Introduction to endocrine system

and hormones
 Terms
• Endocrinology

– Study of hormones and disorders of

these hormones

– Endocrine System: consists of group of

glands.

– Hypothalamus & pituitary

– Thyroid & parathyroid

– Adrenals

– Others (Islets of Langerhans, ovaries,

testicles, placenta)
 What are endocrine systems for?

• Endocrine Functions

• Maintain Internal Homeostasis

• Support Cell Growth

• Coordinate Development

• Coordinate Reproduction

• Facilitate Responses to External Stimuli

 Nervous vs. Endocrine Systems
• Act together to coordinate functions of all body systems

• Nervous system

– Nerve impulses/ Neurotransmitters

– Faster responses, briefer effects, acts on specific target.

• Endocrine system

– Hormone – mediator molecule released in 1 part of the body but

regulates activity of cells in other parts

– Slower responses, effects last longer, broader influence

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

What are the elements of an endocrine system?
•Sender = Sending Cell
•Signal = Hormone

•Medium = Serum & Hormone Binders

•Selective Receiver = Receptor Protein
•Transducer = Transducer Proteins & 2º Messengers

•Amplifier = Transducer/Effector Enzymes

•Effector = Effector Proteins

•Response = Cellular Response

 Exocrine vs. Endocrine
• Most glands in the human body are categorized as either

– Exocrine

– Endocrine

• Exocrine [ducted] – release products (enzymes) into ducts

– extracellular effects (food digestion)

– Ex) Sweat, tears, digestive juices

• Endocrine glands are [ductless] – directly to bloodstream; NO

DUCTS, the hormones are released directly into the circulation

– intracellular effects, alter target cell metabolism

– Ex) Hormones
Endocrine cells secrete a hormone into
the bloodstream.

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 Hormone:
• Hormones are chemical substances that are produced by a
specialized glands.

• However, specialized cells in various other organs also secrete

hormones.

• Endocrine glands include;

– Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and pineal glands

Hypothalamus, thymus (Thymosin), pancreas, ovaries, testes,
kidneys, stomach (Gastrin), liver (IGF-1), heart, and placenta not
exclusively endocrine glands.

• e.g kidney produce (Erythropoietin).

 Characteristics of Hormones
• Specificity

– Only target cells respond

• Multiple actions

• Variable half-life

• Excretion rates:

1. Diurnal variation , cyclic patterns, light dark changes

ACTH

– Highest levels between 6-8 am

– Lowest levels between 6-11 pm

2. Stimulus response (pulsatile secretion) every 2-3 hours

 Hormone Receptors
• Located on

– cell membrane

– within cell cytoplasm

– within the nucleus

• Binding of hormone to receptor initiates a signal

• Results in changes in gene expression and or activate an effector

enzymes.

• Ultimately causes a biological response

 Patterns of Hormone Action:

Target cells or tissue:

Specific cells affected by a

hormone

Endocrine: circulated by blood

to target cells

Paracrine: Hormones that affect

neighboring cells

Autocrine: Hormones that act

on the cells that secrete them
 Hormone Actions

• “Lock and Key” approach: describes the interaction between the

hormone and its specific receptor.

– Receptors for non-steroid hormones are located on the cell

membrane

– Receptors for steroid hormones are found in the cell’s cytoplasm

or in its nucleus
 What kinds of hormone are there?

• Known Hormonal Classes

• Proteins & peptides

• Amino acid derived

• Lipids (steroids)
 Chemical Classification of Hormones:
• Steroid Hormones:

– Composed of lipids (cholesterol)

– Lipid soluble

– Diffuse through cell membranes

– Long-lasting

– Endocrine organs

• Adrenal cortex (Cortisol and aldosterone)

• Ovaries (Estrogens and progesterone)

• Testes ( Testosterone)

• Placenta (Estrogens and progesterone)

 Steroid Hormones
• Steroid hormones enter through the cell membrane and bind to
receptors inside of the target cell.

• These hormones may directly stimulate transcription of genes to

make certain proteins.

• Because steroids work by triggering gene activity, the response is

slower than peptide hormones.
 steroid hormone (extracellular 2 The hormone binds to a
fluid) receptor in the nucleus or to
a receptor in the cytoplasm 3 The hormone–receptor
that carries it into the nucleus complex binds to DNA and
causes RNA polymerase to
bind to a nearby promoter
1 A steroid hormone site for a specific gene
diffuses through the
plasma membrane

plasma DNA
hormone receptor
membrane
ribosome
RNA polymerase
5 The mRNA leaves the
nucleus, then attaches to a
ribosome and directs the 4 RNA polymerase catalyzes
synthesis of a specific protein mRNA the transcription of DNA into
product messenger RNA (mRNA)

new protein gene

nuclear
envelope
(cytoplasm) (nucleus)
 Mechanism of Action for lipid-soluble or steroid
Endocrine hormones

Lipid-Soluble Hormones

Aldosterone

Testosterone

Estrogen

Progesterone
 Chemical Classification of Hormones
• Nonsteroid Hormones:
– Not lipid soluble
– Peptides, proteins and amines
– Received by receptors external to the cell membrane
– Endocrine organs
• Parathyroid gland
• Thyroid gland
• Adrenal medulla
• Pituitary gland
• pancreas
 Chemical Types of Hormones
• Peptides/proteins (oxytocin)

– Polypeptides or glycoproteins

– Soluble in plasma

– Interact with target cell membrane receptors to trigger a second

messenger to complete the specific action of the hormone.

– Short term effects

• Amines

– Amino acid derivatives

– Poorly soluble in plasma

– Interact with membrane receptors of target cells

– Provide long and short term effects

 Peptide Hormones

• Peptide hormones do not enter the cell directly. These hormones

bind to receptor proteins in the cell membrane.

• When the hormone binds with the receptor protein, a secondary

messenger molecule initiates the cell response.

• Because peptide hormones are water soluble, they often produce

fast responses.
 peptide or amino
acid-derived 2 Hormone–receptor binding
hormone activates an enzyme that catalyzes
(first messenger) the synthesis of a second messenger,
1 The hormone binds to such as cyclic AMP
a receptor on the plasma cyclic AMP-
membrane of a target cell synthesizing (cytoplasm)
enzyme
(extracellular
fluid) ATP

active
enzyme
receptor product
cyclic AMP
(second messenger) 4 The activated enzymes
catalyze specific reactions
plasma membrane

inactive reactant
enzyme
3 The second nuclear
messenger activates envelope
other enzymes (nucleus)
 Mechanism of action for water-soluble Hormones
Water soluble hormones

Catecholamines

Epinephrine

Norepinephrine

Peptides/Proteins

All Hypothalamic
releasing/inhibiting

hormones

Oxytocin and ADH

 Mechanism of action for water-soluble Hormones
Anterior Pituitary Hormones

Human Growth hormone GH

TSH

ACTH

FSH

LH

Prolactin
 Mechanism of action for water-soluble Hormones

Parathyroid gland

Parathyroid Hormone

Pancreas Hormones

Insulin

Glucagon
 Regulation of Hormone Secretion

• Negative feedback is the primary mechanism through which your

endocrine system maintains homeostasis

• Secretion of a specific hormones turned on or off by specific

physiological changes (similar to a thermostat)
 Negative feedback

1. Examples– Glucagon and Insulin

– Glucagon (alpha cells) of pancreas

– Insulin (beta cells) of pancreas

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2. The hypothalamus senses low circulating levels of thyroid
hormone (Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4)) and responds by
releasing thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). The TRH stimulates
the pituitary to produce thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).

(▬)

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 Positive feedback

1. Definition– change in a factor triggers a physiological

response that AMPLIFIES an initial change

2. Example— in the birth of a baby; how?

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Self-amplifying cycle

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 Positive feedback

• Details of birth of a baby

– 1. Uterine contractions push the fetus against the cervix

– 2. The stretching of the cervix (RECEPTOR/SENSOR is the

nerve cells here) triggers nerve impulses to the brain

– 3. Brings about oxytocin secretion

– 4. The hormone oxytocin causes even stronger powerful

contractions of the uterus (EFFECTOR is muscles in wall of
uterus)

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Thank you