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1 Management as an Art and Science

Regard management as science because there are well tested and experimented principles of
management, some authors describe management as an art because more practice is required in
management and some authors consider that management is going towards the paths of profession.
To conclude whether management is as an art and science, we must understand the features and
meanings of science and an art and compare them with management meaning and features.
(Mullins, 2005)
1.1.2 Management as a Science
Science can be defined as a systematic and organized body of knowledge based on logically
observed findings, facts and events. Science comprises of exact principles which can be verified
and it can establish cause and effect relations. (Mullins, 2005)
1.1.2.1 Main Characteristics/Features of Science
Systematic body of Knowledge
In science organized and systematic study material is available which is used to acquire the
knowledge of science. Like science in management also there is availability of systematic and
organized study material. So first feature of science is present in management. (Mullins, 2005)
Scientific principles are derived on the basis of Logical and Scientific Observations
The scientists perform logical observation before deriving any principle or theory. They are very
objective while doing the observations. But when managers are observing they have to observe
human beings and observation of human being cannot be purely logical and objective. Some kind
of subjectivity enters in the observations so this feature of science is not present in management.
All the scientific principles have same effect, wherever we try them whereas effect of management
principles varies from one situation to other. (Chandan, 2007)
Principles are based on repeated experiments
Before developing scientific principles scientists test these principles under different conditions
and places. Similarly, managers also test and experiment managerial principles under different
conditions in different organisations. So this feature of science is present in management.
(Chandan, 2007)
Universal Validity
Scientific principles have universal application and validity. Management principles are not exact
like scientific principles so their application and use is not universal. They have to be modified

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according to the given situation. So this feature of science is not present in management. (Chandan,
2007)
Replication is Possible
In science replication is possible as when two scientists are undertaking the same investigation
working independently and treating the same data under the same conditions may desire or obtain
the identical or exactly same result. But in management managers have to conduct research or
experiments on human beings. So if’ two managers are investigating same data, on different sets
of human beings they will not get identical or same result because human beings never respond in
exactly identical manner. So this feature of science is also not present in management. (Chandan,
2007)
1.1.3 Management as an Art
Art can be defined as systematic body of knowledge which requires skill, creativity and practice
to get perfection. Art can be defined as systematic body of knowledge which requires skill,
creativity and practice to get perfection. (Chandan, 2007)
1.1.3.1 The Main Features of Management as an Art
Systematic body of Knowledge/Existence of Theoretical Knowledge
In every art there is systematic and organized study material available to acquire theoretical
knowledge of the art. For example, various books on different ragas are available in music. In
management also there is systematic and organized body of knowledge available which can help
in acquiring managerial studies. So this feature of art is present in management also. (Mullins,
2005)
Personalized Application
In the field of art only theoretical knowledge is not enough. Every artist must have personal skill
and creativity to apply that knowledge. For example, all musicians learn same ragas but they apply
these ragas according to their personal skill and creativity which makes them different.
In management also all managers learn same management theories and principles. But their
efficiency depends on how well they use these principles under different situations by applying
personal skills and creativity so this feature of art is also present in management. (Mullins, 2005)
Based on Practice and Creativity
The artist requires regular practice of art to become more fine and perfect. Without practice artists
lose their perfection. Art requires creative practice, i.e., artist must add his creativity to the
theoretical knowledge he has learned. Same way with experience managers also improves their
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managerial skills and efficiency. So this feature of art is also present in management. (Mullins,
2005)
Management: Both Science and Art
Therefore management may concluded as both science as well as art. Like science it has systematic
and well- organized body of knowledge and like art it requires personal skill, creativity and practice
to apply such knowledge in the best possible way. Science and art are not in contrast to each other;
both exist together in every function of management. (Mullins, 2005)
1.2 Reasons for Performance of Management is Individualization and Situational
Many times, employee performance is affected by difficult situations. The management skills
are going to determine whether performance issues continue to the point of destroying your
business or are dealt with professionally and effectively so work can continue. Help your
employees whenever you can with such concerns as health issues, home life problems and their
relationships with other workers and management. Prompt attention to situational causes of poor
performance will help ensure the smooth running of your operation. (Wehrich. and Koontz,
2005).
1.2.1 Health Issues
Managers must understand how hard it is for an individual employee to perform at his best when
he is suffering from an illness or is injured. Good health is vital for giving an employee the
energy, alertness and comfort required to perform all the work he is assigned. Help your
employee maintain or regain health by encouraging and making it possible via his schedule for
doctor visits. You can also help with the implementation of healthy measures such as stocking
the work place with healthy snacks, bottles of water, a clean and hygienic environment and a
comfortable break area in which employees can go to refresh themselves. (Wehrich. and Koontz,
2005).
1.2.2 Home Life Issues
Each employees who have a good home life are likely to be happy and productive on the job,
while workers experiencing hardships in their off time are likely to see a deterioration in work
performance. You can help employees improve their lives outside of work with the establishment
of an Employee Assistance Program that addresses many types of issues including mental health
concerns and substance abuse. Also, according to the Sloan Center on Aging and Work of Boston
College, you as a manager need to extend as much flexibility as possible to an employee in need.

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For example, you should help the worker in developing a work schedule that allows him to
balance out work and life issues. (Wehrich. and Koontz, 2005).
1.2.3 Employee Relations
When employees have a trusting and congenial relationship with others in the workplace, they
are able to perform well. Unfortunately, disagreements among employees can result in a tense
environment where work proceeds slowly. Managers should note that when employees are angry
with one another or worried about how they are perceived, it is impossible to concentrate on
producing good work. Open your door to employees who are experiencing problems working
with one another so everyone can speak their minds. Ask specific, straightforward questions
about what is happening so you can aid the employees in working out the problems, making sure
they can return to their work in a tension-free atmosphere. (Wehrich. and Koontz, 2005).
1.2.4 Supervisor Feedback
According to Lisa Rothberger, writing for Corp Magazine, performance feedback is essential in
the workplace. Each employees must know the areas in which they are strong and what needs to
be improved so they can work effectively. Frame your feedback in a positive way by citing
employee strengths first, letting them know you believe in their abilities to address particular
aspects of work and tell them how much you appreciate their hard work and flexibility. Give
consistent feedback so you and your employees are always up to date on all performance issues.
(Wehrich. and Koontz, 2005).
1.3 Managerial Styles with its Advantages and Disadvantages
1.3.1 Management by Objective (MBO)
It was Peter F. Drucker who first gave the concept of MBO to the world in 1954 when his book
The Practice of Management was first published. Management by objective can be described as, a
process whereby the superior and subordinate managers of an organization jointly identify its
common goals, define each individual‘s major areas of responsibility in terms of results expected
of him and use these measures as guides for operating the unit and assessing the contribution of
each of its members. (Armstrong, 2003)
1.3.1.1 Benefits or Advantages of MBO
The benefits of MBO are as follows:
Balanced Focus on Objectives: MBO forces the management to set objectives with balanced
stress on key result area. Thus, crisis conditions are avoided to take place in the organization.
(Armstrong, 2003)
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Better Managing Things: MBO forces managers to think about planning for results, rather than
merely planning activates or work. Managers are required to ensure that the targets are realistic
and needed resources are made available to subordinates to achieve the targets. Clearly set
objectives for the subordinates serve as evaluation standards and motivators for them. Thus, MBO
results in improvement in managing. (Armstrong, 2003)
Better Organizing: The positions in the enterprise can be built around the key result areas.
Managers are required to clarify organizational roles and structures hence better organizing.
MBO Reduces Role Conflict and Ambiguity: Role conflict exists when a person is faced with
conflicting demands from two or more supervisors; and role ambiguity exits when a person is
uncertain as to how he will be evaluated, or what he has to achieve. Since MBO aims at providing
clear targets and their order or priority, it reduces both these situations. (Armstrong, 2003)
It Provide more Objective Appraisal Criteria: The targets emerge from the MBO process
provide a sound set of criteria for evaluating the manager‘s performance.
More Motivation: MBO helps and increases employee motivation because it relates overall goals
to the individual‘s goals: and help to increase an employee‘s understanding or where the
organization is and where it is heading.
Managers Complete with Themselves: Managers are more likely to complete with themselves
than with other managers. The kind of evaluation can reduce internal conflicts that often arise
when managers compete with each other to obtain scarce resources.
Develop Personal Leadership: MBO helps the individual manager to develop personal
leadership, especially the skills of listening, planning, controlling, motivating, counseling and
evaluating. This approach to managing instills a personal commitment to respond positively to the
organization’s major concerns as well as to the development of human resources. (Armstrong,
2003)
1.3.1.2 Disadvantages of MBO
Unfavorable Attitude of Managers
Some executives have an attitude that the regular attention required of them by Management by
objectives system, drawn heavily on their busy time-schedule and is not consistent with their roles.
They feel that it is not so effective a way as some other approaches. Some view their roles as
primarily involving policy-making, budget formulation etc. (Armstrong, 2003)

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Difficult to Apply MBO Concepts
Those executives who have been involved very often find it difficult to apply MBO concepts to
their own work habits. They find it hard to think about the results of work rather than the work
itself. They tend to over emphasize goals that the easy to quantify, sometimes forgetting that
workers often behave almost like children at play-when the game no longer challenges, interest is
soon last.
Heavy Paper Work
MBO involves a huge amount of newsletter, instruction booklets, training manuals, questionnaires,
performance data review and appraisals report to be prepared by the superior and subordinates.
Thus MBO is said to have created one more paper mill in organization added to the already existing
large amount of paper work.
Tug of War
There is sometimes tug of war in which the subordinates try to set the lowest targets possible and
the supervisors the highest.
Time Consuming
MBO is time consuming especially in the early phases of its introduction when employees are
unfamiliar with its process. (Armstrong, 2003)
1.3.2 Management by Walking Around (MBWA)
Management by Walking Around (MBWA) is a great way to build relationships with all of your
employees. MBWA is simply walking around your workplace and connecting with all of your
employees. This can give you a sense of how things are going as well as showing your employees
that you are approachable and interested in them. MBWA, if done correctly, can increase morale
and productivity. (Tucker and, Singer, 2015)
1.3.2.1 The MBWA have the following four advantages:
Understand the situation. No less than the front-line person walk, sometimes like fog outlook
spent, not the end in mind. And then there are many rank-and sometimes like bad news, and
sometimes the problem resolve itself, not in a timely manner, may give the company’s
overall work caused passive.
Strengthen communication. The move is communication and exchanges at all levels. Direct
communication, you can master the timely, reliable, comprehensive, and lay a solid foundation for
future accurate, decisive and timely decision-making.

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Exchanges. Often to the grassroots, direct exchanges and front-line employees, about their
thoughts, views and opinions, the closer on emotional communication between different levels,
eliminate some of the misunderstandings and misconceptions due estrangement, generate mutual
trust better with the decision to consider the surface broader, more comprehensive.
Supervision work. Implementation of management by walking around, is the work of an
inspection, in particular, to direct the work of subordinate a check. Helps to supervise subordinates
to work harder, active, positive work. (Tucker and, Singer, 2015)
1.3.2.2 Disadvantages of Management by Walking Around (MBWA)
The limits of geography. Firstly it is kind a limited by geography. It requires managers actually
walk around, and there’s only so much ground an executive can cover in amongst their other tasks.
It’s limited to employees. When you can only cover so much distance it stands to reason that your
reach will be limited. Therefore it’s understandable that executives limit their focus to employees
and don’t walk around customers and other stakeholders that would nevertheless provide valuable
insight.
It relies upon candid insights. A feature of MBWA is that it is random. The thinking goes that if
employees expect a visit from you then it will not provide you with a true insight into what’s going
on. Even so, with an executive stood over your shoulder, even a random visit is only going to
provide so much insight. Many employees will refrain from providing honest insights if that means
being critical of the boss. (Tucker and, Singer, 2015)
1.3.3 Management by Exception
Management by exception (MBE) is a practice where only significant deviations from a budget or
plan are brought to the attention of management. The idea behind it is that management's attention
will be focused only on those areas in need of action. When they are notified of variance, managers
can hone in on that specific issue and let staff handle everything else. This model is similar to the
vital signs monitoring systems in hospital critical care units. When one of the patient's vital signs
goes outside the range programmed into the machine, an alarm sounds and staff runs to the rescue.
If the machine is quiet, it's assumed that the patient is stable, and they will receive only regular
staff attention. (Bloom, Nicholas, and John, 2007)
1.3.3.1 Advantages of Management by Exception
i. It reduces the amount of financial and operational results that management must review,
which a more efficient use of their time is.

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 ii. The report writer linked to the accounting system can be set to automatically print reports
at stated intervals that contain the predetermined exception levels, which is a minimally-
invasive reporting approach.
iii. This method allows employees to follow their own approaches to achieving the results
mandated in the company's budget. Management will only step in if exception conditions
exist.
iv. The company's auditors will make inquiries about large exceptions as part of their annual
audit activities, so management should investigate these issues in advance of the audit.
(Bloom, Nicholas, and John, 2007)
1.3.3.2 Disadvantages
There are several issues with the management by exception concept, which are:
i. This concept is based on the existence of a budget against which actual results are compared.
If the budget was not well formulated, there may be a large number of variances, many of
which are irrelevant, and which will waste the time of anyone investigating them.
ii. The concept requires the use of financial analysts who prepare variance summaries and
present this information to management. Thus, an extra layer of corporate overhead is
required to make the concept function properly. Also, an incompetent analyst might not
recognize a potentially serious issue, and will not bring it to the attention of management.
iii. This concept is based on the command-and-control system, where conditions are monitored
and decisions made by a central group of senior managers. You could instead have a
decentralized organizational structure, where local managers could monitor conditions on a
daily basis, and so would not need an exception reporting system.
iv. The concept assumes that only managers can correct variances. If a business were instead
structured so that front line employees could deal with most variances as soon as they arise,
there would be little need for management by exception. (Bloom, Nicholas, and John, 2007)
1.4 Elements and Principles of Scientific Management
Scientific management refers to an important stream of one of the earlier schools of thought of
management referred to as the ‘Classical’ school. In the words of Taylor, “Scientific management
means knowing exactly what you want men to do and seeing that they do it in the best and cheapest
way. The Bethlehem Steel company where Taylor himself worked achieved three-fold increase in
productivity by application of scientific management principles. Therefore, it would be in order to
discuss these principles. (Bloom, Nicholas, and John, 2007)
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1.4.1 Science not Rule of Thumb
Taylor pioneered the introduction of the method of scientific inquiry into the domain of
management practice. We have already referred to the limitations of the rule of thumb approach
of management. As different managers would follow their indigenous rules of thumb, it is but a
statement of the obvious that all would not be equally effective. Taylor believed that there was
only one best method to maximize efficiency. This method can be developed through study and
analysis. The method so developed should substitute ‘Rule of Thumb’ throughout the organization.
Scientific method involved investigation of traditional methods through work-study, unifying the
best practices and developing a standard method, which would be followed throughout the
organization. According to Taylor, even a small production activity like loading pigs of iron into
boxcars can be scientifically planned and managed. This can result in tremendous saving of human
energy as well as wastage of time and materials. The more sophisticated the processes, greater
would be the savings. In the present context, the use of internet has brought about dramatic
improvements in internal efficiencies and customer satisfaction. (Bloom, Nicholas, and John,
2007)
1.4.2 Harmony, Not Discord
Factory system of production implied that managers served as a link between the owners and the
workers. Since as managers they had the mandate to ‘get work done’ from the workers, it should
not be there always existed the possibility of a kind of class-conflict, the mangers versus workers.
Taylor recognized that this conflict helped none, the workers, the managers or the factory owners.
He emphasized that there should be complete harmony between the management and workers.
Both should realize that each one is important. To achieve this state, Taylor called for complete
mental revolution on the part of both management and workers. It means that management and
workers should transform their thinking. In such a situation even trade unions will not think of
going on strike etc. (Bloom, Nicholas, and John, 2007)
1.4.3 Cooperation, Not Individualism
There should be complete cooperation between the labour and the management instead of
individualism. This principle is an extension of principle of ‘Harmony not discord’. Competition
should be replaced by cooperation. Both should realise that they need each other. For this,
management should not close its ears to any constructive suggestions made by the employees.
They should be rewarded for their suggestions which results in substantial reduction in costs. They
should be part of management and, if any important decisions are taken, workers should be taken
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into confidence. At the same time workers should desist from going on strike and making
unreasonable demands on the management. In fact when there will be open communication system
and goodwill there will be no need for even a trade union. Paternalistic style of management,
whereby the employer takes care of the needs of employees, would prevail as in the case of
Japanese companies. According to Taylor, there should be an almost equal division of work and
responsibility between workers and management. All the daylong the management should work
almost side by side with the workers helping, encouraging and smoothing the way for them.
(Bloom, Nicholas, and John, 2007)
1.4.4 Development of Each and Every Person to His or Her Greatest Efficiency and
Prosperity
Industrial efficiency depends to a large extent on personnel competencies. As such, scientific
management also stood for worker development. Worker training was essential also to learn the
‘best method’ developed as a consequence of the scientific approach. Taylor was of the view that
the concern for efficiency could be built in right from the process of employee selection. Each
person should be scientifically selected. Then work assigned should suit her/his physical, mental
and intellectual capabilities. To increase efficiency, they should be given the required training.
Efficient employees would produce more and earn more. This will ensure their greatest efficiency
and prosperity for both company and workers.
From the foregoing discussion it is clear that Taylor was an ardent supporter of use of scientific
method of production in business. (Bloom, Nicholas, and John, 2007)
1.5 Reasons for Management is Profession in some Countries and not in other Countries
1.5.1 Management as a Profession
Profession can be defined as an occupation backed by specialized knowledge and training, in
which entry is restricted. (Chandan, 2007)
1.5.1.1 Well defined Body of knowledge
In every profession there is practice of systematic body of knowledge which helps the
professionals to gain specialized knowledge of that profession. In case of management also there
is availability of systematic body of knowledge. (Chandan, 2007)
There are large numbers of books available on management studies. Scholars are studying various
business situations and are trying to develop new principles to tackle these situations. So presently
this feature of profession is present in management also. (Chandan, 2007)

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1.5.1.2 Restricted Entry
The entry to a profession is restricted through an examination or degree. For example a person can
practice as Doctor only when he is having MBBS degree. Whereas there is no legal restriction on
appointment of a manager, anyone can become a manager irrespective of the educational
qualification. But now many companies prefer to appoint managers only with MBA degree. So
presently this feature of profession is not present in management but very soon it will be included
with statutory backing. (Chandan, 2007)
1.5.1.3 Presence of Professional Associations
For all the professions, special associations are established and every professional has to get
himself registered with his association before practicing that profession. For example, doctors have
to get themselves registered with Medical Council of Tanzania, lawyers with School of Laws,
Accountant with NBAA or ACCA etc.
1.5.1.4 Existence of Ethical Codes
For every profession there are set of ethical codes fixed by professional organizations and are
binding on all the professionals of that profession. In case of management there is growing
emphasis on ethical behaviour of managers. All India Management Association (AIMA) has
devised a code of conduct for Indian managers. But legally it is not compulsory for all the managers
to get registered with AIMA and abide by the ethical codes. So presently this feature of profession
is not present in management but very soon it will be included with statutory backing. (Chandan,
2007)
1.5.1.5 Service Motive
The basic motive of every profession is to serve the clients with dedication. Whereas basic purpose
of management is achievement of management goal, for example for a business organization the
goal can be profit maximization. But nowadays only profit maximization cannot be the sole goal
of an enterprise. To survive in market for a long period of time, a businessman must give due
importance to social objectives along with economic objectives. So presently this feature of
profession is not present but very soon it will be included. (Chandan, 2007)

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References
Armstrong, M. (2003). Human Resource Management Practice, 9th edition, Kagan London.
Bloom, Nicholas, and John Van Reenen. (2007) “Measuring and Explaining Management
Practices Across Firms and Countries.” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 122(4): 1341–
1408
Chandan, J. S. (2007). Management Concepts and Strategies, Vikas house PVT, New Delhi.
Mullins, L. J. (2005). Management and Organizational Behaviour, 7 th edition, FT prenticetall,
London UK.
Tucker AL, Singer SJ. (2015). The effectiveness of management‐by‐walking‐around: A
randomized field study. Production and Operations Management. 24(2):253-71.
Wehrich. H. and Koontz, H. (2005). Management Global Perspective, Tenth edition, McGraw-
Hill, New Delhi.

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