop a sense of commitment towards learning. They will take ownership of their
learning. To provide such space, process has to be flexible in nature, where enough space is avail-
able for accommodating various ideas proposed by learners, whether it is collaborative process
or individualised process.
Disused ideas, which were explained earlier, provide reasonable opportunities for individ-
ual learning processes based on learner’s personal style. Vygotsky’s concepts such as assisted
learning, scaffolding, and mediation are seen as very crucial and significant aspects in guid-
ing the learning processes; in these processes learners work both independently and they
work based on their needs, and therefore, appropriate help is provided to facilitate their
zone of proximal development. Teachers have to understand that the development of self-
regulation capability is the necessary condition for facilitating self-governed learning processes.
This regulatory capability will develop gradually and will take time to reach the level of maturity.
Here, maturity deals with cognitive, affective, and emotional aspects of an individual. In other
words, self-regulation is associated with cognitive process, meta-cognitive process, and emo-
tional process. The cognitive process involves in developing memorisation, analytical, decisive
skills, while metacognitive process involves in developing coordinating, developmental, adjust-
ment, and critical reflection skills; finally, emotional processes helps in developing motivational,
execution, characteristics, and emotional skills.

ENVIRONMENT FOR COMPREHENSIVE PEDAGOGY

On the basis of aforementioned discussion, it is difficult to list out few points about what is
pedagogy; this is because it provides a comprehensive perspective about pedagogical process
that is different from students’ engagement approaches to pedagogy, where it is considered as
an approach to control the system. As far as the reader of this chapter is concerned, we can talk
about few points in little detail to give a comprehensive perspective. Table 1.2 provides a good
understanding about the required environment.
Table 1.2 Features of required environment

1. Supportive, collabo- There is a need to develop healthy teacher–student relationship, where eve-
rative, and produc- ryone will respect and value other’s knowledge, ideas, and perspectives. This
tive environment must involve collaborative task to produce productive outcomes.
2. Respecting diversity It is necessary to boost learner’s self-concept by providing space to develop
their self-esteem. This can be ensured when each learner will enjoy some
kinds of achievement. Therefore, setting common goals for all would not be
in favour of learners.
3. Freedom, inter- A kind of freedom or independence is advocated here, where learner learns
relatedness, and to take responsibility of their learning. This freedom will be actualised with
self-motivation respect to interdependency of learners among themselves and with teach-
ers. Further, such environment will surely develop the learner to control over
motivation, where they will be able to know where, how, and for what to
be motivated.
4. Respecting learn- Social constructivism surely a good approach to learning, if understood
ers’ socio-cultural and applied correctly. Therefore, one has to understand the role of learn-
context, needs, ers’ socio-cultural background, their needs, and their perspectives towards
understanding, and various concepts in teaching–learning process. For this, a flexible pedagogic
perspectives process is needed so that each one gets his/her space in learning engage-
ment. Variety of strategies may also be used to provide the individual diver-
sity with inclusive perspective.
5. Promoting critical There will be a great need to develop connection between various concepts,
thinking, cogni- ideas, and so on for better learning engagement. Cognitive skills can be
tive ability, and developed by providing challenges to the existing knowledge. Environment
application that provides space for the applicability of learned knowledge is appreciated.
6. Evaluation as a part It is important to understand evaluation as an inherent part of teaching–
of teaching–learning learning process. We consider learning as ongoing process, and therefore,
processes assessment is also an ongoing process, which incorporates reflective and
analytical tasks. Such evaluation will have larger agenda than only assess-
ing what learners know. It will develop platform about the future course of
action for learners as well as teachers.
7. Beyond classroom Education can be understood as restricted process that takes place only in
classroom; rather, it is a comprehensive process that not only incorporates
content from society but also pedagogic process. Learning will take place in
communities of practice.

SUMMARY
In conclusion, it can be said that the pedagogy has been used diversely in different fields. Policy
makers, teachers, and lawyers have used pedagogy in different ways. They all use it according to
their purposes. However, still defining pedagogy is a tough task. It is a complex concept to under-
stand and to explain. We cannot simply restrict pedagogy with teaching–learning process as it
incorporates various other dimensions such as educational theories, policies, personal learning
style, and larger social context. Therefore, it is very difficult to say that pedagogy can be under-
stood as teaching–learning process. Pedagogy has to be understood as linkages between theory
and practice. It can be seen as process of facilitating the engagement of learners to explore,
elaborate, and explain the concept with the understanding that these concepts are not restricted
to the textbook, rather they have their implications for larger society. Bernstein said ‘pedagogy is
a sustained process whereby somebody(s) acquires new forms or develops existing forms of con-
duct, knowledge, practice and criteria from somebody(s) or something deemed to be an appropri-
ate provider and evaluator’ (Bernstein, 2000). His idea revolves around two models: performance
model and competence model. Performance model discusses about the direct relationship with
students’ learning such as what to do and how to do, whereas competence model can be under-
stood as indirect relationship with learners. It is a salient way of dealing with learners, for exam-
ple, their individual needs. Therefore, pedagogy has been seen as both action and discourse,
which includes teachers’ beliefs, knowledge, perspectives, and attitude about learner, learning,
curriculum, and knowledge.

➨ Pedagogy cannot be understood as synonym of teaching–learning process.
➨ Pedagogy involves the larger processes such as political, social, and economical processes.
➨ Pedagogy is used in various ways in different professions such as policy maker, educationist,
and lawyers. They use it to serve their purpose.
➨ Critical pedagogy, social pedagogy, and folk pedagogy are some of the well-known types of
pedagogy.
➨ Pedagogy in education needs to be understood with respect to educational theories, curricu-
lum, teaching–learning processes, assessment, social context, and so on.
➨ A good pedagogy will provide opportunities to learner by involving them in critical, reflective,
analytical, sensitive activities and also in social and other associated issues and concerns.
➨ Teachers have a very specific role with respect to pedagogy and it can be understood as a
facilitator or a guide.
➨ Paulo Freire, Bernstein, and Bruner are the pioneers in the field of critical pedagogy.
➨ Participatory approach to pedagogy provides a comprehensive perspective where the idea of
inclusion also involved.

➨ A comprehensive pedagogy can be understood by the following characteristics: supportive,

collaborative, and productive environment
(a) Respecting diversity
(b) Freedom, inter-relatedness, and self- motivation
(c) Respecting learners’ socio-cultural context, needs, understanding, and perspectives
(d) Promoting critical thinking, cognitive ability, and application
(e) Evaluation as a part of teaching–learning process
(f) Beyond classroom
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. How do you understand pedagogy? Is (c) Associative learning and education
it similar to teaching–learning process? with learners’ life
Justify your stand with suitable examples. 6. How Freire conceptualises pedagogy?
2. Why various schools of thought on educa- Discuss with suitable examples.
tion advocate different kinds of pedagogic 7. Elaborate the idea of pedagogy discussed
process? Elaborate with suitable examples. by Bernstein and Bruner? In the case of
3. Discus the perspectives of behaviourist, pedagogy, what are the similarities and
constructivist, and social constructivist on differences between their concepts?
pedagogy. Which perspective provides a 8. What is participatory approach to peda-
better explanation of pedagogy? Discuss gogy? Discuss the main characteristics of
with suitable examples. this approach.
4. What role do you conceptualise of a 9. If you consider yourself as a teacher,
teacher in teaching–learning process? then how can you develop a comprehen-
5. Explain the following term with respect to sive environment in class to provide bet-
pedagogy: ter spaces for knowledge construction?
(a) Be with learners Provide suitable examples for supporting
(b) Provide caring your argument.
Objective Questions
1. Pedagogy is associated with (c) non-teaching staff of school along
(a) classroom and benches. with principal.
(b) methods and techniques of teaching. (d) a larger perspective to understand the
(c) black board and text books. engagement with some concept or
(d) All of these phenomenon.
(e) None of these
2. Pedagogy deals with
(a) students and teaching staff. 3. Critical pedagogy belongs to:
(b) students, parents, and school govern- (a) Rabindranath Tagore
ing body. (b) John Dewey

(c) Plato 10. A teacher’s role needs to be understood as a

(d) Paulo Freire (a) only source of knowledge.
(b) creator of knowledge for learners.
4. Liberating learner from slavery mindset
(c) facilitator for learners.
and providing knowledge, and conscious-
(d) manager of a class.
ness is the idea of:
(a) Liberal pedagogy 11. Pedagogy of Oppressed is written by:
(b) Social pedagogy (a) Bernstein
(c) Critical pedagogy (b) Bruner
(d) Folk pedagogy (c) Gandhi
(d) Freire
5. Dewey called education as
(a) information around us. 12. Folk pedagogy argues about the role of
(b) factual understanding about society. (a) family content in learning process.
(c) process of living. (b) psychological content in learning pro-
(d) preparation of future. cess.
(c) pedagogical content in learning process.
6. Who favoured the development of heart,
(d) sociocultural content in learning pro-
mind, and soul together as education?
cess.
(a) Pestalozzi
(b) Dewey 13. The concept of contextual knowledge is
(c) Freire associated with:
(d) Gandhi (a) Critical pedagogy
(b) Liberal pedagogy
7. Triple ‘H’ concept of Pestalozzi is known as
(c) Folk pedagogy
the
(d) Behavioural pedagogy
(a) development of health, height, and hair.
(b) development of hormones, head, and 14. Pedagogy needs to be changed or modi-
heart. fied as per:
(c) development of heart, mind, and soul. (a) Age of the learner
(d) development of hand, head, and heart. (b) Developmental level of learner
(c) Requirement of the class
8. Education is not only
(d) None of these
(a) developing and using knowledge.
(b) knowing and gathering information. 15. Social science pedagogy is:
(c) making life better with humanity. (a) Subjective in nature
(d) All of these (b) Objective in nature
9. In behaviourist pedagogical understand-
ing, child is: (d) None of these
(a) An active participant 16. Which one of the following is the essential
(b) A passive participant quality of a good teacher?
(c) Both (a) and (b) (a) Command over content
(d) None of these (b) Ability to discipline a learner

(c) Patience 20. A good classroom provides

(d) Self-governed (a) space and opportunities to learners.
(b) latest technology for learning.
17. In a larger sense, pedagogy can be used for
(c) various ways of learning.
(a) implementing government policies in
(d) directing learners about their learning.
school.
(b) implementing school principal’s ideas 21. The aim of critical pedagogy is to develop
in school. (a) reflective citizens for democracy.
(c) facilitating and guiding learning process. (b) successful professional.
(d) All of these (c) best teacher.
(d) effective teacher.
18. Which one of the following will be the best
explanation of pedagogy? 22. Participatory approach to pedagogy refers to
(a) Practice with theoretical construct (a) inclusive perspective of pedagogy.
(b) Constructing theory with practice (b) socio-psycho perspective to pedagogy.
(c) Understating theoretical underpinning (c) technocratic perspective to pedagogy.
of any construct (d) personalised perspective to pedagogy.
(d) None of these
23. Participatory pedagogy perceives diversity
19. What is the ‘banking concept’ given by as a:
Freire? (a) Problem
(a) Teachers know everything and chil- (b) Challenge
dren know nothing (c) Opportunity
(b) Teachers teach everything to learners (d) Motivation
because they know nothing
(c) Depositing money in back account
(d) None of these

Issues and Challenges CHAPTER
of Teaching–Learning
Social Science 2
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Understand the objectives of teaching of Social science at various level of school education
• Engage with issues, challenges, and concerns about pedagogy and pedagogical processes of
social sciences
• Explore the debates and issues of Science versus social science
• Understand the possibilities for improving pedagogy of social science
INTRODUCTION
The problem and issues of teaching–learning Social sciences emerge, when the nature of social
science understood wrong. We have already discussed the nature and pedagogy of social science.
On the basis of the understanding of these two chapters, now we will try to explore the problems,
challenges, and issues of teaching–learning Social science. Social science has been misunderstood
from various points of view, and mainly, it is an amalgamation of History, Geography, Political
science, etc. There is a great need to understand social science in its own way that has its exist-
ence beyond this amalgamation.
We have to understand that teaching–learning Political science does not mean just to interact
in the class or simply try to transfer the information available in book; rather, it is complex process
that helps a child engage with the concern discourse. To understand teaching–learning Social
science beyond simply transferring information, this process will be more meaningful to both the
learners and the teachers.
Before we move ahead and discuss about the issues and challenge of teaching Social science,
it is essential to understand the objectives of teaching of Social science. National Curriculum
Framework (NCF) 2005 articulates these objectives at various levels such as primary stage, upper
primary stage, secondary stage, and higher secondary stage. Here, we are more concerned about
secondary stage; therefore, first, we would be discussing about the overall objectives of teaching
of Social science and then objective of teaching Social science at secondary level.

348 | Chapter 2 Issues and Challenges of Teaching–Learning Social Science
According to NCF 2005, studying the Social sciences is vital for many reasons. It enables
children to:
1. Understand the society in which they live – to learn how society is structured, managed,
and governed, and also about the forces seeking to transform and redirect society in various
ways.
2. Appreciate the values enshrined in the Indian Constitution such as justice, liberty, equality,
and fraternity and the unity and integrity of the nation and the building of a socialist, secular,
and democratic society.
3. Grow up as active, responsible, and reflective members of society.
4. Learn to respect differences of opinion, lifestyle, and cultural practices.
5. Question and examine received ideas, institutions, and practices.
6. Acquire pleasure in reading, by providing them with enjoyable reading material.
7. Undertake activities that will help them develop social and life skills and make them understand
that these skills are important for social interaction.
OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING SOCIAL SCIENCE AT SECONDARY LEVEL (NCE

2005)
The objectives of teaching Social sciences at the secondary stage are to develop among the
learner analytical and conceptual skills to enable him/her to:
1. Understand the processes of economic and social change and development with examples
from modern and contemporary India and other parts of the world.
2. Critically examine social and economic issues and challenges such as poverty, child labour,
destitution, illiteracy, and various other dimensions of inequality.
3. Understand the rights and responsibilities of citizens in a democratic and secular society.
4. Understand the roles and responsibilities of the state in the fulfilment of constitutional
obligations.
5. Understand the processes of change and development in India in relation to the world
economy and polity.
6. Appreciate the rights of local communities in relation to their environment, the judicious
utilisation of resources, and the need for the conservation of the natural environment.
According to the objectives discussed previously, Social science provides a large framework to
learner to understand and critically evaluate the social process and socio-political life. However,
we also know that there are many issues, problems, and challenges exist to achieve these
objectives, which create hinders in attaining them. These issues and challenges are social,
institutional, and political and so forth. In the following sections, the issues and challenges are
discussed in detail.

Subjective Knowledge
It is clear that the nature of knowledge in Social science is subjective. Dealing with subjective
knowledge is very challenging, because teachers have to deal it without bias. The nature of
knowledge in Social science is very diverse and has enough space for subjective interpretation.
Sometimes this subjective space is appreciable, but at some point, it becomes difficult to handle.
This subjectivity creates challenges in dealing social science effectively. Hence, it is clear that social
science cannot be studied purely scientifically, but over subjective space creates challenges.
Teaching for Main Streaming

Social science deals with diversity and one of its aims is also to make people understand the
diversity with acceptance. However, Social science teaching in school faces problem that it also
teaches to develop faith in mainstreaming, which does not go with very nature of social science
and therefore with teaching of Social science. This mismatch creates problem with the entire
discourse of social science and teaching of Social science. This probably goes against the objec-
tive of social science where respecting diversity is one of the main objectives. This objective gets
defeated when we try to put everybody on same path. The scope of multiplicity, diversity, and
acceptability of others get shrunken because of main streaming process.
Teachers Are Not Trained to Teach Social Science as They Are

Specialised in One Subject
As we know, social science has its own nature that is different from simple amalgamation of all the
subjects like History, Geography, Political science, etc., but still give the essence of all the subjects
mentioned here. However, university and even teacher education programme prepare teachers
primarily according to their main subject. But the teachers have to face problems while teaching
Social science at school. Their teaching is governed by their primary subject. Their orientation
and teaching of Social science get restricted through one of the Social science subject studied
by the teacher. For example, a person with M.A. Political science faces problem with the idea of
geography and economic and so forth. Therefore, there is a lack of effective trained teachers in
Social science.
Highly Influential by Teachers’ Bias

Another challenge which Social science has to face is that it can be biased from teachers own
biases. There is a high possibility that teacher understands a concept in a particular way that is
his/her personal perspective. However, this perspective will influence the teaching and teaching–
learning opportunities provided to leaners. It develops a specific kind of venerability with refer-
ence how Social science is to be taught. The idea of bias in social science itself is very problematic

because, in social science, if not explicitly, but implicitly, a specific kind of ideology get promoted.
It is problematic because it does not provide enough space to learner to think critically about any
concept. Learners surely get influenced by teachers and therefore from their ideology also. This
process socialises them in a unitary way, which dismisses the existence of bias less learning process.
Negative Perspective about Social Science

Social science has always been considered as second-grade subject. Both teachers and student
consider that Social science is a useless subject that does not have any association with their life
and carrier, and therefore, more emphasis is given to Science subjects than Social sciences. This
idea has been propagated not only by teachers but also by parents. This is a very crucial challenge
facing by Social science these days. If we move ahead and see the selection of streams after class
10th, Social sciences are generally opted and given to the students getting lesser marks in the
examination. Gradually, a kind of negative perspective has been developed about social science,
which needs to be changed.
Teaching of Social Science

A subject depends about the knowledge it entails but how this knowledge is presented to the
learners is more important. It has been observed in many studies that Social science has been
taught very superficially and largely through lecture method. This method does not match
with the nature of social science, and therefore, it loses its pedagogic strength. Lack of using
appropriate pedagogic processes student also loses their interest in the subject. Therefore,
there is a great need to develop better pedagogic ways to deal with social science, and hence,
learner’s interest can be maintained. Social science need to be looked beyond ‘rote learning’,
where learner only learns facts and figures; rather, there is a need to develop it as a conceptually
sound subject with rationality, and for this teaching, learning processes need to be revisited.
Constructivist approach will not help, and one has to move beyond it to make is a life subject for
human development.
Nature of Social Science

There is a problem about the clarity of the nature of Social science, as some understand it as a sim-
ple combination of all the subject come under Social science, that is, History, Geography, Political
science, etc., whereas other believes that social science is not simple combination of all the these
subjects; rather, it is beyond that and need to be understood with reference to all the subjects
mentioned earlier but beyond the mechanical combination. Social science has been understood
only as History, Geography, etc., by most of the teacher. However, what emerged out of these
subjects, which develops the premises of social science has not been taken seriously by them.
This confusion and lack of clarity about the nature of social science affects not only its content,
moreover, its pedagogic processes also.

What to Teach in Social Science

It is another challenge in front of Social science and teaching of Social science that what to teach
to the learners. This field is so vast and divers that it becomes very difficult to choose about what
to include and what to leave. Whose knowledge will be accepted and whose will be rejected, how
and why. Social science teacher sometimes see themselves in difficult situation, where they feel
helpless as they are not clear about selection of content, and therefore, teach them what they want
to tell to the learners. Again the question of subjectivity and objectivity can be discussed here in this
regard. This uncertainty gets transferred to learners and they will get socialised in same way. This
chain does not end and simply develop a kind of confusion about what to teach in Social science.
Over Simplification of Social Science

It is very problematic when we start explaining things in over simplify manner. This creates
problems with reference to thinking and learning ability. Over simplification of a concept makes
brain dependent on simple conceptual explanation. However, whenever and wherever, we have
to deal with complicated concept that we feel helpless or struggle a lot with it or sometimes give
up. Social science is a subject that has been understood simple. One can hear ‘Social science mein
kya hai ye to asaan hai’ about social science. Therefore, teacher also teaches Social science in a
manner as it does not have any importance and explain the concept in a very generic manner,
which at long run put a negative effect on learners’ ability. Therefore, over simplified teaching in
Social science is gradually become a challenge.
Gap between Teaching of Social Science and Dealing with Societal

Problem
Social science is considered as it does not have any kinds of Social relevance. It is taught, just
to pass the examinations, which has not concern with daily life problems and concerns. Hardly,
efforts are made to develop linkages between Social science and social problem and gradually the
subject, which is of high social relevance become socially irrelevant. The problem resides in the
pedagogic process and how and in what way the content is presented to the learners. This gap
ultimately, weakens the strength of Social science as a socially useful subject. It depends largely
on teachers’ attitude towards subject. If teachers deal with Social science from the point of view
of textbook and examination, it can never be made a subject of its own strength.
Lack of Promoting the Skills of Thinking, Questioning, Critical

Analysis, and Decision Making
Social science has been seen as subject to be taught for rote learning, which simply limits it
capability to make learners a critical human being. Social science has also been seen to taught
facts to the learners, where teachers simply inform about the facts available in the books.

Such way of teaching dismiss the possibility of promoting critical and analytical thinking skills
in learners and they become only recipient than actually participating in learning process. There
is a great need to provide space of questioning to the learner to become an aware and critical
member of the society. This will eventually make a critical social scientist. However, such spaces
are not given the learner and Social science is taught as passive subject and this has become
severe problem for teaching of Social science.
Lack of Authentic Field Experience- and Inquiry-Based Projects

Another challenge to Social science teaching is to decide about authentic filed experiences.
Teachers face problems to define what and how to engage learners in field experience. Largely,
teachers take them to the historical monuments, which alone does not mean or facilitate the Social
science to become authentic and activity-based subject. Assignments are also very theoretical or
teachers use the assignment given at the end of the chapter, which does not fulfil the requirement
of a live subject such as Social science. Therefore, one has to understand the whole discourse of
authentic field experience- and inquiry-based teaching–learning processes.
Teachers’ Understanding about the Objectives of Teaching of

Social Science
Most Social science teachers are not aware of the importance of teaching Social science, that
is, why to teach and how to teach Social science, because they simply teach Social science to
provide information to the learners. The idea of teaching Social science is to make better citizens
who understand the need of the nation along with the responsibilities and rights. However,
school teacher probably not aware of it, and if they are aware, they fail to understand how
to make these objective application, and hence, learners can facilitate to become good human
beings. Therefore, there will be teachers who know the objective of teaching Social science along
with the ways, but systemic issues and barriers do not allow them to apply their understanding.
Therefore, how to make qualified teachers and democratic system is a great challenge in teaching
Social science. Such situation constitutes a gap in the effective and useful implementation of the
content of social science.
Lack of Zeal in Teachers about Social Science

It has been observed and studies also shows that a good teacher always update his/her knowl-
edge to provide better cognitive apprenticeship. However, studies also show that teachers failed
to update their knowledge and try to teach the same as they studied. This develops another kind
of problem where student fails to know new and contemporary knowledge and concept. This will
largely influence their way of perceiving world from one decade old. Therefore, learners also fail
to deal effectively with the prevailed problems. Teachers show less zeal to deal with emerging

knowledge in Social science across the world. This lack of zeal in teachers also influences learners’
perspective towards Social science.
Reforms in Education and Social Science Teachers

Largely, teachers of all the subjects get very less chance to update new changes and reforms tak-
ing place in education and it happens because over a period of time the linkages between schools
and universities are not strengthened. Social science teachers are not the exception in this regard.
Their content and pedagogy get restricted to school Social science. New reforms in terms of
knowledge and pedagogy happening in universities are not reaching to them and this becomes a
cause of lack of new knowledge in teacher and in learner. The linkage between universities and
schools is very important step, which need to be taken immediately.
Lack of Professional Development of Social Science Teachers

Professional development is very essential for all the teachers. However, it has been observed that
the professional development programmes are not of high quality and therefore not facilitating
the professional enrichment of the teachers. The scope of participating in conferences, seminars,
workshop, etc., is very low. Generally, teachers do get such chances and if few get it, school does
not motivate to do so. This becomes cause of not professional difficulties for teachers. As we
know, workshops are conducted for school teachers in summer vocations, but the results are not
satisfactory. Teachers simply go there and spend time and when they back to school everything
is same. There is scope of school-based professional development programme available in India,
which is the need of the time.
Teaching Social Science Is Only Theory or It Develops Creative

Skills Also
Social science has been observed as a theoretical subject and not a subject that provides space for
the development of creative life skills. Hence, the way it is taught, it limits its scope to be used in
daily life and make it a theoretical subject, which hardly has any kind of association with actual
life of learners. Learning few facts from the textbooks has become synonyms of teaching–learn-
ing Social science. However, it is a fact that social science has a great relevance in our social life.
It facilitates to understand the social scenario in which they are living. However, unfortunately,
developing such creative skills are not part of Social science teaching in actual practice, and there-
fore, it has become a challenge in front of Social science to how to prepare such Social science
school teachers who can facilitate developmental and creative skills in learners. This also ques-
tions the relevance of teaching of Social science for life-sustaining vocation. It becomes unclear
to the learners that why are they studying Social science if it does not lead them towards a good
carrier for sustainable life.

Space for Reflection on Social Science Content to become Good

Citizens
As we discussed earlier that what is to be included in Social science textbooks have always been
a matter of debate and have not received any clear answer yet and the contexts available in text-
books are largely political governed, which hardly provide space to develop critical and effective
citizens. Second, the way that it is taught also does not provide space to think and develop ones
understanding about concepts; rather, it is simply given to learners, which does not provide any
space to be actively and critical engage with the content given in the textbooks. This decreases
the possibility of developing good citizens for the nation.
To Provide Space for Developing National Consciousness

Teaching Social science faces problem in developing national consciousness, due to the content
given in textbooks make teacher to confuse about the national and international concerns. The
very idea of globalisation created this conflict or confusion, where teachers somehow fail to
make correct sense of the given knowledge and get influence by the overt idea of globalisation.
Experiences with school teacher show that largely teachers believe that globalisation is good for
the nation. However, it is necessary to know how it is good and where it is not good and influenc-
ing nation’s growth and existence of future generation? Therefore, teachers have one-sided per-
spective about the content available in the textbooks and try to simply transmit it to the learners.
Dealing with such issues where teachers themselves are not aware of the challenge in teaching
Social science.
Social Reality versus Content

Content of social and social reality is not dealt adequately with reference to teaching of Social
science. The knowledge available in Social science textbooks has hardly any relation with lived
social reality. This gap creates countless problems with reference to Social science about it utility,
usefulness, significance, and so forth. The way social science actually construct knowledge and
the way it is presented with reference to social life does not match and here lies the actual prob-
lem, which can only be dealt effectively if we will develop relationship between social reality and
the Social science contact and the process of knowledge construction. The challenge of teaching
Social science is to develop strong relation between these three dimensions.
Issus Related to Interdisciplinary Approach

Social science is interdisciplinary in nature and therefore needs interdisciplinary approach in acqui-
sition. However, how to understand this nature and make this subject interdisciplinary is a great
challenge for teachers in school. By saying interdisciplinary will not help much in this regard,
rather one has to understand and make use of this knowledge while teaching. For example,

one has to link different subjects while teaching Social science like a story. It also leads to prob-
lems to teachers, as teaching methodology is found to be not good. Therefore, there is a great
need to make sense of interdisciplinary approach that deals with practical or implication part.
Hegemony of Science and Science Method and Struggle

for Existence
Social science is struggling with a unique kind of challenges nowadays, where it has to prove
itself as objective as science is, and it creates an unrequired and needless comparison between
two subjects or discipline with different nature and epistemological basis. We all are aware of the
fact that the nature of science is different from the nature of Social science, then why everyone is
trying to establish equivalence between these two distinct disciplines. This struggle of compres-
sion forces social science to develop characteristics of science and it becomes cause of destroy-
ing the nature and beauty of social science, where social science has to prove itself as a science.
Gradually, the scientific method has dominated the entire field of social since. This has also crated
major problem in social science, where we try to deal with subject filed with very objective tool.
This mismatch in the tools and the field of research creates problem in fundamental researches
and innovation in the field of social science. The methods of social science researches have been
rejected for investigation because of unwanted importance is given to scientific method.
Memorisation
It has already been discussed earlier that Social science is considered as a subject, which is factual
and has very less utility in real life as far as occupation is concerned. Therefore, it is considered
as a subject that needs only rote memorisation. This very idea ruins the pedagogic needs of the
subject and restricts it to the rote learning. It has become a challenge for Social science pedagogic
discourse to understand and establish social science beyond memorisation. There is a need to
establish the need of the utility of the subject, and therefore, pedagogic reforms are need.
Summarising
Social science is a very important subject at school level and there is a great need to establish the
everyday importance to this subject. However, it faces many challenges, not only as a discipline
rather with reference to its pedagogic process also. Social science is considered boring subject by
majority, which need to be question and for that lots of new researches will be needed to come
out from this pessimistic understanding about social science. Not only students, rather, teach-
ers also perceive Social science as a low-status subject, whereas science and mathematics are
considered high-status subjects. Social science methods have not be given due respect in its own
discipline, and it became one of the major challenges faced by social science. Interdisciplinarity is
another challenge social science, which has to face as it is misunderstood by the people. Simple
amalgamation of all associated subjects is considered social science, which distort the actual

essence of Social science and its teaching. This problem leads to another problem where one can
see huge difference between social reality and social science content. This widens more when
social science taught as a fact than ever evolving discipline, and therefore, learners fail to deal
effectively with their own social issues and problem, because they hardly make sense of what is
taught in school and what exists in real social life. In such a situation, learners also fail to develop
skill of thinking, questioning, critical analysis, and decision making, and Social science becomes a
subject of rote memorisation. To deal with all these issues, it is important that the nature of social
science need to be understood in itself and not always with reference to science. Social science
has to prove its strength with reference to itself and not in line with science, because both have
distinct nature all together.
WHAT IS SIGNIFICANT ABOUT TEACHING OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

Social science teaching is an interesting and complex process, where, countless issues and con-
cerns work simultaneously. A Social science teacher has to keep many things in mind while teach-
ing. Some of the points are discussed as follows:
1. Social science teaching–learning is more effective when it explains meaning completely to the
learners. Meaningfulness develops a special kind of mind network, where learners become
able to create linkages among various ideas, beliefs, and concepts. Meaningful teaching of
Social science will also facilitate the development of in-depth knowledge and understanding
about any concept. A good and effect Social science teacher will always teach less but mean-
ingful. Teachers will always emphasis more on depth and breadth.
2. Social science teaching must promote subject-oriented literacy, which is inter-disciplinary and
promote the critical-thinking processes to analyse the social values, context, and issues with
the help of inquiry-based approach, so that, learner become able to deal with social concern,
challenges, and issues effectively.
3. Teacher must provide spaces for reflection not only to the learner rather to their own prac-
tices also. This opportunity will facilitate learners and teachers to understand curriculum in
a more effective and comprehensive manner, and therefore, they can do better planning of
teaching and learning. Reflective practices will engage teachers and learners to make more
elaborated scenes of the nature and epistemological bases of social science and this engage-
ment will lead them to develop need based pedagogical practices in social science.
4. Social science teaching must provide a balance perspective and should allow learner to decide
their own way of action with appropriate rational. This will make them more responsible for their
actions and decisions. Such issues are largely related to caste, class, gender, religion, culture, etc.
5. Social science needs to be observed as an integrative subject where, this integration is not
formed one the basis of History, Geography, Political science rather it incorporates the fields
of anthropology, psychology, sociology and a like. The perspective developed on the basis of
such eclectic approach provides a better lens to see and analyse social problems. This also

provides a totality perspective to understand problems and issues with reference to its con-
nection from past to present and predict for future.
6. A wider space to conduct inquiry-based research need to be provided to enhance the ability
of analysing, synthesising, decision making, etc.
7. Social science has to be value based, which prepares responsible, aware and human citizens.
Social science has to develop democratic attitude in learner so that they can trust and have
faith in democratic values at large. The ideas of multiple perspectives, respecting the dignity
of others, accepting others’ existence rather tolerating other and so on need to be promoted
through Social science teaching.
8. Value development is not restricted to learners only; moreover, teachers also need to provide
time and space to themselves to develop values about their own teaching processes. Teachers
should develop consciousness about their own value system that surely influences their peda-
gogic practices and believes.
9. Social science teaching must develop the capabilities of argument and taking rational deci-
sions about one’s own choice and the choices that make effect on others. Needless to say
rational thinking will surely develop a better citizen for the nation and for the world. To
develop these abilities, teacher has to provide spaces for debate, authentic experiences,
in-depth discussion, and raising questions and so on.
10. Social science should not be considered as simple, boring, and easy subject. It is a chal-
lenging subject and provides challenging and wide range of researches in the concern field.
Therefore, teachers must provide intellectual challenges to the learners, and therefore, they
can become able to deal any conflicting situation effectively.
11. Social science teaching should be active. Where lived and authentic experiences are shared
and provide base of the teaching–learning process of Social science. Let learners also decide
what they want to study, let me bring material to the class, let them decide the way they
want to study, because it is very important to actively engage and take part in all the actions
actually to become authentic learner of any concept (Hands of experiences).
12. Pedagogy used by teachers, need to be clear and precise where, learner can make sense about
the classroom practices. The classroom must be engaging, interactive, authentic, and full of exam-
ples and learner centred. Largely, Social science classes should be based on humanistic approach.

➨ Social science is not the only amalgamation of various subjects such as History, Geography,
Political science, etc.
➨ Teaching of Social science is not simply transformation of factual information to the learner.
➨ Objectives of teaching of Social science at secondary level such as, understanding structure of
society and how does it reach to the present situation, appreciating the value enshrined in the
Indian constitution, developing responsible member of society, respecting diversity and so on.

➨ The nature of knowledge in social science is subjective, which creates many challenges but
also provide strength to social science.
➨ Social science teachers are not well trained to teach Social science, as they do specialisation in
any one are of social science field.
➨ Social science teaching can be biased from teachers’ perspective and ideology because there
is lots of space for subjective interpretation.
➨ Social science has been viewed as negative, less useful and boring subject, which is incorrect.
➨ Largely, teacher and student have misconception about social science that it is a factual sub-
ject, and therefore, it is taught and learn by rote learning methods.
➨ Nature of social science has also been understood wrongly and people try to understand it
with reference to science, which need to be question.
➨ Social science is taught as an over simplified subject, which weaken the strength of the subject.
➨ One can see the gap between social science content and societal problem.
➨ It is very important that how does teachers understand the objectives of teaching of
Social science.
➨ Use of science method in social science has created many problems with reference to the solu-
tion of the problems in social science.
➨ Professional development of Social science teacher is another important challenge in front of
Social science.
➨ Whose knowledge is accepted and how a very important fundamental issue in social science
needs to be discussed at length.
➨ The understanding of teachers’ about the interdisciplinary approach and its practical skill to deal
with social science is very important for dealing issues and concerns in the field of social science.
➨ Social science teaching can be more effective when it is meaningful.
➨ Social science must promote subject-oriented literacy, which is interdisciplinary.
➨ Social science teaching should be reflective, and for this, teacher and learner should also be
reflective.
➨ Independent decision making, understanding others perspective and respecting diversity,
authenticity, social values, etc., should be emphasised by teaching of Social science.
Check Your Progress

1. How would you describe the nature and 4. What kinds of challenges a teachers faces
epistemology of social science? Discuss while teaching Social science at secondary
with suitable arguments. level? Discuss any four with illustrations.
2. Why there is a need to Social science in 5. How does Social science teaching can be
school at secondary level? Explain with highly influenced by teachers’ biases? Take
appropriate examples. few examples to substantiate your answer.
3. Discuss the objective of teaching of Social 6. “Over use of science method in social sci-
science at secondary level? ence has ruined the very nature of social

science.” Discuss the above statement with promote the skills of critical thinking, ques-
suitable examples. tioning and critical analysis?
7. Discuss with reference to classroom teach- 8. Discuss with example, what a Social science
ing that how a Social science teacher can teacher should keep in mind while teaching.
Objective Questions
1. Social science is misunderstood as 5. The nature of social science to a large
(a) an amalgamation of subjects such as extent is subjective, therefore, its teaching
History, Geography, Political science, etc. (a) will may influence by teachers’ biases.
(b) an important school subject at sec- (b) will must influence by teachers’ biases.
ondary level. (c) will not influence by teachers’ biases.
(c) very useful subject to deal with social (d) should influence by teachers’ biases.
issues. 6. ____________________ of a concept
(d) None of these make learner dependent upon easy con-
2. Teaching of Social science is largely associ- ceptual explanation. However, whenever
ated with the following expect: and wherever, we have to deal with com-
a) Facts plicated concept we feel helpless or strug-
(b) Concepts gle a lot with it or some time give it up.
(c) Perspective (a) Complex teaching
(d) Knowledge (b) Over simplified teaching
(c) Contextual teaching
3. As per NCF 2005, which one of the follow-
(d) Collaborative teaching
ing is not an objective of teaching of Social
science at secondary level? 7. After studying Social science, learner face
(a) To grow up as active, responsible, and problem in dealing with social problems
reflective members of society because
(b) To learn to respect differences of opin- (a) gap between Social science content
ion, lifestyle, and cultural practices and social problems.
(c) To question and examine received (b) Social science content is authentic.
ideas, institutions, and practices (c) Social science content is factual.
(d) To promote fact based learning pro- (d) None of these
cess about social life 8. Sometime teachers fail to engage learners
4. An important challenge to Social science is in the class because
(a) its subjective knowledge. (a) Social science content is tough.
(b) its factual knowledge. (b) teachers are not aware about the
(c) its authentication. objectives of teaching of Social science.
(d) its evaluation.

(c) teachers are not aware about the facts (c) Lack of teachers’ knowledge about
of Social science. Social science
(d) teachers do not do hard work. (d) Over burden Social science teachers
9. Social science teachers are facing problems 10. The best practice that will contribute in
in effective teaching of Social science and teaching-learning social would be:
therefore, working on the same line as (a) Reflection
they learn at their own times. What would (b) Discussion
be the possible reason for this? (c) Individual learning
(a) Teachers’ attitude is problematic and (d) Rote learning
they resist change
(b) Lack of professional development of
Social science teachers

Classroom Processes, CHAPTER
Activities and
Discourse 3
LEARNING ObjECTIvES
• Understand the meaning of classroom discourse
• Understand about various approaches to learning
• Elaborate about the issues associated with various approaches that help to understand the
classroom discourse
• Become an effective teacher with abilities to organize various activities for learners
INTRODUCTION
In last few chapters, we developed an in-depth knowledge about Social science such as its nature,
epistemology, challenges, issues, and so on. At the beginning of this chapter, we have a com-
prehensive understanding and teaching of Social science. The main objective of the chapter is to
engage the classroom processes with various activities. It has been already established that Social
science is not a simple subject rather is a complex enough as it deals with subjectivity and Social
issues and concerns. Initially, this chapter will discuss various perspectives and approaches to
learning, but it is important to understand that these approaches are not only psychological rather
these are based on classroom activity based. How to make a Social science class more interesting,
effective, and so on? Discussions in the following sections will also facilitate to know about the
handful and practical activities to engage learner in the class.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
There are various approaches to learning. It is important to know that approaches to learning,
that is the ways of learning and how to organize active, collaborative, lively, problem-solving
based, and experiential activities in classroom. Further section of the chapter will deal with these
approaches in details. These approaches of learning are as follows:
1. Active learning approach

2. Collaborative learning approach
3. Inquiry-based learning approach

362 | Chapter 3 Classroom Processes, Activities and Discourse
4. Problem-based learning approach

5. Peer learning approach
6. Community learning approach
7. Experience-based learning approach
8. Reflective learning approach
Active Learning Approach

Active learning approach can be understood when learners are engaged in two-way process
simultaneously and it means doing any work and thinking about the work he/she is doing. It
means that active learning approach rejection is an idea of simply watching, listening, or noting
down from the board. However, an important thing has to be kept in mind that active learning
should not be for long duration of time, rather, it should be short duration of time such as a few
minutes. Active leaning is a flexible approach for teaching, as it can be used with any other way
of teaching; for example, it can be merged with lecture methods, group activities, collaborative
task, and so on.
There is also a need to understand why we need to incorporate or use active learning strategies
for teaching. There is research-based evidences that simple lecture method makes class boring,
where children fail to relate themselves with the classroom processes. The concept of teachers
know all and learners know nothing dominant in lecture methods. Active learning simply means
to make learners participate in the classroom processes actively and doing this will surely provide
a special space to every children in class. It will motivate learners to reach to their best potentials.
In active learning, because every child is participating and teacher is also actively engaged, there-
fore, learners will get immediate feedback to improve their further learning. Teachers will also
be able to deal with diverse learning processes. It is also important to know that when learners
are actively engage with the content given to them, they will be able to develop a rapport with
the content and start feeling part of it, which enhance the possibility to motivate learners in their
field of interest. Let learner also decides the way that they want to become active participant,
whether in group or individual and any other way, which make them comfortable. This process
will develop not only their confidence but also their self-esteem and identity. They will be able to
see themselves as an individual and also as social human being who has responsibilities towards
society. Teachers need to understand the need of the importance of pre-class task. Teacher should
have ready activities, strategies, content, and other associated things to actually create an active
learning environment.
What teachers have to keep in mind?

It will be essential for teachers to become aware about the various activities that are related to
active learning process. There are many such activities already available, such as ‘round table
discussion, study circle, think pair share, etc., and those are already available and have to choose

as per the need of the situation. There would be required to change these activities considerably
so that learning needs of the learners can be addressed. Critical and crucial issues need to be
considered important by teacher while planning any activity. The clear procedure and rules of the
activity should be developed by the teachers. Moreover, include learners to contribute in all such
activities and rule making.
Peer Teaching Learning

Peer teaching is a very good and effective system or process of engaging learners in an active
atmosphere, where every learner is participating in learning process and facilitating each other
also. In this method, learner agency is actually celebrated. Here, they start work collectively and
evaluate collectively. This process also developed a sense of belongingness. Discussion is another
important aspect of peer learning.
It is important to understand that peer learning has also evolved over a period of time; there-
fore, one can find various interpretations of peer learning. Traditionally, it is defined when senior
student tutor the junior students, and now, we understand it in terms of everyone support eve-
ryone or we can say partnership. Here, there is no hierarchy and every leaner has potential to
participate in learning process at their own pace. There are many other ways those explain the
idea of peer learning, such as counselling, seminars, and study group, and so on.
We can understand peer learning in two specific manners where first deals with reciprocal
learning process and the second talks about sharing ideas, knowledge, experience, etc. In both
the cases, we have common characteristics that emphasize on interdependency than being only
independent. This positive dependency is common in both the cases.
This will provide opportunities to explore and understand others’ ideas to develop one’s under-
standing about any issues and concerns. They also develop ability to conduct and organize activi-
ties to work and learn collaboratively.
However, it is very important to understand that one has to use peer-learning process very
carefully. If there will be some uncertainty or lack of clarity, learners will not be able to understand
the process and whole idea of peer teaching will be defeated. Learner will be confused about
what they have to do and how? What is the purpose and so on? This healthy process of learning,
in the absence of learning will become useless and inappropriate for everyone.
On the other hand, if the process of peer learning is organized effectively, it will surely and
effectively contribute in learning of the learners. It will also provide opportunities to leaners to
learn from each other. They will also be able to help how to learn than only what to learn. It is
important to know whom we are calling peer. Peer will be the same age mates and who does
not have to play a role of expert like teachers. In such a situation, they will feel themselves to
be accepted in the group. There will be no power over each other and each one of them will
enjoy sharing their experiences without right and wrong. This entire process will take place in a
reciprocal way and organized in a class itself, where each learner will take responsibility of both
teaching and learning. It will also be helpful to avoid and deal with the problem of comparison
among learners.

Peer-learning work as twofold objective where learners learn themselves and also help others
to learn. These kinds of arrangement provide space for understanding mutual experiences, which
facilitate their learning processes. Habermas’s idea can be quoted here, where he talked about the
weakness of the system where one person is given duty to teach and other is given duty to learn.
We also have to understand the peer learning beyond learning with each other. It also empha-
sizes the various kinds of support to the learner, in which emotional support can be one of them.
Here, the role of learner can be understood beyond student because the role is not unidirectional
and each one has space to contribute to the classroom discourse.
Collaborative Learning Approach

Social constructivism is the base of collaborative learning. Social constructivism is in favour of social
embeddedness of knowledge. It strongly believes that all knowledge has a social context. It believes
that learners play an important and active role in learning and construct their knowledge through
their active participation. Therefore, learner becomes important in this process, where, doing part
plays major role over listening. It is also important to know that when we favour the idea of social
construction of knowledge, we must have faith in group work and team work processes.
The important focus is given on interaction. This interaction can take place with reference to
peer or in larger group. The idea of peer learning represents the process in which two or more
peers work together and try to understand any concept or try to solve any problem. Teachers have
to provide the necessary material to complete the task and then leave the learner with that mate-
rial to discuss and understand, but teacher has to observe and facilitate the entire process, such
as dealing with misunderstandings, providing cognitive apprenticeship to learners, and so on.
There are various researches which show that collaborative learning processes are best suited
to the idea of active and social embeddedness of the learning process. Beyond this, there are vari-
ous other important benefits of collaborative learning, which are as follows:
1. Promote higher order thinking skills, effective communication, self-reflection, and various life skills.
2. Meaningful and useful teacher–learner relationship.
3. Develop the learning ability of learner, self-esteem, and collaborative responsibilities.
4. Understanding the diverse perspective in learning situations.
5. Developing a collaborative humanitarian perspective about the various issues, concerns, and
concepts.
There are various kinds of collaborative work activities available such as think pair-share, wish
bowl debate, catch-up, team-based learning, jigsaw, and so on.
Other important things that need to be kept in mind, while collaborative work especially when
it is based on group work, are as follows: the process of group formation and ensuring the learners
are engaged in useful and productive task, technological support or assistance, abilities of learners
in a group, and so on.

It is important for group work that the problem needs to be broken down into relatively small
segments, so that students can work on it to solve it to the best of their abilities. After the prob-
lem is solved by the various groups, the opportunity of peer review must be given to understand
the each other perspectives. Therefore, it is important to provide enough time and space to learn-
ers to engage with the entire process.
One has to be aware that assessment is an important part of the group work process. For
this purpose, both process and product can be evaluated and teacher must provide a detailed
explanatory report about the work done by the learners. Self-assessment, peer review, or a rubric
developed by teachers can be used for evaluation.
Inquiry- and Discovery-based Learning Approach

Inquiry-based learning is a deviation from the idea, which focuses only on classroom learning pro-
cess. Therefore, it includes filed work or interactive activities, where a child can try to unfold the
uncovered ideas and perspectives about any concern and concept. This process will provide them
space to engage with the field actively and observed actual situation and facts in the field itself.
This also promotes their meta-cognitive abilities, because they get chance to think and explore in
the field. This is a good practice to help learners to use their classroom knowledge in the field. This
also develops a sense of belongingness with the data and learned knowledge.
It is also important to know that there is possibility that one will not get chance every time
to work in the field. In such a situation, this approach can be used with reference to classroom
activities, where, virtual environment will develop a space to solve to problem more effectively
and learners will be able to deal with real world problems.
There are many positive dimensions that one can identify about the inquiry-based learning
processes. The core idea behind this process is not just engaging learner in learning situation but
engaging them in the social process of exploring knowledge and taking it to the level of elabora-
tion and critical reflection, which will surely provide spaces to unfold the unsaid and unrevealed
reality of any social phenomenon.
Lecture method restricts the natural process of learning, where inquiry- and discovery-based learn-
ing provide enrich direct experience to the learner. They gain comprehensive understanding about the
concept, because they are the active participant in inquiry. Learners are engaged in filed and learn skills,
which is not the case in traditional teaching method, where everything is given to them. The explora-
tion provides them space to develop or create connections between various concepts they deal with.
Here, it is also important to know the how one can actually organized such activities in actual
classroom situations. There are many points that may useful to organized inquiry and discovery
based learning. These are as follows:
1. Learning activities need to be developed according to the need and objectives of the learning.
In the absence of learning objective that one like to achieve, no concrete step can be taken
towards them. These objectives will also provide a direction to work and future action.

2. Understand and decide the requirements of your work. It may include many things such as
time duration, means to be used, kind of work to be done, and independency of the work.
3. Time limit is needed to complete the work and it will be done successfully if we can set our
target or expectation.
4. Gage the need of learners and decide the support you can provide to them. This support, for
sure provide a positive strength in learners to be more confident and work oriented through
problem solving.
5. Teacher needs to be sure about what is to be assess and what would be the tools of assess-
ments. Such as, learning is to be assessed, or skill development or anything else. Learners also
need to be aware about the assessment criteria so that they can work with focus to achieve
the target.
Problem-based Learning Approach

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an innovative approach of teaching. It can also be seen as an alter-
native to classical or traditional classroom learning. In problem-based learning, teacher does not
lecture but provide problem or problem-based situation and ask learner to deal with it. Although
teacher is available there for all kinds of support, the teacher does not provide solutions to the
problems. Learners have to decide their own way of problem solving. This process will engage
them in the mode of discovery and learners will take ownership of the problem solving and there-
fore, learning too. Teacher will work as a facilitator than problem solver.
Problem-based learning will provide space to develop various kinds of strength and abilities in
learners. It provides spaces for the following:
1. To come out with previous knowledge and understanding and try it out with reference to
problem
2. Explore about what one need to learn
3. Develop skills to solve the problems
4. Develop ability to take one’s position with sound arguments
5. Become flexible in dealing with various kinds of situations
There are various ways to work on the idea of problem-based learning. It depends on the kind of
problem one is dealing with. One of such way may understood through these given steps: issues
exploration, previous knowledge about the issue, stating the problem in one’s own language,
exploring the possible/tentative solution of the problem, action to be taken to deal with the
problem, what additional need to be known, documenting solution with appropriate support,
rethink and revisit your solution and do not forget to encourage yourself.
So, problem-based learning provides challenges to learners’ thinking to become active member
of the problem-solving process. An ill structure situation starts the process of problem solving, where
learner understand and explore the possible ways to deal with the problem. What is good about
problem-based learning is that it is student centred and focus is more on learning than teaching.

Problem-based learning engage learner with authentic context in real-world situation, and there-
fore, it becomes a way of living life.
Various psychological studies proved that problem-based learning stays for longer in compari-
son to lecturing any concept and it happens because of the active engagement of learner, where
he/she will be able to take first-hand experience while dealing with the problem. One of the
most important positive feature of problem-based learning is that learner enjoy learning process
because they play an active role in entire process.
Experiential Learning Approach

When we try to reflect, analyse, and work upon a decided experience is known as experiential
learning. In other work, it is learning based on one’s actual experience to achieve a planned aim
with the help of planned objectives.
The roots of experiential learning can be traced in Paulo Friere’s and Dewey’s work, where
both of them argue the education has an important work to do for people and that is to make
them empower and active thinker. This very idea stands opposite to the idea of ‘banking’ process
of education and ‘tabula rasa.’ Both of these thinkers believed that the relationship between
teacher and student must be reciprocal, where everybody is a learner and everybody is a teacher.
They believe at larger-level education has to serve the society.
Dewey also did not accept the idea that education has an objective to accumulate the informa-
tion. His idea was to develop abilities to be active in learning process and take part in democracy.
Dewey explained few steps of education process. These are encountering with problem, ques-
tion to be answered, data collection, development of hypothesis, hypothesis testing, providing
justified proclamations. These six steps provide a chance to develop abilities to become an active
member of the society.
Kolb’s model is also very known about experiential learning. Kolb talked about four steps/
stages about experiential learning. He developed a cyclic process in this regard. These four stages
(Fig. 3.1) are as follows:
1. Concrete experience
2. Reflective observation
3. Developing abstract concepts
4. Active experimentation
It is very important to know that every experience does not generate knowledge. To generate
knowledge, it is significantly necessary that one has to be actively involved in the learning experi-
ence. Passive presence will not be able to help learners to generate knowledge. The active involve-
ment must lead a person to reflect upon the gained experiences. Reflection based on analytical
process will help learners to understand any concept in a comprehensive manner. Further, this
comprehensiveness will provide insight into engage with new ideas. However, it is important to
know that teacher has an important role to play in this entire process.

Concrete
Experience
Feeling
Continuum
Active Processing Continuum Refelctive
Experimentation Observation
Doing watching
Perception
Abstract
Conceptualisation
Thinking
Figure 3.1 Kolb’s model
It is also relevant to know why experiential learning woks? It has clear relation with our brain pro-
cess. The very idea of sensory cortex, back integrative cortex, front integrative cortex, and motor
cortex can better explain it biological context. Kolb’s idea of experiential learning also represents
these four parts and associates with collecting, analysing, developing, and acting.
Experiential learning is not a new approach, but it is a traditional approach and a fundamental
approach to human learning. However, how to incorporate this approach in present time need to
be known as time has changed, and therefore, requirement has also changed.
Community Learning Approach

Community learning or engagement may also be known as service learning and the larger aim of
this pedagogic process is to deal with individual or collective good or one can say the objective of
community learning is common good for larger community. It also means that the person needs
to take part in the practices of community. This idea is directly associated with the idea of commu-
nity participation under situated cognition approach of learning. It involves authentic participation
that provides space for reflection to the students to develop their academic and cognitive skills for
thoughtful and effective actions.
It is important to understand that one cannot completely separate experiential and community
learning; experiences are gained from community only. Community learning will benefit people
from various perspectives such as personal, learning, social, professional, and so on.
At personal level, it develops high-level self-confidence, self-efficacy, positive self-concept along
with the development of interpersonal skill specifically perspective to work in a larger community.

As far as learning is concerned, it surely impact learners’ academic growth positively because it
provide space to develop abilities to understand the real-world situation. This will also help them
to deal with the complexities and ambiguities of the analysis of the problems solving and cogni-
tive processes.
Development of social-level ability is unique to this approach as weaken the stereotypical
thinking and promote cultural diversity that develops the acceptability of others with positive
perspective. And all this will happened with respect to a larger social framework.
Development in above-mentioned level will help for a better professional perspective and ori-
entation, because they will learn to work in collaboration with others, where, working together
to achieve some goal is required. And foremost one will work in favour of community then one’s
own pity interests. They will also be able to develop leadership qualities. Better interpersonal com-
munication will also be strengthening by this approach.
Teachers will also be benefited by having good and quality student. Teachers will also get new
opportunities to engage with new researches, which provide space to strengthen the teachers,
competencies and teachers students’ inter-personal relationship. Teachers will become able to
work towards social services and will contribute in social community.
Teachers themselves or students can be involved in community-based learning with the help of
various processes such as group projects, course-based community work, necessary inherent part
of research, action research, and so on. Therefore, community-based teaching is good for learn-
ers, teachers, and community also.
Reflection Learning Approach

Have you as a teacher ever tried to ask your student to reflect upon questions such as, how do
you teach? How they understand and learn? Do they have some suggestion to share with you?
How do they reflect about their own learning and so on? It is important to know that reflection will
not provide immediate solutions rather provide an understanding about the problems and how to
deal with it.
One also has to understand that reflection is long process, where one has to be engaged con-
tinuously. Here, reflection has to be done from both sides, students and teachers. This collabora-
tive process will surely help in effective teaching and learning process.
Reflective learning will provide space to become more intellectual about their own intellectual.
They will develop ability to think about their own ideas and thinking processes, which will eventu-
ally help them to become independent reflective learners. This reflective ability will also help them
to use knowledge in their daily life to understand the issues and problem of their actual life. They
will also become able to analyse situations from need-based perspective.
However, to develop such abilities, it is necessary that one must have engaged in the process
of reflective practices for a prolonged period of time. While engaging with this process, one also
has to understand that there is no need to be judgemental rather; one should have faith in explo-
ration, elaboration, and so on.

A fundamental question can be asked here that how incorporate reflection in actual practice
in classroom process. Some of the suggestions are given below:
1. Ask students how have their understanding changed after reading a particular chapter or
topic.
2. Ask them to write something about the class every day. (may be few lines or a single line, but
ensure consistency).
3. Ask them to think practical implication of what have they discussed in a class.
4. Ask them to think interdisciplinary, where they can develop relationship between various
subjects they are studying.
5. Ask them to reflect about what they want to study in the course and why, try to incorporate
it.
6. Ask them to write important ideas about the concepts discussed and share with the class.
7. Ask them before hand, how they would like to engage in the upcoming topic in class and
then develop class with the collaboration of learners.
These are some of the ways that will put learner on the path of reflection. There is also a need
to understand that reflection is highly associated with meta-cognitive thinking processes, and
therefore, there will be a great need to promote metacognitive thinking abilities in learners. Meta-
cognition can be understood and thinking about thinking or thinking over thinking. It talks about
the understanding of how one learns, awareness about one’s own learning, monitoring and
assessing one’s own learning (it may also be called self-assessment or self-discipline) and alike.
To promote meta-cognitive abilities, teachers have to deal with both procedural and conditional
knowledge along with self-regulation.

➨ There are various approaches to learning. It is important to know that approaches to learning
it means the ways of learning and how to organize active, collaborative, lively, problem-solving
based, experiential activities in classroom.
➨ Active learning approach can be understood when learner are engaged in two-way process
simultaneously and it means doing any work and thinking about the work he/she is doing.
➨ Peer-learning work as twofold objective where learners learn themselves and also help others
to learn. These kinds of arrangement provide space for understanding mutual experiences,
which facilitate their learning processes.
➨ Collaborative learning is associated with social constructivism and favoured interaction in the
group for working collaboratively.
➨ Inquiry-based learning is a deviation from the idea that focuses only on classroom learning
process. Therefore, it includes filed work or interactive activities, where a child can try to
unfold the uncovered ideas and perspectives about any concern and concept.

➨ In problem-based learning, teacher does not lecture but provide problem or problem-based
situation and ask learner to deal with it. However, teacher is available there for all kinds of
support but does not provide solutions to the problems.
➨ When we try to reflect, analyse, and work upon a decided experience is known as experiential
learning. In other work, learning is based on one’s actual experience to achieve a planned aim
with the help of planned objectives.
➨ Community learning or engagement may also be known as service learning and the larger aim
of this pedagogic process is to deal with individual or collective good or one can say the objec-
tive of community learning is common good for larger community.
➨ Reflective learning will provide space to become more intellectual about their own intellectual.
They will develop ability to think about their own ideas and thinking processes, which will
eventually help them to become independent reflective learners.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What do you understand about the term 5. Identify the similarities and difference
‘classroom discourse’? Explain with suit- between ‘peer teaching–learning’ and
able examples. ‘collaborative learning.’ Answer with
2. What are the various approaches to learn- appropriate examples.
ing? How these can be used in class? Take 6. Discuss the classroom environment a
any four approaches of your choice and teacher can provide to learner for learning
answer with suitable examples. according to the problem-based learning
3. Discuss the basic assumptions of inquiry- approach.
based learning approach. How it can be 7. Describe the Kolb’s model of experiential
used in class to provide better learning learning. How this method can be used in
opportunities to learners? an effective Social science class?
4. What are the important things a teacher
has to keep in mind while using ‘active
learning approach’ in class?
Objective Questions
1. Which one of the following is not a learn- 2. Which one of the following teaching method
ing approach? makes class boring?
(a) Active learning approach (a) Story telling method
(b) Collaborative learning approach (b) Discussion method
(c) Inquiry-based learning approach (c) Lecture method
(d) Imagination-based learning approach (d) Project method

3. Active learning simply mean to make (c) Problem-based learning

___________ in the classroom processes. (d) Process-based learning
(a) learner’s participation 10. Problem-based learning will provide space
(b) learners’ silence to learner to develop
(c) learners’ discipline (a) various kinds of strengths and capa-
(d) learners’ noise bilities.
4. Peer teaching is a very good and effective (b) various kinds of moralities.
system or process of engaging learner in (c) various kinds of discipline.
________. (d) various kinds of subjects.
(a) active atmosphere
11. Problem-based learning is effective be
(b) silent atmosphere
cause of
(c) noisy atmosphere
(a) passive engagement of learner.
(d) open atmosphere (b) active engagement of learner.
5. Social constructivism is the base of: (c) progressive engagement of learner.
(a) Behavioural learning (d) protective engagement of learners.
(b) Community learning
12. Kolb’s model is also known as:
(c) Passive learning (a) Experiential learning
(d) Collaborative learning
(b) Effective learning
6. Collaborative learning gives important (c) Empirical learning
focus on: (d) Experimental learning
(a) Reflection
13. Community learning may also be known
(b) Distraction
as:
(c) Interaction
(a) Direct learning
(d) intra-action (b) Indirect learning
7. Collaborative work is based on: (c) Service learning
(a) Individual work (d) Passive learning
(b) Group work 14. Kolb’s model of experiential learning work
(c) Situational work in a cyclic process. Which one of the fol-
(d) None of these lowing is correct?
8. Inquiry-based learning includes: (a) Concrete experience–Reflective obser-
(a) Group work vation–Developing abstract concepts–
(b) Interactive activities Active experimentation
(c) Individual work (b) Concrete experience–Reflective obser-
(d) None of these vation–Active experimentation–Devel-
oping abstract concepts
9. In learning approach, PBL represents:
(a) Project-based learning
(b) Program-based learning

(c) Concrete experience–Developing 15. Reflection is highly associated with

abstract concepts–Active experimenta (a) meta-cognitive thinking processes.
tion–Reflective observation (b) minimum cognitive thinking processes.
(d) Concrete experience–Active experi- (c) maximum cognitive thinking processes.
mentation–Reflective observation– (d) spatial cognitive thinking processes.
Developing abstract concepts

CHAPTER
Developing Critical
Thinking 4
LEARNING OBjECTIVES
• Understand why we need to be a critical thinker
• Explore the approaches and strategies to become reflective practitioner
• Elaborate upon the ways of developing critical thinking in learners
• Engage with the process of developing effective critical thinking
• Plan educational practices based on critical thinking
But if thought is to become the possession of many, not the privilege of the few, we must have
done with fear. It is fear that holds men back – fear lest their cherished beliefs should prove delu-
sions, fear lest the institutions by which they live should prove harmful, fear lest they themselves
should prove less worthy of respect than they have supposed themselves to be.
—Bertrand Russell (Principles of Social Reconstruction)
You assist an evil system most effectively by obeying its orders and decrees. An evil system never
deserves such allegiance. Allegiance to it means partaking of the evil. A good person will resist
an evil system with his or her whole soul.
—Mahatma Gandhi
INTRODUCTION
Understanding about critical thinking processes and helping learners to become a critical thinker
is a challenging task. It is a challenging task, but it is not a difficult process because it needs pro-
longed engagement with the problem. Therefore, developing critical thinking needs time, effort,
and engagement. The statements given by Russell and Gandhi clearly describe critical thinking.
It is about thinking regarding anything with analytical perspective, which also includes raising
question to the existing structure or system or what so ever is prevailed and unfair. But largely,
critical thinking is perceived as a process, which awakened the individual intellect. It is not a new
concept, but it has a history of 2500-year old with its inter-disciplinary nature.

Critical thinking is a disciplined intellectual skilful thought processing, which helps to analyse,
synthesize, and evaluate the past and present situation and also make inferences about further
action logically. It is a self-planned and self-disciplined way of thinking that uses high level of logi-
cal reasoning. All critical thinking must have rationality behind the arguments.
WHY WE NEED CRITICAL THINKING

Human beings are distinct from animals not only by the characteristic of thinking but also by
thinking critically and rationally. Critical thinking is not restricted to school alone, but it works
globally. Hence, we should understand the meaning of critical thinking in-depth. When a child
demands anything or acts for something or an adult works in an office to achieve something,
critical thinking is needed. But it is important to know the kind of critical thinking that is required
to be understood. It means critical thinking is associated with a kind of thinking that improves the
quality of thinking while dealing with the problems.
Humans need a critical thinking to lead a rational life. It helps to take decision about the prob-
lems and conflicting situation. As mentioned earlier, it is needed by all, that is, from childhood to
old age, to improve their quality of life and thinking. It is also noted that critical thinking is not
required once but it can be used forever. It is purely situation and context based. The ability of
critical thinking is transferable, because it is based on ability and not on any fact.
An interesting question here is whom we call a critical thinker? There are no fixed char-
acteristics of a critical thinker and fixing these characteristics will also limit the meaning of
critical thinking. Some concepts of critical thinking can be discussed. Persons who point out
crucial questions and try to explore them with relevance to reach the solutions are known
as reflective thinkers. In this process, thinking would be self-directed, self-monitored, and
self-corrective.
It is also important to understand that critical thinking is not about critiquing, rather, it is
about looking positives, negatives, possibilities and so on simultaneously to take a comprehensive
understanding about the issue or concern.
It can be defined in a simple manner, that is, person with the ability to think critically is called
critical thinking. It involves the following three aspects: openness and willingness to accept and
analyse ideas, ability to work reasonably and logically, and knowledge and skills to apply logical
methods on problems. With the help of these abilities and skills, a persistent effort is needed for
critical thinking. Critical thinking must raise question from the existing solutions.
Largely, the idea of critical thinking can be understood in the following manner:
1. It questions to the aims and the objectives

2. It engages with the kinds of question to be asked
3. It talks about legitimacy of the information and sources
4. It enquires about the kind of logic and reasoning is used
5. It deals with the concepts that make any concept usable

376 | Chapter 4 Developing Critical Thinking
DEVELOPING CRITICAL THINKING

Critical Thinking and the Social Studies Teacher
Here, it is essential to discuss about the process of knowing and developing knowledge, which is
not developed, because we have to remember a lot rather it happens; and as we raised questions,
we should do reasoning and deal the concept with our critical thinking and develop discourse
that we are engaged with. However, it is also assured that we heard a lot about critical thinking,
but we do not have a very good or sound definition or explanation of critical thinking. Then, how
to move ahead to develop certain things is not substantially clear? Therefore, it is necessary to
develop a framework (not rigid but explainable) about critical thinking processes, to help learners
to become effective disciplined thinkers, who have ability to negotiate the real-life complexities,
and those are beyond the textbook and school life. A Social science teacher has to promote ‘social
science thinking’ in learners, and therefore, a thought provoking person can be developed.
As a critical thinker, we should understand that it is important to move from ‘judgment to
justice’, where there is no way to judge people on the basis of their abilities, but it engages in the
process of dealing as per their capability for improvement from justice point of view. The shifting
from judgment to justice need reasoning, which may include the following:
1. Knowing and understanding about the purpose
2. Drafting or constructing questions
3. Collecting data or relevant information
4. Drawing inferences with reference to assumptions (if any)
5. Understanding the finding
6. Engaging with implication
The above-mentioned points also indicated that in critical thinking one can assess one’s own
thinking. Therefore, to become capable for critical thinking, a person has to work for clarity, preci-
sion, accuracy, relevance, depth, fair mindness, and so on. A Social science teacher has to include
the following to provide spaces to learner to become a critical thinker:
1. Make it clear that learners are aware about the standards and aims to be achieved. Teacher
must emphasize that there is no end point to objectives and standards, they are ever chang-
ing. Clear pointers of critical thinking are available to the learners.
2. Ask learners to think twice about the task that they performed. This will provide them scope
to become reflective about their own practices and will engage learner in metacognitive abili-
ties. They will be able to know about their own learning ways. Motivate them to ask question
to themselves for their own practices such as was I correct? What else can be done? How can
I change my way of understanding? And so on.
3. Learner must know that continues engagement will provide a better understanding about the
concept. Critical thinking is not something which is already there in mind; rather, it has to be
developed over period of time, while engaging with and problem and exploration of a concept.

4. Speak less in the class. It will facilitate learners to think and discuss. During discussion, they
will be able to know and understand each other’s perspective. This process will broaden their
view about any concept, along with this; they will also learn to see their own view critically.
5. Your approach to teaching must be inquiry based, where learners will search answer of the
posed question. During this process, they will engage themselves with the process of critical
thinking. Inquiry-based teaching can be organized on individual bases or group basis. For the
subject such as Social sciences, inquiry-based teaching and learning process is very significant.
6. Always provide space to write to the learners. Let them think and then pen down their think-
ing. Writing is a very good reflective practice, where learner can think about their own action.
Actually, writing makes an idea in a concrete form. Writing will also develop their understand-
ing about the discussed concept.
Largely, we have to understand that, we have to develop a critical society of learners, who think
critically and work critically. This society of learners will always keep improving as there is not end
to critical thinking. However, it is hard to develop such learners’ community, as there is none so
far. Whenever we try to understand thinking process, we can find various kinds of prejudice, bias-
ness, lies, manipulations, hypocrisy, and so on across the world. Such characteristic in thinking
lead us towards and fearful, sad, hopeless life, where, no space exists for criticality. On the other
hand, it is also true that human species have capability to think rationally and logically. Critical
thinking is also governed by our self-thinking process and how we are able to relate with the
social issue and concerns.
This process of thinking and self-thinking is not very obvious; one has to do deliberate effort to
become a critical thinker. There are no fixed steps to become critical thinker and one can develop
their own way. Initially, we all are unaware about the problem, where we even do not see prob-
lem as a problem. But soon one realized that everything is not very smooth and easy that he/she
start thinking about the problem, such thinkers are called beginning thinker. Persons realize that
the necessity of regular practice to understand and solve the problem to deeply elaborate upon
the problem. After detail elaboration, person thinks all possible solutions of the problem, which
him/her an advanced thinker. After looking for the possible solutions, one take action to solve
the problem. Continuous engagement with such practice will make person skilful and insightful
critical thinker.
As has been discussed earlier, there is no one fixed way or strategies to become reflective and
one can develop their own way to become critical. A few suggestive strategies are discussed later:
Do not waste time

We waste lots of time when we are free. We do gossiping or simply watch TV without any pur-
pose. It is time-consuming to begin or choose the action towards the solution of any problem.
This simply hinders the process of critical thinking. What can be suggested here? When one can
think freely about one’s own actions such as, when was my best day? When I failed to complete
my objective and why? How can I improve myself, my strategies and so on to become a better

and an efficient critical thinker? It is not necessary that all the time one will get the solution of
the problem but it is sure that this process (asking question to one self) will develop a habit in a
person to think critically in daily life.
Deal with one problem in a day

It is a very good strategy to engage with critical thinking, where a person deals only one problem
in day. This helps him or her to understand the problem in depth and reach to the possible solu-
tion. This will help to relate a person with the goal and objective of the problem. Dealing with
many problems at a time will debar a person to understand either of the problems effectively. In
the beginning, one need to take single problem for solution and define it clearly and precisely to
the best of one’s capability. Then, one has to see possible solutions hypothetically on the basis of
past experiences. Then, collection of related information is required, which will help in elaborat-
ing about the problem and reach to the solution critically. Now, one has to analyse the collected
information and data to reach to the solution and take action towards it. Then, actions are evalu-
ated and followed up. Follow-up always play an important role to become a better problem solver
with criticality.
Self-talk to internalize the thinking

Give enough time to reflect about the action taken by you. The kind of decision you have taken,
the kinds of process you have adopted and so on. Talk to yourself about your past action, assess
them and then plan for future actions. This process surely helps to become aware about one’s
own actions and strategies. This internalization is also important to make it part of persons eve-
ryday life. It will make a person more precise, accurate, and critical. One has to do a deliberate
effort to do self-talk about the action taken.
Maintain a written record

No doubt, writing reflective journal and diary facilitates the process of becoming a critical thinker.
It is an easy but engaging process. One has to engage with it for longer time. One may choose to
write the way he/she would like to write. There is no fixed pattern to write and it should not be
because reflection may take any direction to understand the problem and this makes if a beautiful
process. One may begin to simply describe the situation he/she was engaged with, then think and
write his/her response the described situation, then analyse the situation and your response to
the situation collectively and finally assess your entire process. Hence, the journey from describing
situation to assessment provides a wider vision to the person.
Systematize your personality and its characteristics

Systematize your development as a critical thinker. Decide one characteristic at a time and work
upon that such as honesty, confidence, autonomy, etc. This systematization will help to be précised

and focused. When you see that you are master of one skill, move, or shift to another one. This
gradually will make you a person of intellect. This entire process is not simple rather complex and
difficult because it required long-term engagement to give direction to one’s personality.
Do not be self-centric or egocentric

It is important for a person not to be egocentric and try to understand others’ perspective, which
will eventually make him a critical thinker. Centric to one’s idea will neither leads towards solu-
tion nor towards critical thinking. Some time we do not realize that we are centric to our idea.
In such a situation, we need to ask a few questions to ourselves such as, when I was not critical?
When I refused other’s idea just because I wanted to prove my idea? When I criticized a person
without any reason? When I was irrational? When I tried to impose myself on other? In contrast to
egocentric, a person needs to be de-centric, where he/she will provide enough space to listen and
understand others’ perspective. For a good critical reflector, it is necessary to be open minded,
rational, and logical. Otherwise, centric to oneself will not provide enough space and opportunity
to become a critical practitioner.
Change your way of perception

Our world is ever changing and we also change as per the need of the time. Therefore, we also
have to change our perception that helps us to understand the world around us and make sense
of it. We feel that our perception towards world or its problem is absolute but it is a misconcep-
tion. Even if the problems are getting solved, still we need to change our vision and perception
to see the variation in process or solution to the problem. It will also break the monotony in the
thinking process and take us to the different level of thinking processes. The changed perception
will also change our strategies to deal with the problem and we can find of more solution to a
problem. This also widens our vision towards issues, challenges, and concerns of our life.
Along with these strategies many more can be thought and developed such as controlling
emotions, understanding one’s position in a group and so on. The larger idea is to get engage
with the situation for longer time to become a good critical thinker.
What we understood by critical thinking by now is that critical thinking can be known the abilities
that one has developed over a period of time to perceive, collect information, analyse that informa-
tion and develop one’s view. It can also be said that critical thinking is process of reflective thinking
that help to take decision about anything. We also come to know that critical thinking helps to
1. become able to ask question and review available information

2. solve the difficulties and problems
3. think and find long term solutions of the problems than immediate solution
4. understand any concept in a broad sense with all possible dimension or perspective
5. establish relation with theory and practice and
6. Reflect upon one’s own work and thinking processes

Critical thinking also helps in forming one’s opinion by evaluating available options and asking
verity of questions.
There are various level of critical learning that can be understood as knowledge – it relates with
remembering and understanding, comprehension – it relates with elaboration of the knowledge
or information, application – implementation of knowledge in different situations, analysing –
breaking down a big information in meaningful small categories, synthesis – understanding or
perceiving knowledge in a new dimension different from earlier and finally evaluation – taking
decision about the knowledge either in part or whole or both. (Boolm, B. 1956)
Previously discussed process is somehow used by all critical thinkers whether our way of doing
it would be different. But another question that seems to be very important is why critical thinking
is necessary or important? In the following section, we will discuss about it.
IMPORTANCE OF CRITICAL THINKING

There is no doubt that critical thinking is important in our life. It provides a wider perspective about
any concept. It helps us to resolve problem in a more logical way by understanding best possible
alternatives available. One also needs to understand that critical thinking is not only important in
academic life rather in everyday life also. Specifically, in Social science, it helps to understand the
subject better, helps in dealing effectively with controversial subjects and topic, and also helps to
take crucial decision effectively. Social science students have to deal with social issues, which have
more than one dimension, in such a situation critical thinking facilitates to take decision.
Imagine a classroom where everyone is busy individually or in group to solve the various prob-
lems while engaging available facilities, evidences, data, books, etc. They are thinking and discuss-
ing about the problems faced by therm. In such an environment, critical thinking need to be foster
and facilitated by teachers. A teacher can help learner to be critical from various approaches such
as inquiry, questioning, problem solving, and collaborative or group work.
Inquiry is a very effective strategy to promote critical thinking in learners. In inquiry, learner
explores and inquires about any concept and issues or problem. In inquiry, a depth analysis is
required which is based on investigation and search. Here, learners are able to establish new rela-
tions in already existed knowledge. It will facilitate this process of critical thinking in learners. It is
important to understand that in the process of inquiry learner is engaged continuously with the
prime question of inquiry. Inquirer comes to know various kinds of information available in the
field to unfold secretes of the investigated field. Continuous engagement with inquiry will develop
an attitude in leaner to perceive all the problem and challenges from the perspective inquiry that
gradually fosters the ability of critical thinking.
Guided questioning is an excellent way for promoting critical thinking. Such questions develop
curiosity in learner to search solution independently. This process does not end with question
asked by teachers; rather, it take it further to learner’s question and search for their answer by
themselves. Planned questioning promote critical thinking, where learner themselves become
able not only to answer the question, rather developing and constructing questions also.

Teacher need to provide spaces and opportunities for problem solving that helps to learner in
developing critical thinking. The most important feature of problem solving is not to tell answer
to the learner; rather, it engages them in solving problem themselves. Such engagement provides
opportunities to actively search for the solutions by the learners themselves. It is important to
keep in mind that problem solving can also be used as per the ability and nature of child. It means
that it may be used with individual or in group. When learner searches for the solution, they will
gradually become critical thinker.
Critical thinking best develop when learner has opportunities to exchange ideas with others in
a collaborative learning environment. This exchange provides them space to understand other’s
perspective and reflect upon his/her own perspective. This process also helps them to learn col-
legiality, which enhances one’s understanding about any issue and concept. For collaborative
teaching, teacher may forms various group based on particular ability, mixed abilities, need, and
concept. Such grouping should not be permanent rather these must be changed time to time for
better exploration by learners. It will be a good step at this point of time to discuss the process of
effective problem solving with good critical thinking.
HOW TO DO EFFECTIVE THINKING—A DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESS

Step 1: Locate the problem, collect relevant information and doubts (Easy and
lower level of complexity in thinking)
A. Recognize the problem and accept the causes for continuing doubts on absolute
answer of the problem
B. Recognize the needful data and information and doubts reside in the information
Accept and elaborate precincts of solutions.
Step 2: Look at the interpretation and relations and association (Medium level
of complexity in thinking)
C. Information interpretation:
(1) Recognize and control for own biases. Keep away from one’s biased perspective,
idea and concepts
(2) Explain hypothesis and logic related with various perspectives
(3) Interpreting data or information from multiple perspectives
D. Orderly organization of information to deal with problem effectively
Step 3: Provide important to the alternatives and provide conclusion (High level
of complexity in thinking)
E. After deep analysis, construct or develop framework, or guidelines to select better
solution out the available options
F. Communicate or converse appropriately
Step 4: Incorporation, observe, and develop effective strategies to deal with

the problem. (Highest level of complexity in thinking)
H. Incorporate different skills to develop new information and using it to observe and
monitor and do needful changes
G. Accept and elaborate precincts of solutions.

PLANNING EDUCATIONAL PRACTICES

We know that every learner has unique abilities, need, and characteristic. Teacher’s role is to facilitate
the learners thinking process, and hence, their difficulty in learning can be minimized. Once teacher
become aware about learners’ capabilities, he/she can organize various kinds of activities, such as
workshop, field visit, seminar, symposia, etc., to promote critical thinking among learners. If teacher
understand the learners ability and skill, problem will provide them task those are within their reach
and work will not be too complex with reference to their abilities. It also does not mean that if student
will not be able to complete the work teacher will reduce the complexity of the task; rather teacher
has to understand the skill development pattern of the child to facilitate the critical thinking process.
It is evident that why students are not able to deal effectively with complex critical thinking
skill? It is because of their educational experience and their engagement with unplanned and
less skill full educational practices. Such experiences do not provide appropriate support to the
learner to become critical thinker. Educationist such as Dewey believes that present critical think-
ing depends on the past experiences. Critical thinking develops in a spiral process where one step
leads to another and every new experience add on to the already existed experiences.
Appropriate challenges need to be provided to the learner to develop skills to deal with con-
troversial issues. There is possibility that learner will not be to engaged with complex problem,
and then, teacher should break down the problem up to the level of learner’s ability, and hence,
learner can engage in the process of solving the problem. Gradually, learner has to move towards
self- scaffolding, where they themselves search the kind of support they need.
Here, we can talk about three basic ways a teacher should know to facilitate learners. They
are as follows:
1. A progressive problem-solving process
2. A comprehensive rubric for evaluation
3. Dynamic and increasing complex thinking skill
A teacher may use these tools or ways in variety of ways. Few are given below:
Collecting Fundamental Information

Initially try to know the present abilities and skills of learners. Allow learners to construct ques-
tions themselves and solve them. On the basis of their present situation, plan future actions for
the learners. Whatsoever, information you think are needed and crucial to know about learners’
ability collect to develop your understanding about how children learn and engage themselves to
deal with any problem solving or critical thinking.
Systematic and Gradual Change in the Curriculum as per Need of

the Learners
Do not impose on learner and let them absorb the changes. Sudden change in pedagogy and
curriculum will not help the learner. Therefore, a gradual change should be favoured by teacher.

Teacher also needs to keep in mind the need of the learner. This gradual shift will allow learners
to deal with increasing complexity of the engaged work. Gradually, students will be able to deal
with more complex engagements.
Locate the Problem Areas of Learners

Before planning and proving any task to the learners, it is important to know the weaknesses of
the child. Teacher must know the problem area of critical thinking a learner may have. Teacher
make list of the skill a child has masters or need to be mastered.
Initiate Discussion with Learners about the Effective Thinking Skills

Once, teacher become aware about the weakness and strengths of the learners, s/he will be able
to provide a better space and opportunities to the leaner to develop critical thinking. Teacher at
this point of time can share with learners various ways of developing critical thinking, such as
reflective writing, discussing with peer, self-reflection, and so on. Teacher role become crucial
here, as s/he has to scaffolds them in developing their critical thinking.
Shift from Old to New Way of Thinking Processes

It is important to understand that a learner has to move from old way of thinking to new way of
thinking. It is possible the old way is facilitating the process, but, shifting to a new way will surely
give a new perspective about the problem. Let learners set realistic goal to achieve, let them work
from simple to complex, let them have sufficient time to deal with the problems, keep motivating
them in various ways. Shifting old to new way itself have enough strength to put the learner on
the path or critical thinking.
Self-monitoring Process
To develop self-depended on critical thinking, it is important the learner must know and engage
with self-monitoring process. This will help learners to evaluate themselves and their tasks. They
will also become capable to evaluate the decisions taken by them. Self-monitoring can also be
understood in form of keeping a check on one’s thinking, actions, and follow-ups.

➨ Critical thinking is a disciplined intellectual skilful thought processing, which helps to analyse,
synthesize, and evaluate the past and present situation and also make inferences about further
action logically.
➨ Critical thinking works everywhere in our life and it is not restricted to school only.
➨ We need critical thinking to live our life with rationally. It helps to take decision about the
problems and conflicting situation that we face.

➨ As a critical thinker, we have to understand that to move from ‘judgment to justice’, where
there is not scope exist to judge people on the basis of their abilities, rather, it engage in the
process of dealing as per their capability for improvement from justice point of view.
➨ Learner must know that continuous engagement will provide a better understanding about
the concept. Critical thinking is not something which is already there in mind; rather, it has
to be developed over period of time, while engaging with and problem and exploration of a
concept.
➨ Always provide space to write to the learners. Let them think and then pen down their think-
ing. Writing is a very good reflective practice, where, learner can think about their own action.
Actual writing makes idea in concrete form. Writing will also develop their understanding
about the discussed concept
➨ Critical thinking is also governed by our self-thinking process and how we are able to relate
with the social issue and concerns.
➨ There is no one fixed way or strategies to become reflective and one can develop their own
way to become critical.
➨ Levels of critical thinking are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysing, synthesis,
evaluation.
➨ Three basic ways a teacher can use to facilitate learners in critical thinking are – A progressive
problem-solving process – a comprehensive rubric for evaluation – dynamic and increasing
complex thinking skill.
Check Your Progress

1. What is your understanding of critical 5. Discuss about the following:
thinking? Take examples from social sci- (a) A progressive problem-solving process
ence and illustrate. (b) A comprehensive rubric for evaluation
2. Whom you as a teacher can promote criti- (c) Dynamic and increasing complex
cal thinking in learners? Answer with suit- thinking skills
able examples. 6. ‘Developing critical thinking is a collabora-
3. Why do learners and teacher need to be crit- tive process between learners and teach-
ical practitioners? Elaborate with examples. ers.’ Discuss about the statement with
4. What is the important and significance of examples.
critical thinking in Social science teaching?
Objective Questions
1. Developing critical thinking needs (c) time, effort and engagement.
(a) environment, good memory and (d) time, effort and space.
coaching. 2. Principle of social reconstruction is related
(b) heredity, giftedness and environment. to:

(a) Mahatma Gandhi (c) Reflective thinker

(b) Tagore (d) Logical thinker
(c) Kant 9. Critical thinking must raise ______________
(d) Bertrand Russell from the existing situation.
3. Critical thinking is perceived as a: (a) question
(a) Task (b) excitement
(b) Gifted act (c) argument
(c) Achievement (d) acceptance
(d) Process
10. Which one of the following is false state-
4. Critical thinking is a disciplined ment about critical thinking?
(a) intellectual skilful work processing. (a) It engages with the kinds of questions
(b) intellectual skilful information processing. to be asked
(c) intellectual skilful thought processing. (b) It talks about legitimacy of the infor-
(d) intellectual skilful knowledge processing mation and sources
(c) It enquires about the kind of logic and
5. All critical thinking must have ____________
reasoning which is used
behind the argument.
(d) It deals with the concept which is not
(a) emotion
answerable
(b) ideology
(c) argument 11. There is a great need to develop a frame-
(d) rationality work (not rigid but explainable) about
(a) human thinking process.
6. Critical thinking is associated with a kind
(b) rational thinking process.
of thinking which improves the quality of
(c) intellectual thinking process.
thinking for
(d) critical thinking process.
(a) better dealing with the problem.
(b) better dealing with the emotions. 12. Which one of the following is not neces-
(c) better dealing with the stress. sary for reasoning to move from judge-
(d) None of these ment to justice?
(i) Knowing and understanding about
7. Which one of the following statement is
the purpose
not correct about critical thinking?
(a) Earned one and can be used forever (ii) Drafting or constructing question
(b) It is purely situation and context based (iii) Collecting data or relevant information
(c) Critical thinking is transferable (iv) Ignoring the findings
(d) It is ability and not an objective fact (a) (i) and (ii)
(b) (iii) and (iv)
8. A person points out crucial questions and (c) (ii), (iii) and (iv)
try to explore them with relevance to reach (d) Only (iv)
to the solution can be known as:
13. To become capable for critical thinking, a
(a) Emotional thinker
person has to work for
(b) Rational thinker

(a) clarity, fairness, and logical. (c) Automatically

(b) precision, fairness, and irrelevant. (d) None of these
(c) ignorance, irrelevance, and unfairness. 15. There is/are _____________ of becoming
(d) clarity, precision, accuracy, and depth reflective.
and fair mindness. (a) one way
14. Critical thinking a process which develops: (b) no one way
(a) Deliberatively (c) many ways
(b) Naturally (d) None of these

CHAPTER
Sources: Primary and

Secondary 5
LEARNING ObjECTIVES
• Understand the meaning and use of various sources in teaching–learning process
• Familiarise with the idea and concept of primary and secondary sources with their meanings
and examples
• Elaborate on how do primary and secondary sources develop critical and analytical skills and
abilities in learners
INTRODUCTION
A source is a mean through which one will be able to know about any concept, fact, or informa-
tion. Source facilitates the conceptual clarity about any idea or information. It also legitimates the
authenticity of the given idea. Historian makes sense of the prevailed idea based on the various
available sources. Researchers also explore and elaborate about the research area based on vari-
ous kinds of resources. Similarly, resources are also very significant for a teacher to facilitate the
learners’ ability to learn with authenticity.
How knowledge will be accepted by the large community of society or the person of concerned
field will depend on the available sources; these sources will prove that knowledge. Overall, one
can say the authentication or validity is important for knowledge and it comes from the resources
that are used to prove a particular knowledge.
In the subject like Social sciences, the use of sources becomes more important as it culminates
proves from the resources available. There are various kinds of sources available, which facilitate
the teaching of Social sciences; however, these sources can largely be classified in two categories:
primary sources and secondary sources.
PRIMARY SOURCES
It is an important source that facilitates learning and research. It provides first-hand substan-
tial proof or evidences about any persons, facts, events, and ideas. Primary sources can also
be known as records in original form related to history, economic, politics, sciences, and so on.

388 | Chapter 5 Sources: Primary and Secondary
Such sources are prepared largely by the people involved in the task and procured it in the form
of written, audio, video, or any other forms. Therefore, it can be said that primary sources are
the sources in the form of physical objects and documents that were created during a specific
time. These evidences are available during that particular time when these primary sources were
prepared or written or available. This is the reason why they provide authentic information about
the particular time on any significant event. It is important to know here that these sources will
always be original and authentic, and therefore, it will always be same because they have already
taken place.
It is not necessary to continuously write primary source on the spot; however, they can also
be prepared or written as proceeding of the event in the form of memoirs or oral history. It is
important to keep in mind that primary sources can be of only one perspective and there may
be other perspectives that may or may not get a chance to be written. Particularly, in history, the
question ‘Whose history?’ is a very fundamental question, which raised not only various questions
but also variety of questions on the prevailed concept of history. However, it is also true that pri-
mary source provides strength to the researchers’ work as it makes possible to understand what
happened during a specific period of time.
Examples of Primary Sources

Primary sources are crucial for any research to provide authenticity. There are many examples,
and moreover, categories about primary sources such as printed publications, personal records,
visual materials, visual materials, oral histories, and so on. Along with these sources, sources such
as diaries, poetries, personal interviews, government documents, autobiographies, photographs,
artefacts, historical speeches, deeds, census records, and arts are also included.
Why We Need to Use Primary Source

It is a fundamental question to be asked that what is the need for using primary sources when
we have number of secondary sources, which are easily available? Further, simple answer to this
question is that primary sources not only make the learning authentic but also make a learner to
think critically and analytically, which promote thinking skills, asking questions, and searching for
the answers of their questions. Primary sources take a learner to the journey beyond what and
when to why and how.
Primary sources are doors to the past events without any kind of intervention and manipula-
tions with originality and authenticity about the people, events, documents, stories, autobiogra-
phies, and so on. When learners are engaged with primary sources, they provide them chances to
develop a sense of understanding history and method of history, which gradually promote higher
order thinking skill (HOTS), critical thinking, and reflective abilities.

Teacher can help learners to use and understand the primary sources in many ways:
1. Teacher may decide about few sources that are associated with the objectives to be achieved.
2. Teacher can provide them enough time and opportunity to engage with the primary sources
with respect to the objectives.
3. Let them compare the sources and provide the tool to analyse the primary source with respect
to the objectives that need to be accomplished.
There may be many such ways to use the primary sources in classroom in order to make learning
more interesting and authentic.
SECONDARY SOURCES
Secondary sources can be understood in the form of interpretations, discussions, analyses, syn-
theses, and critiques of primary sources. These are not primary sources; rather, these are second-
hand description or account of any event. These are one or more steps distant from primary
sources. In other words, we can say that secondary sources are summarisation of primary sources
with analysis and interpretation. These are not primary but are very useful and reliable. It can-
not talk about the lived experiences but it helps to understand what people must have felt that
time. Secondary sources include or represent many perspectives on one primary source, which
strengthens the researcher’s idea and knowledge and provides multiple ways of analysing single
information. It is also important to understand that every primary source cannot be presented
everywhere; in such a situation, secondary sources become a good tool for knowing. It provides
experts’ opinion about any event to evaluate it. It also saves time of a researcher or knower to
know many views in little time. We can understand it easily by these given lines:
I told you. ‘I’ become am a primary source. If you will tell it to anybody, you will become a sec-
ondary source.
Examples of Secondary Sources

Similar to primary sources, secondary sources are also important source of information. There
are many examples of secondary sources such as biographies, books, reviews of books, articles,
newspaper articles, dictionaries, encyclopaedias, textbooks, charts, and graphs.
Why Use Secondary Sources

All kinds of sources are important in teaching Social sciences, whether they are primary or second-
ary. Both the sources are important at their own place. Secondary sources are also important in
terms of interpretation, discussion, analysis, synthesis, critique, and so on. The following are some
of the reasons of using secondary sources:
1. It helps to understand the various perspectives about various events and concepts or histori-
cal position.

2. It provides space to understand the multiple perspectives about a single event.

3. It helps to develop one’s own perspective.
4. It takes little time to become familiar about any event or concept.
5. It helps to analyse one event from one perspective to different perspectives.
There may be more reasons to be used and these resources make teaching–learning process
more useful, effective, and critical; however, there are few things that need to be asked about any
sources whether they are primary or secondary, such as written by whom? It is about what? When
is it written? Where it is written?, and What is the reason for its writing?
HOW THE USE OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES FACILITATES

LEARNING FOR LEARNERS
There may be many ways of using sources in classroom teaching. However, certain points need
to be kept in mind, such as engagement, critical thinking, developing a specific temperament,
knowledge construction, and HOTS. Under these broad categories, one may choose their own
way of doing it. The following gives a brief explanation of these points:
1. Engagement of learners with source

2. Developing critical- and inquiry-based temperament
3. Development and construction of knowledge
4. Evaluate the ability of using HOTS on various sources
Engagement of Learners with Sources

It is necessary to start with the learners’ previous experiences and to engage them with the
sources that are to be used in the class. This can be done by asking learner to observe the sources
and deal with the question like ‘Who made these sources?’. If it is a primary source, then question
like ‘When and where it is created?’ needs to be asked. In this entire process, learners seek all the
important and necessary details. It is necessary to ask them ‘What were you expecting to find in
the source and what actually you found?’ and ‘What kinds of ideas, concepts, and facts have been
given there?’. Both primary and secondary sources motivate learners to relate available sources
with other sources. Finally, engagement must lead towards certain important and fundamental
question about the sources and their relation with the objective to be achieved. This engagement
will facilitate and trigger learners’ thinking about various unsaid ideas and questions.
Developing Critical- and Inquiry-based Temperament

Developing critical- and inquiry-based temperament and attitude is essential in a Social science
learner. By using primary and secondary sources appropriately, a teacher can facilitate learner
to engage with critical thinking that is based on inquiry approach. These abilities help learners
to not only deal effectively with the sources but also critically evaluate them. However, ‘Will it

happen?’ is an important question. This can be done with very simple process where teacher may
ask learners to infer regarding the provided source such as ‘Who created it, why it is created, and
for whom it is created?’. Inferences such as ‘What must have happened in a given time period?’,
‘What may be the reason for creating these sources whether primary or secondary?’ and ‘Is there
any biased stereotypes or one-sided perspective that emphasised?’.
It also has to be kept in mind that any one source cannot provide complete information, and
therefore, there is need to know and analyse more than one source at a time to have a better and
effective understanding. In this process, they have to see the relationship among the sources to
be used and what they already know. Let learner evaluate his/her idea about any past event and
he/she must search some other sources, whether primary or secondary, which are in contrast or
opposite from the available sources.
Development and Construction of Knowledge

The whole paradigm has been shifted from the idea of teacher teaches, the learner learns. In such
a situation, it is important to provide enough opportunities to learners to engage in the process
of knowledge construction. For this inquiry and questioning, the existing knowledge would be an
effective process, where learners will be able to understand, compare, comprehend, and concep-
tualise any idea, event, or fact with multilayer analysis. This entire process will put them on the
path of knowledge construction, which is based on logical conclusions, evidences, and various
sources. This will also facilitate them to develop their deep understanding about the concept.
Evaluate the Ability of Using HOTS on Various Sources

At this point of time, ask learners to summarise what they have done so far. This summarisation
can be in the form of synthesis or analysis with appropriate reason. Further, let them talk and
share how they have reached at the present point. This summarisation is not an end, rather it
must raise questions for further investigation with same or different sources.
Summing up
Teaching–learning process can be strengthened by using various kinds of sources that can largely be
divided into two categories: primary and secondary sources. There are various categories under both
kinds of sources. Primary source provides first-hand substantial proof or evidences about any per-
sons, facts, events, and ideas. Primary sources can also be known as records in original form related
to history, economic, politics, sciences, and so on. Primary sources may include printed publica-
tions, personal records, visual materials, visual materials, oral histories, and so on. Along with these
sources, sources such as diaries, poetry, personal interviews, government documents, autobiogra-
phies, photographs, artefacts, historical speeches, deeds, census records, and arts are also included.
Secondary sources can be understood in the form of interpretations, discussions, analyses,
syntheses, and critiques of primary sources. Biographies, books, reviews of book and articles,

newspaper articles, dictionaries, encyclopaedias, textbooks, charts, and graphs are the examples
of few secondary sources.
Both the resources have their own importance. The combination of both can provide better
opportunities to learners to engage, learn, and construct, which will also promote critical and
analytical abilities in learners.

➨ A source is a mean through which one will be able to know about any concept, fact, or
information.
➨ There are various kinds of sources available, which facilitate the teaching of Social sciences;
however, these can largely be classified in two categories: primary sources and secondary
sources.
➨ Primary source provides first-hand substantial proof or evidences about any person, fact,
event, and idea.
➨ Primary sources can also be known as records in original form related to history, economic,
politics, sciences, and so on. Such sources are prepared largely by the people involved in the
task and procured it in the form of written, audio, video, or any other form.
➨ Examples of primary sources: printed publications, personal records, visual materials, visual
materials, oral histories, and so on. Along with these sources, sources such as diaries, poetry,
personal interviews, government documents, autobiographies, photographs, artefacts, histori-
cal speeches, deeds, census records, and arts are also included.
➨ Secondary sources can be understood in the form of interpretations, discussions, analyses,
syntheses, and critiques of primary sources. These are not primary sources; rather, these are
second-hand description or account of any event.
➨ Examples of secondary sources: biographies, books, reviews of books, articles, newspaper
articles, dictionaries, encyclopaedias, textbooks, charts, graphs, and so on.
➨ The primary and secondary sources facilitate learning for learners by
■ Engaging the learners with sources
■ Developing critical- and inquiry-based temperament
■ Development and construction of knowledge
■ Evaluate the ability of using HOTS on various sources
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Explain about the sources used in teach- 2. Why use of primary source is more signifi-
ing Social science subject with suitable cant in Social science subject? Discuss with
examples. suitable examples.

3. What are primary sources? Explain with 6. How you as a Social science teacher can
suitable examples. help learners to use and understand the
4. You are a Social science teacher of Class primary sources for exploring any concept
VII. You have to teach about the rights to in Social science subject?
the class. Which primary and secondary 7. How using primary and secondary sources
sources will be used and why? will engage learners in critical and analyti-
5. What is the need of using secondary cal thinking processes?
sources in a Social science class when
many primary sources are available?
Objective Questions
1. What is a primary source? (a) Bias source
(a) It is an information in encyclopaedia (b) Neutral source
(b) It is often used source (c) Secondary source
(c) The source that was created by the (d) Primary source
people participated in an event 6. A primary source cannot be:
(d) The source that was developed after (a) Written
the event (b) Audio
2. Source facilitates the _________about any (c) Video
idea or information. (d) Imaginary
(a) perspective clarity 7. Primary sources will always be:
(b) subjective clarity (a) Imaginary and artistic
(c) objective clarity (b) Autonomous
(d) conceptual clarity (c) Original and authentic
3. UDHR, expert views, and chapter from the (d) None of these
book Das Capital by Marx are known as: 8. Which one of the following is not a pri-
(a) Primary sources mary source?
(b) Oral tradition (a) Biography
(c) Secondary sources (b) Autobiography
(d) None of these (c) Oral sources
4. Sources are classified as: (d) Archaeological monument
(a) Original and duplicate sources 9. Secondary sources can be understood in
(b) Rights and wrong sources the form of interpretations, analyses, syn-
(c) True and false sources theses, critiques, and so on of:
(d) Primary and secondary sources (a) Government sources
5. _________ provide first-hand substantial (b) Private sources
proof or evidences about any person, fact, (c) Primary sources
event, or idea. (d) Personal sources

10. Secondary sources are not primary but are 13. Which one of the following is a good
very: example of paradigm shift in teaching?
(a) Different (a) The idea of teacher teaches, a learner
(b) Useful and reliable learns
(c) Subjective (b) The idea of curriculum to classroom
(d) Authentic (c) The idea of teacher teaches and then
learner learns
11. Secondary sources provide
(d) The idea of argumentative learning to
(a) expert’s opinion about any event to
perspective learning
evaluate it.
(b) personal expert’s opinion about any 14. What is the full form of HOTS?
event to evaluate it. (a) Higher order thinking skills
(c) general opinion about any event to (b) Higher order teaching skills
evaluate it. (c) Higher order temporary skills
(d) subjective opinion about any event to (d) Higher order talking skills
evaluate it. 15. First-hand substantial proof or evidence is
12. Which one of the following is good exam- known as:
ple of secondary source? (a) True source
(a) Constitution of India (b) Reliable source
(b) My experiments with truth (Book by (c) Original source
Gandhi) (d) Primary source
(c) NCERT books
(d) None of these

CHAPTER
Evaluation in Social
Science 6
LEARNING OBjECTIVES
• Understand the concept of evaluation in social science
• Engage with the purpose and need of evaluation in social science
• Know the process and the strategies to evaluate in social science
• Elaborate the difference between measurement, assessment, and evaluation
• Explore the challenges of evaluation in social science
INTRODUCTION
What my students have learnt is a very fundamental question every teacher asks to oneself, and every-
one gets a different kind of answer to this. There are reasons for this, which we will be discussing later
in this chapter, but here, we are more concerned about the processes of evaluation in social science.
Important questions that every Social science teacher must ask to oneself are the following: How well
do the learners learn? How can they become better? Where do we change the pedagogic practices?
A very common pattern of evaluating the learners is to make them take a test and evaluate
their learning and performances. If the learner’s score is 60 marks out of 100 marks, then the
teacher may think that the learner is above average, but actually this does not provide a complete
and accurate picture of the student’s learning in Social science because such a standardised test
does not help to understand the learner’s learning about Social science. Therefore, it is important
to evaluate the learner at all the levels and maximum ways of evaluation. It must be a combina-
tion of summative and formative evaluation. Along with this, it is also important that the teacher
must know all kinds of strategies and ways of evaluation. Such few ways can be assessment of
learning, assessment for learning and assessment as learning.
Another important question that can be asked here, when we know that learning and assess-
ment cannot be separated, is why there is a need for specially organised evaluation. It must be a
part of teaching–learning process or inherent in the pedagogic practices. In other words, it can
be put as ‘Do we need to do evaluation at all?’
A more useful question that may be asked here is why do we try to evaluate the knowledge
of a learner rather than other aspects such as skills, ability, and so on? Why do we see changes in

396 | Chapter 6 Evaluation in Social Science
the evaluation process from time to time? Why is there a need for a common evaluation pattern
or process, knowing that the entry point in education is different for every individual, and so on.
Evaluation becomes more significant and crucial in social science because the way this is done
in schools (very objective) does not match with the nature of social science. In such a situation,
questions arise such as what is the role of evaluation in Social science for teaching and learning?
What kind of association or relationship does the teacher try to visualise between objectives of
social science and outcomes of learning? Does the learner have any role in his/her own evalua-
tion? How is the parent’s role seen in evaluation? Does evaluation in social science get restricted
to written examination or is it beyond this? How one decides on the criterion to evaluate social
science is very important and significant, which needs to be explored.
Largely in India, one can hear that social science students are not doing well. However, the
fundamental question is that what does ‘doing not good’ here mean. Are they talking about test
or assessment or measurement or evaluation? All these terms and ideas are used interchangeably,
which creates much confusion. This chapter will try to deal with the questions and concerns about
the evaluation in social science.
PURPOSE OF EVALUATION
Teaching is collectively defined as planning, instructing, and evaluation. Further in evaluation, we
have questions such as how one come to know that he/she has achieved the objectives and what
difference they are making? It is important to understand that evaluation is one of the difficult
tasks in education. With countless diversities, individual uniqueness, and teacher’s own perspec-
tives about evaluation, it has become more challenging. A teacher has to have updated records of
each learner to provide a proper feedback. Before we move ahead to discuss about the details of
evaluation, three points discussed below are important to know and keep in mind, wherever and
whenever we talk about evaluation in social science.
Largely Learner Learns What Is Provided in the Classroom

Interaction
It means in most of the cases, learners’ learning is dependent on textbooks and interactions tak-
ing place during the session. Students also believe that what has not been discussed in the class
will not be evaluated. Therefore, their knowledge is, largely, tested rather than their skills, abilities,
and capabilities.
Students’ Context (Social and Economic) Has a Great Role to Play

in Their Learning Outcomes
Family and community are the very influential institutions that play an important role in learner’s
learning. The association of these two with a school will be beneficial for the learners. Social and

economic contexts play an important role not only because poor and low social strata have less
intelligence but also low education, and its transition, curriculum, and evaluation are developed
according to a particular way that suites few people and rejects the majority. Therefore, it is
important for a teacher to understand such a social context.
Learners Learn More When They Are Given Chance for Inquiry in
the Community
Learners are more comfortable when they get a chance to learn in the community they live. This
makes them to be associated and developed a sense of attachment not only with the community
but also with the concept expected to be learner.
Evaluation is a process which helps to achieve many objectives. Different stakeholders of edu-
cation may perceive it in different ways, such as for teachers, it is to become aware about their
own teaching, which provides a feedback and future action plan. In addition, the teacher will
come to know the strengths and weaknesses of their learners, and the learners in turn will also
become aware of their own learning and knowledge and what and how they have to move
ahead, and so on. In brief, evaluation is needed to accomplish the pedagogic objective, to explore
the cause of success and failure, to understand why and where learners are lacking, and what can
be done to provide scaffold to them to know how their learning can become progressive and to
get a feedback about teacher’s own teaching processes.
However, what we call as a good evaluation is a big question to be understood if it cannot be
answered. We can engage ourselves in this discussion in two ways: first, understanding traditional
way of evaluation and modern way of evaluation. The traditional view perceived evaluation as a
mechanism to check the intellectuality of a learner. Its focus was more on subjects, social needs,
achievements, and products of learning with emphasis on knowing, understanding, achieving
mastery, and mostly convergent thinking. In the traditional view, goals were usually set by the
teachers for excellence in the entire process; the teachers’ role was to instruct and the learners’
role was to flow with what has been said by the teachers and learn the concepts; while the final
objective of teaching was to check by measurement and evaluation, the learners’ knowledge and
provide them placement (Kumar, Sandeep, 2015, p. 157).
However, the modern ways of evaluation are known to be more progressive in different ways
than the traditional. It represents assessment processes based on humanistic approach, where the
focus is more on the learners, their individual needs, feelings, interests, and so on. It underscores
the importance of how a child perceives the world and stresses on the child’s behaviour, creativity,
and divergent thinking. In the modern view, goals are determined by learners, giving them scope
for adjustment and showcase their individuality. The teacher’s role becomes more like that of a
motivator or facilitator who does not impose his or her ideas on the learners. Learners take the
lead for learning in the form of live practices through active participation. The purpose of testing
is to gauge the learning and diagnose the problems faced by learners while guiding them with
appropriate inputs (Kumar, Sandeep, 2015, p. 157).

HOW TO EVALUATE
As we have discussed so far, evaluation has been understood in a variety of ways. Here we will
understand the very fundamental question, that is, whom to evaluate? However, before we move
ahead, we have to understand the fundamental idea behind various terms which have been used
interchangeably. These are measurement, assessment, and evaluation.
1. Evaluation expressed in number or quantitative terms is known as measurement, such as

obtained marks out of some already fixed marks (80 marks out of 100 marks).
2. We can obtain information about the learners’ performance through a variety of ways. The
ways of obtaining this information are called assessment.
3. Evaluation helps to make decision about the learner’s performance and needful pedagogy.
There are specific kinds of function of evaluation: one which is observable and other which in
covert or hidden. The observable function may include enabling the learners to know about their
performance and learning outcomes, organising collaborative work teams, providing spaces for
better learning, motivating learning and achievements, diagnosing problems of learners, chang-
ing and setting learning objectives as per the needs of the learners, and changing pedagogic
process as per set objectives.
Although the hidden and silent function of evaluation is not visible to all, its effects gradually
become visible in learners, but after a substantial time. These functions may include helping and
preparing learners for their occupational needs, developing sense of collaboration and its impor-
tance, maintaining learner’s behaviour and ensuring conformity, and so on.
Need of Evaluation for Learner’s Learning in Social Science

If we ask teachers why they evaluate their learners, there will be a common answer from many
that they have to grade their learners, but this is a very narrow meaning of evaluation. In its
broader sense, it has a different meaning altogether. There is a need to understand the social
temperament of learners through evaluation. Largely, the purpose of evaluation in social sci-
ence should be to explore the social critical abilities of the learner, with which they will be able
to analyse the social issues and concerns. Teaching Social science at school has many objectives;
therefore, to see the accomplishment of those objectives, evaluation is needed in social sciences.
Evaluation can be used for a variety of purpose. To understand the ability, interest, and capa-
bilities of learner, the teacher uses placement evaluation. Diagnostic evaluation is used to under-
stand the problem areas of children in the learning process. These help teachers to become aware
about the issues and challenges a learner faces, which help teachers to make plans for further
action. Another kind of evaluation is summative evaluation in which the teacher teaches the
entire course and at the end evaluates learner’s learning. It provides a summary of the accom-
plishment level and occurs at the end of the unit of instruction. Normally, it is evaluated by a
test taken by all the students after completion of any unit or course. The biggest drawback of

this evaluation is that it does not provide scope for feedback to the learners. On the other hand,
formative processes provide good enough space of feedback as it is conducted during the teach-
ing and learning process, where teacher can make a better use of evaluation because it takes
place many times on short intervals throughout the year. It not only deals with what learners has
learned but also deals with how students are learning and where is the scope of change in peda-
gogy for better outcomes.
Other kinds of categorisation of evaluation can be in forms of norm reference evaluation and
criterion reference evaluation. Norm reference evaluation is the system most commonly used
in schools. It is a system in which an individual child is judged on specific tests or on general
performance in relation to the achievement of others, and it can be understood in terms of the
normal probability curve. On the other hand, criterion reference evaluation is useful in measuring
individual competency. Therefore, it is useful in formative evaluation. It also provides instructional
help and enables the progress of the learners over a period of time. That is how norm reference
evaluation serves the purpose of scoring and measures the learner’s competency relative to each
other rather than in an individualised manner. On the other hand, in criterion reference evalua-
tion, each student has to meet the expected standard (Kumar, Sandeep, 2015).
Overall, the goal of evaluation in social science is to provide a need-based feedback to the
learners for a better learning. It also helps in various kinds of decision-making. It is expected from
evaluation in social science that it evaluates the learners’ ideas, values, experiences, and beliefs
towards developing a humane society. It also evaluated the learners’ understanding about the
relationship between a person and a community. It also aims to evaluate the social science tem-
perament which is different from science. The understanding of learners about diversity, citizen-
ship, and other social concerns also need to be evaluated.
The above discussion pointed out the various reasons for which evaluation need to be done in
social science, which are as follows:
1. Progress in learning: Evaluation in social science is important to see the progress in learners
about the various concepts of social science. It also deals with the changing idea over a period
of time. How have the learners’ ways of argument, rational, and analysis evolved? Hence, to
know the learning progress in various dimensions of social science evaluation is needed.
2. To become aware about learner’s knowledge and abilities: Every teacher would like
to know about the knowledge a child has acquired and what he/she can do. To know this,
repeated interaction in the form of dialogue will help teacher to know about learners’ ability
and knowledge and can facilitate further learning of the learners.
3. To ensure everyone’s learning: It is important for a teacher to make sure no one is left
behind in learning processes. Everyone must get a chance of the appropriate environment for
learning and getting passed. Evaluation in social science will provide the change to everyone.
Because with the help of evaluation, the teacher will be able to know the abilities and scope
of improvement in learners and with help of special scaffolding, every learner will become
capable in social science.

4. Improvement in pedagogy: One of the benefits of evaluation is to provide information

to change and improve pedagogy as per the needs of the learners. Teacher will be able to
identify the problems of the learners and can change his/her pedagogic processes with the
class. Evaluation in social science enables the teacher to deal with the needs of an individual
and develop classroom processes accordingly. Teacher will also be able to know that what
kinds of strategies do not work with any learner and, hence, there is a need to change it. This
change will also improve the abilities of teacher and learners.
5. Dealing with diverse needs: In India, we have socially and culturally diverse class-
room, where learners share unique social and cultural practices. In one sense, it is good
for a Social science class and, on the other hand, it is a challenge for the teacher to deal
with all diversities in the class. Evaluation provides a tool to help the teacher to under-
stand the needs of the learner and provide appropriate environment. However, evaluation
must be comprehensive which cater to the needs of the learners in the class. A continuous
engagement will give this change to teachers and learners to deal effectively with diversity
in a positive sense.
6. Continuous feedback: Continuous feedback is an essential part of every subject, but for
a subject like Social science, it is more important as it deals with everyday practices, where
there is no final formula for anything. Feedback provides authentic information about the
learners’ ability and scope of improvement. This feedback also helps parents to understand
the need of their child to facilitate accordingly. Hence, the triangle of teacher, learners, and
parents together will change the entire school education in a progressive way.
ASSESSMENT
So far we have seen the meaning of evaluation and some of its methods. Now, we will engage
ourselves in understanding the meaning of assessment and its types. In assessment, we obtain
information about the learner to say something about his/her abilities and achievements. We can
obtain information about learners’ performance in a variety of ways. The ways of obtaining this
information is called assessment. We can understand assessment in three broad ways:
Assessment of Learning
The purpose of assessment of learning is usually summative and is mostly done at the end of a
task or a unit of work. It deals more with the achievement of expected outcomes of the learning
process through records, reports, and so on. The outcomes of this assessment become public in
terms of symbols, marks, or grades. It is summative in nature and taken at the end of the course.
In this assessment, learners have to meet with the set standards and expectations, and it does not
provide space of feedback.

Assessment for Learning

Assessment of learning is particularly associated with the formative and diagnostic methods of
evaluation. This assessment takes place during the teaching and learning process, not at the end of
teaching. Learners become conscious about what is to be expected, and the continuous feedback
provides space for improvement. Portfolios, observation, classroom discussions, and many such
ways can be used for this assessment. Continuous feedback is the strength of this assessment.
Assessment as Learning
Assessment as learning provides space to learners to become aware about their own learning.
This process is closely associated with meta-cognitive abilities. It helps students to be able to
know about themselves as learners. Learners are engaged in reflective processes on a regular
basis. They do self-assessment about their abilities and capabilities. This process is mediated by
peers, parents, and teachers. The best part of assessment as learning is that learners become
aware about their own learning process (Kumar, Sandeep, 2015).
CONTINUOUS COMPREHENSIVE EVALUATION

The aims of education is to draw out the capabilities of a person to the fullest so that he or she
can become an active, aware, and responsible member of the society; therefore, one of the objec-
tives of education is to build an attitude, skill, and capability in learners. In this process, evalua-
tion becomes significantly important. However, evaluation is closely associated with classroom
practices. School as a social place helps us to arrive at certain principle of educational practice.
It is now understood that a child understands and develops a concept in a continuous process
especially in social science. Therefore, their understanding must also be evaluated continuously
(Kumar, Sandeep, 2015).
The nature of social science is such that continuous evaluation suits best to it. Moreover,
descriptive processes of evaluation will be more suitable than objective ones. Continuous and
comprehensive evaluation will provide space to understand learners’ ability with reference to their
meta-cognitive abilities associated with social problems, issues, and concerns. Social science is a
discipline where long terms and constant engagement help learners to understand the concept.
Therefore, it is important that teacher also evaluate their understanding continuously.
Daily experiences are also an important part of Social science learning, therefore, assessment
or evaluation also must be based on real-life context so that an explicit relationship can be under-
stood regarding social aptitude of a child. We believe that all knowledge in social science is socially
embedded and has a social context; therefore, it can be understood in the same social context.
Continuous comprehensive evaluation will evaluate various essential features with reference to
social science, which are as follows:
1. Construction of knowledge and development of skills in social science.

2. Understanding of learners’ idea, perspective, and perception about social science concepts.

3. Abilities of healthy and productive social life.

4. Ability to deal with developmental challenges in Social science from one class to another.
5. Capabilities of learners to deal various unplanned situation in everyday practices.
6. Ability to work in a group, respecting others’ perspective, and co-construction of knowledge
with dialogue.
TECHNIQUE OF EVALUATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE

There are various ways which may help a teacher to evaluate the learning. Though it is important
to understand that there is no hard and fast rule about the strategy, and it may vary as per the
need of the context and situation. A teacher may use many ways to evaluate the understanding
of learning. Few ways are discussed as follows:
Objective Testing
Multiple choice questions, one word, fill in the blanks, true or false, and so on, comes under
the objective type assessment. It means that the learner does not have space or opportunity to
express one’s own idea because there is a final answer for all the questions and learners have to
choose it. We can take examples of multiple choice questions as follows:
Right to Education is a fundamental right of every child between the age 6 and 14 comes
under which article of Indian constitution?
(a) Article 21
(b) Article 21 (A)
(c) Article 14
(d) Article 14 (A)
Student has to choose one option out of the four. Such a kind of evaluation does not suite Social
science subject, as it does not match its descriptive nature.
Short Question Answer

A teacher can evaluate learners’ understanding in Social science by short descriptive questions,
where learners have to answer the question in minimum fixed words. These questions demands
students to answer the correct or the best answer within the given words limit. Learners are
expected to avoid the contradicting or ambiguous statements, where answer needs to be pointed
and clear. For example:
Answer the following questions in 50 words.
(a) What are the legislative powers of the president of India?
(b) What are the characteristics of democracy?

Long Question Answer

In Social science, some learning objectives can be tested by long answers only, where learners are
expected to share their perspective about any concept, issues, and debates. These types of ques-
tions expect learners to create their own response. One needs to know that it is easy to make a
long question, but it is difficult to check as it may carry lots of personal understanding. Therefore,
either question should give space to subjective interpretation or it should expect fixed perspec-
tives. Examples given below will make it more understandable.
(a) Critically review the issues and challenges of Indian democracy? Support you answer with
suitable examples.
This question provides space to the leaner to develop the question based on his/her own under-
standing, where there is space to develop one’s argument based on examples. The question given
below does not give much space for personal understanding and expect to answer the question
from a given perspective.
(b) Discuss the characteristics of conflict theory given by Karl Marx.
Both the questions are descriptive and long easy type, but the demand and expectation from the
learners are quite different. A good Social science teacher will prefer question (a) over question
(b), because first question gives more space to check the critical ability of learners.
Project Work
Social science is a subject where everything cannot be evaluated through short- or long-type
questions, which are expected to be written in a limited time. Project work provides sufficient
time to think and work on any aspect of social science and prepare a project. Learners may decide
their own area of project, and it can be given by a teacher also. Project work is a good way
of evaluating learners in Social science because it provides the opportunity to engage, explore,
elaborate, and explain the concept they chose to work with. Such as the following:
Divide the class into various groups such as History, Geography, Political science, and so on,
and allot them a project, such as for history group.
‘Work on different aspects of heritage sites in Delhi’
A group may collect information about when it is built, by whom, why, and so on. The group
may also visit the heritage site in person to have first-hand experience and prepare report.
Detailed Assignment
Assignment can be a way to assess the knowledge and the ability of learners in Social sciences.
The teacher my provide a critical and analytical assignment which is descriptive in nature and need
collaboration of various resources to complete it. The effort one has to put in such an assign-
ment will show his/her ability to engage with the issues of social sciences. An example of such

an assignment can be ‘How democracy has been conceptualised by various thinkers? Choose any
four and evaluate the present situation of Indian democracy’.
Oral Communication
It is a fact that every child cannot express in written form, whereas they can express better orally.
Therefore, a teacher must be open for oral tests, where learners are expected to make some
presentation or discus about any topic from the subject Social science. The teacher may organise
presentation session, group discussion, individual interviews, and so on.
Exhibition
Teacher may ask the learner to organise an exhibition based on the different aspects of social
science such as drawing, sculpture, and photographs of any historical visit. This exhibition can be
open for the entire school and subject teacher can do evaluation. Such exhibition can be organ-
ised for political science and geography also.
Group Work
Group work is one of the best ways of teaching and assessing in Social sciences. Group work can
be organised in any form, for example, group assignment, group discussion, group activity, and
so on. However, long group discussion is the best way of work where teacher can assess on the
spot. Any topic can be allotted to the group, and they may discuss among themselves and then
can discuss with other groups. One such method is jigsaw method.
CHALLENGE OF EVALUATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE

Social science is a discipline with subjective nature. It deals with human life and human relations
and relation with various other institutions of the society. However, it is not very easy to evaluate
ones understanding in all such areas. Therefore, evaluation in social science has to face many chal-
lenges and issues. Some of such challenges are discussed below:
Accountability
Accountability means someone should be held responsible for meeting the agreed-upon goals
and actions. In a school system, who will be responsible for learning and evaluation is not yet
fixed. And when we say this, it does not mean to conduct examination, it means the responsi-
bility of learning and taking responsibility. The major organisations such as schools, NCERT, and
CBSE are not working in a collaborative manner; rather, they work in a hierarchical manner, such
as schoolteachers will be included in textbook writing by NCERT, and if it is done, it is simply a
formality. Therefore, who is responsible for what is not decided and if decided, it is segregated.

How to Ensure Minimum Ability Learning

It is important to define and identify the minimum level of ability to be learned. Without such a
level, one will not be able to decide what is to be learned and kinds of opportunities need to be
provided. Minimum ability does not mean some standardised abilities; rather these will be based
on individual uniqueness. However, generally no such ways have been used in the evaluation in
social science, rather one standard test is used to evaluate the learners’ ability which does not do
justice with learners and their abilities.
Prejudices and Biases in Evaluation

Social science as a discipline carry subjectivity, which if used correctively can become the strength
or if not, then become a challenge for social science evaluation. Teacher’s own biases about
any concepts, ideas, and debatable issues may create problems and challenges in the evaluation
process of social science. It is also important to understand that culture – fair – test is not a very
good option for the subject like Social science. Therefore, a teacher has to be without any bias,
but to what extent one can make sure that teacher will leave his/her ideas behind. Therefore, in
Social science, a person’s bias plays an important role not only in curriculum and teaching but
also in evaluation.

➨ Planning, instructing, and evaluation collectively define teaching.
➨ Largely, the learner learns what is provided in the classroom interaction.
➨ Students’ context (social and economic) has a great role to play in their learning outcomes.
➨ Learners learn more when they are given a chance for inquiry in the community.
➨ The traditional view perceived evolution as a mechanism to check the intellectuality of a
learner. Its focus was more on subject, social needs, achievement, and product or learning with
emphasis on knowing, understanding, achieving mastery, and mostly convergent thinking.
➨ Modern ways of evaluation which can also be known as progressive in different ways than
traditional ways represents assessment processes based on humanistic approach, where the
focus is more on learners, their individual needs, feeling, interests, and so on.
➨ Evaluation expressed in number or quantitative terms is known as measurement, such as
obtained marks out of some already fixed marks (80 marks out of 100 marks).
➨ We can obtain information about learners’ performance in a variety of ways. The ways of
obtaining this information is called assessment.
➨ Evaluation helps to make decision-making about learner’s performance and needful pedagogy.
➨ There are various kinds of evaluation named placement evaluation, diagnostic evaluation,
summative evaluation, and formative evaluation.

➨ Evaluation need to be done in social sciences for the following reasons:

■ To see progress in learning
■ To become aware about learner’s knowledge and abilities
■ To ensure everyone’s learning
■ Improvement in pedagogy
■ Dealing with divers needs
■ Continuous feedback
➨ There are three kinds of assessments named assessment of learning, assessment for learning,
and assessment as learning.
➨ Evaluation in social science can be done with the help of objective testing, short question
answer, long question answer, project work, assignment, oral communication, exhibition, and
so on.
Check Your Progress

1. What is the meaning of evaluation? Why 6. As a Social science teacher, which are the
there is a need to do evaluation of the techniques you would like to use to evalu-
learning in Social science? ate your learners and why? Discuss with
2. What are the basic points a Social sci- suitable examples.
ence teacher must keep in mind while 7. Write short note on the following:
evaluation? (a) Assessment of learning in Social science
3. Discus the differences between norm ref- (b) Assessment for learning in Social
erence and criteria reference test in social science
science? (c) Assessment as learner in Social science
4. What are diagnostic tests? What is the 8. Discuss some of the challenges you may
importance of this test in evaluation in face during assessment and evaluation in
social science? social science.
5. Discuss the difference between continuous
and comprehensive evaluation and tradi-
tional way of evaluation.
Objective Questions
1. Objective evaluation is not of much signifi- (b) it does not match with the nature of
cance in social science, because students.
(a) it does not match with the nature of (c) it does not match with the nature of
social science. curriculum.

(d) it does not match with the nature of (a) Evaluation

teacher. (b) Assessment
(c) Measurement
2. Largely students learn what is provided
(d) Examination
(a) in the family interaction.
(b) in the school environmental 8. Evaluation helps in decision-making about
interaction. learners
(c) in the classroom interaction. (a) performance and required pedagogy.
(d) in the friends interaction. (b) achievement and reward.
(c) reinforcement and reward.
3. Which one of the following students’
(d) reward and punishment.
context has a great role to play in their
learning outcomes? 9. The process of evaluation in social science
(a) Social and economic should largely explore
(b) Economic and environmental (a) the social critical abilities of learners.
(c) Social and peer group (b) the emotional critical abilities of learner.
(d) Family and heredity (c) the creative abilities of learner.
(d) None of these
4. Learners are more comfortable when they
get chance to learn 10. Evaluation conducted after completing the
(a) in the friend’s circle. course is called summative. It is associated
(b) in the neighbourhood. with
(c) in the community they live. (a) assessment as learning.
(d) None of these (b) assessment for learning.
(c) assessment of learning.
5. Evaluation helps teacher to provide
(a) feedback to learners. (d) None of these
(b) information about learners’ demerits. 11. Which type of evaluation provides scope
(c) chance to the learner to reappear in for feedback as it is conducted during the
the exam. teaching–learning process?
(d) None of these (a) Summative evaluation
(b) Formative evaluation
6. Evaluation expressed in number and
(c) Diagnostic evaluation
quantity is known as:
(a) Summative assessment (d) Assessment of learning
(b) Formative assessment 12. To understand the ability, interest, and
(c) Measurement capabilities of learner, teacher uses:
(d) None of these (a) Summative evaluation
7. The way of obtaining information about (b) Formative evaluation
(c) Placement evaluation
learner’s performance in a variety of ways
(d) None of these
is known as:

13. Diagnostic evaluation is used to under- (a) (i) and (ii)

stand the ____________ of children in (b) (ii) and (iv)
learning process. (c) (i), (ii), and (iv)
(a) problem areas (d) All of these
(b) achievement areas 15. The fundamental difference between tradi-
(c) learned areas tional and modern approach to evaluation
(d) forgotten areas is
14. Which of the following statement/ statements (a) the nature of student’s activities.
is/are incorrect about the evaluation? (b) the role of academic achievement.
(c) the system of grading.
(i) To become aware about learner’s
(d) technological dominance.
knowledge
(ii) To ensure every ones learning
(iii) To improve pedagogy
(iv) To deal with diverse needs

Social Science
Model Test Paper-I
1. Narmada valley related to: 6. Bhimbetka caves are famous for:

(a) Harappa (a) Rock paintings
(b) Vedic age (b) Stone tools
(c) Hunting and gathering (c) Wood tools
2. Magadha was the biggest kingdom ______ 7. The beginning of the Neolithic was:
years ago. (a) 10,000 years ago
(a) 1500 (b) 20,000 years ago
(b) 2000 (c) 25,000 years ago
(c) 2500 (d) 40,000 years ago
(d) 3000 8. Where is the most famous Neolithic site
3. Where are Sulaiman and Kirthar Hills Catal Huyuk located?
located in Indian subcontinent? (a) France
(a) Southwest (b) Egypt
(b) Northeast (c) Iran
(c) Northwest (d) Turkey
(d) Southeast
9. The beginning of settlement in Mehrgarh
4. Which one of the following cities was not started _______ years ago.
a Neolithic site? (a) 8000
(a) Mehrgarh (b) 6000
(b) Chirand (c) 4000
(c) Koldihwa (d) 3500
(d) Hunsgi 10. The people of Burzahom lived in:
5. Inamgaon was the: (a) Triangular houses
(a) Earliest city (b) Right angular house
(b) Earliest town (c) Two storey houses
(c) Earliest kingdom (d) Dug houses
(d) Earliest village
Z01_CTET_SOCIAL-SCI01_SE_XXXX_MODAL TEST PAPER-I.indd 1 11/5/2016 3:45:59 PM

M2 | Model Test Paper-I
11. Harappan site Surkotada is located in: (c) Sixteen

(a) Punjab (d) Eighteen
(b) Uttar Pradesh
18. Which word was used for a group that has
(c) Sindh
many members?
(d) Gujarat
(a) Rana
12. Which one of the following cities is not (b) Sana
related to Harappan civilisation? (c) Mana
(a) Rakhigarhi (d) Gana
(b) Ganweriwala
19. Sangha means:
(c) Koshal
(a) Government
(d) Sotkakoh
(b) Authority
13. A stone statue of a man was found in: (c) Autonomy
(a) Harappa (d) Organisation/association
(b) Mohenjo-daro
20. Vajjis was example of:
(c) Chanhudaro
(a) Democracy
(d) Kalibangan
(b) Monarchy
14. The first evidence of cotton cultivation was (c) Aristocracy
found in: (d) Sangha
(a) Harappa
(b) Inamgaon 21. Which one of the following is the inner-
(c) Mehrgarh most layer of the earth?
(d) Lothal (a) Crust
(b) Core
15. Mummies are related to: (c) Mantle
(a) Indus civilisation (d) None of these
(b) Mesopotamia civilisation
22. Which of following does not come under
(c) Egyptian civilisation
the category of fossil fuels?
(d) Chinese civilisation
(a) Coal
16. Rig Veda hymns are known as: (b) Petroleum
(a) Pankti (c) Gas
(b) Paddh (d) All of these
(c) Paragraph
23. Which layer of the atmosphere is ideal for
(d) Sukta
jet airplanes?
17. How many Mahajanapadas were men- (a) Stratosphere
tioned in Buddhist and Jaina texts? (b) Troposphere
(a) Eleven (c) Ozonosphere
(b) Fourteen (d) Ionosphere

Social Science | M3
24. What is the name of instrument that meas- (a) Venus

ures air pressure? (b) Earth
(a) Barometer (c) Mars
(b) Seismograph (d) Jupiter
(c) Anemometer 31. Which one of the following shapes is the
(d) All of these shape of earth?
25. Nomadic cultivation is a type of cultivation (a) Oblate spheroid
in which farmers usually do: (b) Circular
(a) Animal grazing (c) Oval
(b) Pulses cropping (d) Ellipses
(c) Cereal cropping 32. Which one of the following is the example
(d) All of these of non-ferrous minerals?
26. Which of the following crop is not the crop (a) Copper
of kharif? (b) Iron
(a) Fodder (c) Steal
(b) Rice (d) Aluminium
(c) Mustard 33. Which of the following is the example of
(d) Barley inorganic minerals?
27. Which longitude line is called the interna- (a) Limestone
tional date line? (b) Petroleum
(a) 180 degree (c) Coal
(b) 90 degree (d) All of these
(c) 120 degree 34. A narrow water way which joins two dif-
(d) 24 degree ferent gulfs, oceans, or seas is called:
28. What is the latitude value of equator? (a) Strait
(a) 0 latitude (b) Isthmus
(b) 66½ latitude (c) Canal
(c) 23 latitude (d) Sea lake
(d) 90½ latitude 35. Panama is the example of:
29. Which one of the following statement (a) Isthmus
describes Karka Sankranti? (b) Strait
(a) Longest day in northern hemisphere (c) Canal
(b) Shortest day in northern hemisphere (d) Lake
(c) Longest day in southern hemisphere 36. Which of the following is measured by
(d) Shortest day in southern hemisphere anemometer?
30. Which of the following planet revolves (a) Wind
clockwise? (b) Pressure

M4 | Model Test Paper-I
(c) Moisture (c) economic

(d) All of these (d) civil
37. According to census 2001, India has the 43. ____________ cannot be known as a
highest number of immigrants from the demerit of Proportional Representation
county: System.
(a) Bangladesh (a) Taking towards two party system
(b) Pakistan (b) Promotion of coalition government
(c) Sri Lanka (c) Promotion of multi-party system
(d) Nepal (d) All of these
38. Which one of the following is the longest 44. Proportional representation system is
train route of the world? known for
(a) Trans-Siberian route (a) appropriate representation of minorities.
(b) Toronto to Vancouver (b) minor voters are also given right to vote.
(c) Shanghai to Lhasa (c) socioeconomic backward people get
(d) Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari more right than other.
(d) minority people are given more than
39. Which of the following state is the least
on voting right.
populated state of India?
(a) Sikkim 45. Who can disqualify any member of Lok
(b) Mizoram Sabha?
(c) Nagaland (a) President
(d) Assam (b) Prime Minister
(c) Secretary of Parliament
40. Which one of the following is the best
(d) Speaker
example of sedimentary rocks?
(a) Limestone 46. Who said ‘Swaraj is my birth right and I
(b) Mica shall have it.’?
(c) Graphite (a) Nehru
(d) All of these (b) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
(c) Subhash Chandra Bose
41. Swaraj exists within an Empire and not
(d) None of these
beyond it.
(a) Bal Gangadhar Tilak 47. The ideas that ‘God give us life and there-
(b) Lala Lajpat Roy fore liberty too’ is given by:
(c) Jawaharlal Nehru (a) Mill
(d) Mahatma Gandhi (b) Gandhi
(c) Jefferson
42. As an Indian, we have many rights. One of
(d) Hobbes
such right is to form association. This is a
__________ right. 48. Everyone is entitled for civil right given by:
(a) legal (a) The society
(b) political (b) The nature

Social Science | M5
(c) The state (a) Political parties

(d) None of these (b) Panchayati Raj
(c) Election commission
49. The idea of distributive justice is given by:
(d) The post of president
(a) Aristotle
(b) Plato 56. The process of delegation is associated
(c) Lack with:
(d) Hobbes (a) Decentralisation
(b) Centralisation
50. Kothari wrote a book named:
(c) All of these
(a) State against Democracy
(d) None of these
(b) State of Democracy
(c) Democratic Sate 57. When a person is trying to plan strategies
(d) Democracy against State from the lowest level is associated with:
(a) Actual democracy
51. Authority in democracy reside in:
(b) Top level choice of people
(a) The political party
(c) Choice of people with reference to
(b) The people
powerful group
(c) The constitution
(d) None of these
(d) The society
58. Political defection is associated with
52. Who introduced the term ‘Bureaucratic’?
(a) 42nd amendment of the constitution.
(a) Gramsci
(b) 52nd amendment of the constitution.
(b) Mill
(c) 62nd amendment of the constitution.
(c) Lock
(d) 70th amendment of the constitution.
(d) Gournay
59. A unitary system can best be represented by
53. Weber believed that bureaucracy is
(a) territorial division subordinates the
(a) appointed people of administration.
body of central government.
(b) an instrument which can manipulate.
(b) territorial division coordinates with the
(c) a group of corrupt.
central government.
(d) a group of various exclusive kinds of
(c) a process or agency to settle the
people in authority.
national unity.
54. The famous book named Bureaucracy, (d) when government is under the control
Bureaucratisation and De-Bureaucratisation of single individual.
is associated with:
60. Local body election will take place
(a) Eisenstadt
_______________ as per 73rd and 74th
(b) Weber
constitutional amendments.
(c) Gramsci
(a) after every 2 years
(d) None of these
(b) after every 5 year
55. Which one of the following can be (c) after every 3 years
understood as representation of political (d) after every 6 years
democracy?

Model Test Paper-II
1. First time in history, Democracy is used by 6. Arikamedu was centre of trade with:
the people of: (a) Arabs
(a) Macedonia (b) Greeks
(b) Sparta (c) Mesopotamia
(c) Athens (d) Romans
(d) Troy 7. Which word is used for big landlords in
2. In North India, the village headman known Tamil?
as: (a) Kadaisiya
(a) Gramik (b) Adimai
(b) Grama Shree (c) Uzhavar
(c) Grama bhojaka (d) Vellalar
(d) Gram bhattaraka 8. In Tamil, ordinary ploughmen was known as:
3. 2000 years ago, which city become the (a) Uzhavar
second capitals of Kushans? (b) Kadaisiya
(a) Taxila (c) Adimai
(b) Pataliputra (d) None of these
(c) Ujjain
9. Which metal is used to punch-marked coins?
(d) Mathura (a) Tin
4. Which word is used for the associations of (b) Ivory
crafts persons and merchants? (c) Silver
(a) Shahins (d) Gold
(b) Shorins 10. Where the ring well was found?
(c) Shokins (a) Meerut
(d) Shrenis (b) Delhi
5. Who is the writer of Arthashastra? (c) Kashi
(a) Chandragupta (d) Pataliputra
(b) Patanjali 11. The ring wells were used for:
(c) Kalhan (a) Bathing
(d) Chanakya
(b) Irrigation
Z02_CTET_SOCIAL-SCI01_SE_XXXX_MODAL TEST PAPER-II.indd 6 11/5/2016 3:46:31 PM

Social Science | M7
(c) Drainage 18. The idea of bhakti was present in the:

(d) Washing clothes (a) Ramayana
(b) Upanishad
12. Taxila and Mathura were centres of:
(c) Gita
(a) Art and culture
(d) Veda
(b) Pilgrimage
(c) Military 19. The Iranian and Arabs used ______ word
(d) None of these to refer the people who lived in the east of
Sindhu River.
13. The settlement of Arikamedu was
(a) Indu
between_____ years ago.
(b) Sindu
(a) 2150–1750
(c) Hindo
(b) 2200–1900
(d) None of these
(c) 2300–2200
(d) 2400–2150 20. Around 2000 years ago, Jesus Christ was
born in:
14. Satavahana rulers were known as:
(a) Darussalam
(a) Lord of Dakshinapatha
(b) Jerusalem
(b) Lord of routes
(c) Bethlehem
(c) Lord of kingdom
(d) Rome
(d) Lord of war
21. Which of the following union territory has
15. Who was the most famous king of
least population?
Kushans?
(a) Lakshadweep
(a) Kanishaka
(b) Daman and Diu
(b) Kadphises
(c) Dadra and Nagar Haveli
(c) Vasishka
(d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
(d) Huvishka
22. Which one of the following is not the main
16. How many years ago Chinese Buddhist pil-
source of male migration in India?
grim Faxian came to Indian subcontinent?
(a) Employment
(a) 1800 years ago
(b) Marriage
(b) 1700 years ago
(c) Education
(c) 1600 years ago
(d) Business
(d) 1550 years ago
23. What is relation of cities, Manchester and
17. Nalanda was a unique centre of:
Liverpool with Rail?
(a) Prayer
(a) It was first railway route of the world
(b) Trade
(b) It was first railway route of diesel
(c) Buddhist learning
engine
(d) Military warfare

M8 | Model Test Paper-II
(c) Both the cites are famous for making (c) Stratosphere is the second layer of
metro rail coaches atmosphere.
(d) None of these (d) None of these is wrong.
24. Resources that may be used in future is 30. Hygrometer is used for measuring:
called: (a) Moisture
(a) Potential resources (b) Wind
(b) Actual resources (c) Pressure
(c) Renewable resources (d) All of these
(d) Non-renewable resources
31. Which one of the following is the charac-
25. Digboi of Assam is famous for: teristic of staircase cultivation?
(a) First petroleum producing region (a) Farming on hilly areas
(b) Stocks of coal (b) Farming on plains
(c) Mines of gold (c) Farming on coastal areas
(d) All of these (d) Animal grazing
26. Which of the following is the deepest point 32. Which of the following grain needs large
of sea? quantity of water to grow successfully?
(a) Mariana trench (a) Rice
(b) Bonin trench (b) Wheat
(c) Kuril trench (c) Sugarcane
(d) New Britain trench (d) Maize
27. Which of the following statement is cor- 33. Which one of the following statement is
rect for Titicaca Lake? not correct?
(a) Fresh water lake (a) Length of ozonosphere is 20 to 32 km.
(b) Salty water lake (b) Ozonosphere absorbs the ultraviolet
(c) Shortest lake rays of sun.
(d) None of these (c) Ozonosphere is the upper portion of
atmosphere.
28. Which of the following statement is cor-
(d) Ozonosphere is discovered by Charles
rect for Govind Sagar Lake?
Fabry.
(a) Manmade
(b) Natural 34. Which of following gas is the major gas of
(c) Sea lake atmosphere?
(d) Crater lake (a) Nitrogen
(b) Helium
29. Which of the following statement is wrong?
(a) Stratosphere is good for jet airplanes. (c) Hydrogen
(d) Oxygen
(b) Stratosphere is the layer of climate
changes.

Social Science | M9
35. What is the latitude measure at Antarctic 41. The reservation of SCs and STs in pan-
Circle? chayat is done by which of the following
(a) 66½ southern latitude Article of Indian constitution?
(b) 23½ southern latitude (a) 143-D
(c) 0 latitude (b) 243-S
(d) 60 northern latitude (c) 243-V
(d) 243-Q
36. The longest day in southern hemisphere is
called: 42. PIL (Public Interest Litigation) is began by:
(a) Makar Sankranti (a) Amendment in the constitution
(b) Karka Sankranti (b) Judicial decision
(c) Bada din (c) Parliament Act
43. Name the chairperson of the state commit-
37. Which of the following rock is formed due
tee of the constituent assembly:
to cooling down of magma?
(a) Jawaharlal Nehru
(a) Igneous rock
(b) B. R. Ambedkar
(b) Sedimentary rock
(c) Dr Rajendra Prasad
(c) Metamorphic rocks
(d) Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel
(d) None of these
44. Deficit represents:
38. Active volcano’s ring around pacific ocean (a) Deficient in of democratic control
is called: (b) Deficient in democratic institution
(a) Ring of pacific (c) Deficient in democratic authenticity
(b) Ring of sea (d) Deficient in democratic representation
(c) Lords of ring
(d) All of these 45. Traditional concept of sovereignty is cri-
tiqued by pluralist, because
39. Which of following planet revolves (a) all the associations are equally impor-
clockwise? tant like state.
(a) Venus (b) it opposes global co-operation.
(b) Jupiter (c) it works against democracy.
(c) Mars (d) it does not work effectively to resolve
(d) Earth the international issues.
40. Which of following is the nearest star of 46. _________ is used by the British to develop
the earth? an effective administration in India.
(a) Proxima Centauri (a) Expansion of military
(b) Alpha Centauri (b) Process of survey
(c) Ross 248 (c) Exploitation of India people
(d) Gliese 445 (d) Collection of land revenue

M10 | Model Test Paper-II
47. _____________ is known as a system (a) Religion

when women are oppressed by men. (b) Education
(a) Modernity (c) Sex (gender)
(b) Patriarchy (d) Wealth
(c) Hierarchy 53. Which one of the following statement is
(d) None of these not correct for social science?
48. The objective of social advertising is not (a) It is vast and diverse subject includes
(a) to change people’s thinking pattern. various social concerns.
(b) to promote ones product for commer- (b) It works for widening the social and
cial value. human values such as equality, liberty,
(c) to encourage people to participate in and so on.
social welfare activities. (c) It works with social phenomenon and
(d) to influence social groups. therefore cannot be scientific.
(d) It develops analytical human being.
49. Market can be explained as a
(a) setting industry in a local area. 54. Which type of question will develop critical
(b) shop to make things available to the thinking?
people made by industries. (a) Divergent questions
(c) trade in a specific type of thing. (b) Closed question
(d) All of these (c) Probing question
(d) None of these
50. Social customs had become part of discus-
sion and debates in nineteenth century 55. Which aspect you would like to focus in
with the development of: class while teaching gender?
(a) Newspapers (a) These are two different categories.
(b) Theatre (b) Boys necessarily need to study as they
(c) Radio will be earning money for family.
(d) Films (c) Critical discussion about gender issues.
(d) All of these
51. Immediately after independence India did
not face 56. The teaching approach to social science
(a) the problem of equal distribution of should:
money among India and Britain. (a) Provide one answer to the question
(b) Pakistani refugees. (b) Tell definitions of the concepts
(c) economic crisis. (c) Engage in stories and case studies to
(d) controlling princely state. teach
52. Some of the nations have not given univer- (d) None of these
sal adult franchise. They have some criteria 57. Read the questions given below and select
behind this decision. What would be the the question that will promote critical
criterion for this decision? thinking in learner.

Social Science | M11
(a) ‘New Delhi is the capital of India.’ True 59. A social science teacher wants to conduct
or false diagnostic test with his learners. He wants
(b) Discuss about two laws government to understand
made to protect women. (a) where the learners are lagging behind.
(c) Discuss the role of government to pro- (b) to identify the learning problem learn-
mote equality. ers facing in social science.
(d) Comment on the secular nature of (c) to plan a better teaching–learning
Indian states. environment for learners.
(d) All of these
58. Which of the following activity is effective
to teach diversity to Class VII? 60. What do you understand by the rule of
(a) Write about the problem of Kashmir. law?
(b) Prepare a model for water conservation. (a) Laws and rules are necessary for a
(c) Prepare groups and discuss the burden democratic society.
a man faces in patriarchal society. (b) Everybody equally entitled to all rules.
(d) Discuss about the various types of (c) Laws are broad framework than rules.
clothing in India. (d) None of these

Model Test Paper-III
1. Harshacharita is a biography of king: (c) Balban

(a) Ashoka (d) Raziyya
(b) Chandragupta-I 7. Hauz-i-Sultani was constructed by:
(c) Samudragupta (a) Iltutmish
(d) Harshavardhana (b) Jalaluddin Khilji
2. Sanchi Stupa is related to: (c) Alauddin Khilji
(a) Buddhism (d) Firuz Shah Tughluq
(b) Jainism 8. The Chahar Bagh was constructed in the
(c) Hinduism regime of:
(d) Sikhism (a) Akbar
3. Mahabalipuram temples are built on: (b) Jahangir
(a) Single piece of stone (c) Shah Jahan
(b) Half piece of stone (d) Aurangzeb
(c) Two pieces of stone
9. Vijayanagara Empire founded in:
(d) Three pieces of stone
(a) 1333 CE
4. Ajanta caves are famous for their: (b) 1334 CE
(a) Architecture (c) 1335 CE
(b) Sculpture (d) 1336 CE
(c) Inscriptions
10. Banjara caravan are called:
(d) Paintings
(a) Danda
5. A place where manuscripts and documents (b) Kanda
are stored and preserved is known as: (c) Tanda
(a) Pustak Mahal (d) None of these
(b) Libraries
11. Garha-Katanga belongs to:
(c) Archive
(a) Khonds
(d) None of these
(b) Koyas
6. Quwwat ul-Islam mosque was built by: (c) Bhils
(a) Qutb ud-Din Aibak (d) Gond
(b) Iltutmish
Z03_CTET_SOCIAL-SCI01_SE_XXXX_MODAL TEST PAPER-III.indd 12 11/5/2016 3:47:08 PM

12. Iranian ruler Nadir Shah attacked Delhi in: (c) 1877 CE
(a) 1707 CE (d) 1885 CE
(b) 1739 CE 19. New Delhi was constructed on:
(c) 1757 CE (a) Aravali hills
(d) 1761 CE (b) Deccan hills
13. The battle of Buxar was fought in: (c) Raisina hills
(a) 1757 CE (d) Ridge hills
(b) 1759 CE 20. Wood’s Despatch of 1854 is known as:
(c) 1760 CE (a) Magna Carta of Indian education
(d) 1764 CE system
14. Which one of the following was not (b) Magna Carta of Indian military system
annexed by the Doctrine of Lapse? (c) Magna Carta of Indian administrative
(a) Satara system
(b) Udaipur (d) None of these
(c) Jhansi 21. Which of the following union territory has
(d) Mysore highest population?
15. The East India Company introduced new (a) Delhi
revenue system for agriculture in 1793 CE (b) Chandigarh
is known as: (c) Puducherry
(a) Mahalwari (d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
(b) Permanent settlement 22. Which one of the following is not the main
(c) Temporary settlement source of female migration in India?
(d) None of these (a) Marriage
(b) Employment
16. Apatani and Nishi Tribes are located in:
(c) Education
(a) Arunachal Pradesh
(d) Natural disaster
(b) Himachal Pradesh
(c) Madhya Pradesh 23. Which is the longest train route in India?
(d) Uttar Pradesh (a) Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari
(b) Jammu Tawi to Kanyakumari
17. Popular rebel of 1857 CE was known as:
(c) Kalka to Howrah
(a) Sepoy mutiny
(d) None of these
(b) First war of independence
(c) Both (a) and (b) 24. Resources that are available to use in
(d) None of these present is called:
(a) Actual resources
18. The Delhi college was shut down in: (b) Potential resources
(a) 1857 CE
(c) Renewable resources
(b) 1860 CE (d) None of these

M14 | Model Test Paper-III
25. Valleys of Damodar is famous for: (c) Irrigation cultivation

(a) Large stocks of coal (d) None of these
(b) Many petroleum wells 32. Which of following crop do not need direct
(c) Mines of gold and silver sun light?
(d) None of these (a) Coffee
26. Which of the following is the least deep (b) Cotton
point of the earth? (c) Jute
(a) Kuril trench (d) Peanuts
(b) New Britain trench 33. Which of the following crop is not the crop
(c) Mariana trench of zaid?
(d) Bonin trench (a) Cotton
27. Barometer do not measure: (b) Fodder
(a) Wind speed (c) Gram
(b) Moisture (d) Jowar
(c) Atmospheric pressure
34. Which of the following is the lowest por-
(d) None of these
tion of atmosphere?
28. Which of following statement is wrong for (a) Troposphere
Dead Sea? (b) Ionosphere
(a) It is a fresh water lake. (c) Stratosphere
(b) It is a salty water lake. (d) Ozonosphere
(c) It is situated near Jordan and Israel. 35. What is the latitude measure of arctic
(d) All of these are wrong. circle?
29. Which of following statements is correct (a) 66½ northern latitude
for Lunar Lake? (b) 66½ southern latitude
(a) Crater lake (c) 23½ northern latitude
(b) Isthmus lake (d) 23½ southern latitude
(c) Manmade lake
36. Solar eclipse is the situation when
(d) None of these
(a) moon comes between the earth and
30. Which of following statements is correct? the sun.
(a) It is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. (b) earth comes between the moon and
(b) It is the highest layer of the atmosphere. the sun.
(c) It is good for airplanes. (c) sun comes between earth and moon.
(d) All of these (d) None of these
31. Which of following cultivation is the tradi- 37. Which one of the following places related
tional way to maintain nutrition in soil? with international date line ?
(a) Rotation cultivation (a) Greenwich
(b) Staircase cultivation (b) Lyon

(c) Kiev (a) the interpersonal relation with refer-

(d) Minsk ence to social phenomenon.
38. Lime stone is the original form of: (b) prioritizing national agendas over local
(a) Marble ones.
(b) Carbon (c) developing civic sense.
(d) important and relevant date in history.
(c) Lime
(d) Sand 44. There is a debate in the classroom that par-
39. Good quality Gold and silver is mainly liamentary form of democracy is not useful
for India. How will you react to this as a
found in:
teacher?
(a) Igneous rock
(a) Ask them not to be judgemental.
(b) Sedimentary rock
(b) Discuss the advantages and disadvan-
(c) Metamorphic rock
tages of parliamentary form of system.
(d) Granite
(c) Ask them not to critic constitutional
40. Which of the following statement is the values.
definition of blue moon? (d) You will be quite.
(a) Second full moon of a calendar month
45. Which one of the following is not suited to
(b) First full moon of a calendar month
social science pedagogy?
(c) Last full moon of a calendar year
(a) Relating learning with learners’ every-
(d) First full moon of a calendar year
day life
41. The Panchayati Raj system work on (b) Relating only relevant outcome to
__________ level(s). learners’ life
(a) Three (c) Taking test related to reach concepts
(b) One taught by teacher
(c) Four (d) None of these
(d) Two
46. Which one of the following can be cri-
42. How can we re-establish the significance tiqued with reference to pedagogy of
of social science? social science?
(a) By increasing the job opportunities (a) Group work
(b) Developing empowered and critical (b) Lecturing
thinkers (c) Field task
(c) Establishing the need of studying (d) Poster making
social issues and concerns
47. A teacher decides to maintain cumulative
(d) All of these
records of his social science learners. What
43. The social science curriculum needs to should he focus on to develop cumulative
reflect about record of evaluation?

M16 | Model Test Paper-III
(a) Disciplinary record 52. A teacher is teaching the concept of

(b) Absent and medical records ‘Fundamental Rights.’ She has planned
(c) Aptitude, interests, and social adjust- group activities in such a way that visual
ment records impaired can also become active partici-
(d) General behaviour record of learners pants in discussion. She is trying to be:
(a) Sympatric towards visually impaired
48. When a teacher asks views of learners
learners
about any concept of social science and
(b) Inclusive in her pedagogy
then discusses the accepted knowledge.
Teacher is working on the principle of: (c) Engage learners in class on the princi-
ple of integration
(a) Indefinite to definite
(d) Develop care and concern in learners
(b) Abstract to concrete
other than visually impaired
(c) Simple to complex
(d) Empirical to logical 53. Relating the knowledge of one subject
with the knowledge of other subject is
49. If you have to make a lesson plan about
known as:
‘Government’, which one of the following
will be your first move? (a) Combining the knowledge of subjects
(a) Deciding the objectives (b) Correlation of knowledge
(c) Motivation to study both the subjects
(b) Reading about the Government many
times (d) Strength of teaching of collective
subjects
(c) Deciding about the resource materials
(d) Deciding the questions to be asked to 54. If fundamental rights of any individual get
introduce the topic violated, the s/he can directly go to the
Supreme Court because they have right:
50. The objective of teaching of social science
(a) Against exploitation
should be written effectively. Which one
of the following way is best suited to the (b) To constitutional remedies
(c) To equality
nature of social science discipline?
(d) To liberty
(a) Opportunities will be provided to the
learner to ---------- 55. Social equality can be best taught by:
(b) Students will be able to ---------- (a) Explaining scientific meaning of the
(c) Student will come to know ---------- concept equality
(d) All of these (b) Explaining about social equality from
the book only
51. The prime objective of teaching of social
(c) Taking examples from learners’ con-
science is to:
text to make them understand about
(a) Learn
social equality
(b) Reflect
(d) Asking them to critically answer the
(c) Remember
question given in exercise in the book
(d) Make notes

56. What would be your approach to deal with (c) It has created problems for govern-
sensitive issues such as religion in your mental processes.
class? (d) It has not impacted justice process at
(a) You will ask them to read such con- all.
cepts on their own from books and 59. Right to Education is a fundamental right
from library reading. under:
(b) You will respect the book and share (a) Article 21 A
with them what so ever is given in the (b) Article 14
text book. (c) Article 17 A
(c) You will discuss such issues with sensi- (d) Article 18 A
tivity and honesty without hurting the
dignity of any religion. 60. What is the objective of assessment in
(d) You will leave such chapters. social science?
(a) To provide them good grade to get
57. Every time Lok Sabha starts, the very first good job.
hour is known as: (b) To know the knowledge of a learner.
(a) Zero hour (c) To maintain the school record of stu-
(b) Question hour dent achievement.
(c) First hour (d) To provide need-based feedbacks to
(d) None of these the learner and teacher to develop
58. How PIL has contributed towards the idea better learning environment.
of equal justice?
(a) It has hindered the process of justice.
(b) It has helped to achieve justice.

Bibliography
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Bandyopadhyaya, S. (2004), From Plassey to Partition and After: A History of Modern India,
Orient Blackswan, Delhi.
Bandopadhyaya, S. (2009), Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India, Orient Blackswan,
India.
Beetham, H and Sharpe, R (Eds) (2007), Rethinking Pedagogy for a Digital Age: Designing and
Delivering E-learning, Routledge, Oxford.
Bernstein, B. (2000), Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and Identity, Rowman & Littlefield, Oxford,
England.
Bining and Bining (1990), Teaching of Social Science, McGraw Hill Book Company INC, New York.
Brophy (2002), Social Constructivist Teaching: Affordances and constraints, Elsevier, New York.
Bowles, S. and Gintis, H. (1976), Schooling in Capitalist America, Basic Books, New York.
Carr, E. H. (1962), What is history?, Knopf, New York.
Chandra, S. (2007), History of Medieval India: 800–1700. Orient Longman, Hyderabad, India.
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Flyvbjerg, B. (2001), Making Social Science Matter: Why Social Inquiry Fails and How it Can
Succeed Again, Cambridge University Press, New York.
Hacker, A. (1961), Political theory, Philosophy, Ideology, Science, The Macmillan Company, New
York.
Jha, D. N. (2004), Early India: A Concise History, Manohar Publisher & Distributors, India.
Johnson, S. E. (1988), Theory and Practice of Social Studies, The Macmillan Company, New York.
Kirkpatrick, E. (1977), Foundation of Political Science: Research, Methods and Scope, The Free
press, New York.
Kumar, S. (2009), ‘Teaching of Social Science: A Situated Cognition Perspective’, Journal of Indian
Education. Vol. 35 (2), pp. 52–63.
Kumar, S. (2010), How to Teach Social Science Differently: Teach and Learn Social Science, VDM
Publishing, Germany.
Kumar, S. (2011), Role of Socio-cultural Contexts in Process of concept Development, In Singh,
S. P. and Dangwal, L. K. (Eds), Innovative Educational Methods, pp. 183–192, New Delhi
Publishing, Delhi.
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Kumar, S (2012), Human Rights and Pedagogy, Discovery Publication House, India.
Moon, J. (2008), Critical Thinking: An exploration of theory and practice, Routledge, London.
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Publishing Department, Delhi.
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NCERT (2007), Fundamental of Human Geography, National Council for Educational Research
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NCERT (2007), Our Past-II, National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing
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A Complete Resource for

A01_CTET_SOCIAL-SCI01_SE_XXXX_FM.indd 1 12/27/2016 11:30:37 AM

SOCIAL-SCIENCE.indd 1 12/9/2016 5:05:13 PM

Chapter 01: When, Where, and How

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Chapter 02: Earliest Human Civilisation and Processes

A01_CTET_SOCIAL-SCI01_SE_XXXX_FM.indd 3 12/16/2016 5:20:16 PM

Customs and Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Chapter 03: State Formation and Social Change

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Chapter 04: Empires, Social, and Cultural Exchange

A01_CTET_SOCIAL-SCI01_SE_XXXX_FM.indd 4 12/16/2016 5:20:16 PM

Administration of the Mauryan Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Chapter 05: Change and Continuity

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Chapter 06: Emergence of New Power and Social Change

A01_CTET_SOCIAL-SCI01_SE_XXXX_FM.indd 5 12/16/2016 5:20:16 PM

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Chapter 07: Era of Rapid Changes

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Chapter 08: Nationalist Movement and Social Reforms

A01_CTET_SOCIAL-SCI01_SE_XXXX_FM.indd 6 12/16/2016 5:20:16 PM

Criticism of Orientalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Chapter 09: India after Independence

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Chapter 01: Solar System

A01_CTET_SOCIAL-SCI01_SE_XXXX_FM.indd 7 12/16/2016 5:20:16 PM

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

Chapter 02: Earth in Solar System

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

A01_CTET_SOCIAL-SCI01_SE_XXXX_FM.indd 8 12/16/2016 5:20:16 PM

Lunar Eclipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Chapter 04: Environment

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Chapter 05: Air

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

A01_CTET_SOCIAL-SCI01_SE_XXXX_FM.indd 9 12/16/2016 5:20:16 PM

Chapter 06: Water

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

Chapter 07: Agriculture

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Chapter 08: Resources

A01_CTET_SOCIAL-SCI01_SE_XXXX_FM.indd 10 12/16/2016 5:20:16 PM

Conventional Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Chapter 09: Human Environment

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

UNIT-III Social and Political Life

Chapter 01: Understanding Diversity

A01_CTET_SOCIAL-SCI01_SE_XXXX_FM.indd 11 12/16/2016 5:20:16 PM

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

Chapter 03: Making a Living

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

Chapter 04: Democracy

A01_CTET_SOCIAL-SCI01_SE_XXXX_FM.indd 12 12/16/2016 5:20:17 PM

Direct Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

Chapter 05: Understanding Media

Social Science February 2016