Nonlinear Cable Analysis Using Four-Noded Isoparametric Elements PDF

Compurcrv & Sm~tures Vol. 54. No. 3. pp.
461492, 1995
Copyright b: 1995 Elsevier Science Ltd
Pergamon 0045-7949(94)00353-x Prtnted m Great Britain. All rights reserved
0045-794919s $9.50 + 0.00
MODELING THE NONLINEAR SEISMIC BEHAVIOR OF

CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES WITH PASSIVE
CONTROL BEARINGS
H. M. Alit and A. M. Abdel-Ghaffarf

Wructural Research and Analysis Corporation, 2951 28th Street, Suite 1000,
Santa Monica, CA 90405, U.S.A.
JDepartment of Civil Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles,
CA 90089-253 I, U.S.A.
(Received 21 August 1993)
Abstract-A three-dimensional nonlinear finite element model is developed for cable-stayed bridges under
static and dynamic loadings based on the total Lagrangian formulation. The model can account for the
large displacements that are usually associated with extended in plane contemporary cable-supported
structures. A four-node isoparametric cable element is introduced and proposed for the idealization of
cables. The element can predict both in-plane and out-of-plane responses. In addition, the cable element
takes into consideration the effect of pretension which is one of the features of cable-stayed bridges.
Four-node isoparamelric beam elements are proposed to model the deck and towers. The element is
formulated for general symmetric sections including multi-vent box sections, plate sections and cut-off
corner tower sections. The introduced beam element handles large displacements, shear deformations and
curved configurations. However, the main advantage of the proposed element is the reduction of degrees
of frcedop ,associated with some deck types such as the box sections where one beam element can represent
the main girder. lvitireovsr. the internal nodes for both beam and cable elements can be eliminated during
the solution of equilibrium equations; however the response can be retrieved at their locations without
approximations or loss of accuracy. I urthermore, the eccentric nature of cable-deck and cable-tower
connections can be considered by a proper transformation.
The control and improvement of the vibrations of cable-stayed bridges necessitates the inclusion of
energy dissipation devices at certain locations. The problem becomes difficult to solve with the very large
number of degrees of freedom associated with accurate modeling of the bearings and the bridge
components. A simplified model is proposed for the dissipation devices in which a two-node element is
introduced for a stiffness-type analysis approach. The element is capable of withstanding axial and shear
forces. The parameters that control the hysteretic behavior of the element can be estimated out of
sophisticated analytical models andior experimental results. In addition, guidelines based on simplified
assumptions are presented for approximating the force-displacement curve of some devices for prelimi-
nary analysis and design.
The investigation of an appropriate passive control system started with exploring the ideology ofseismic
isolation by considering a two-dimensional model for a single-plane harp-type cable-stayed bridge. In
order to have more realistic insight into the usefulness of passive energy dissipation devices, two different
cable-stayed bridges models with double-plane harp and fan-type cables are presented for the numerical
analysis. Significant reduction in earthquake induced forces along the bridge can be achieved with the
energy dissipation devices as compared to the case of using conventional connections.
1. lNTRODUCTlON not to allow plastic deformations for such mega-type

structures for economical and structural stability
The structural synthesis of cable-stayed bridges reasons. In this study. the geometrical nonlinear
provides a valuable environment for the nonlinear behavior is considered using the total Lagrangian
behavior of structures under static and dynamic approach of three-dimensional beam elements for
loadings. The geometrical nonlinearity originates deck and tower modeling and a truss element for
from: (1) the cables governs the elongation
sag which cable idealization as shown in Fig. 1. By adopting a
of cables and the corresponding axial tension, (2) the continuum approach and employing four-node iso-
action of compressive loads, due to the inclination of parametric elements, the formulation is applicable to
cables, on the bridge deck and towers, and (3) the structures consisting of straight or curved members.
effect of the relatively large deflection of the structure In order to demonstrate the accuracy and applica-
on the stresses and forces. The material nonlinearity bility of the proposed formulation, solution of ana-
depends on the type of materials (steel or concrete) lytical and experimental examples are compared to
used in construction. However. it is usually attempted the proposed model.
CAS 54 3-G
461
462 H. M. Ali and A. M. Abdel-Ghaffar
CABLE
C. Offset consideration at
cable-deck connection B. Proposed four-node cable element
ion
Plate Section
4
Cut-off Corner
Box Section
Fig. 1. Modeling of cable-stayed bridges.
Very low damping is generally inherent in long- lead-rubber bearing, for instance, is composed of
span cable-stayed bridges. Low damping ratios of steel sheets, rubber layers, and the lead core. Most of
0.3&2.0% have been reported for several existing the difficulties encountered in modeling the behavior
Japanese bridges [I] of 300-l 500 ft (100-500 m) cen- result from the material nonlinearity of lead and the
ter spans. This low damping characteristic is not very material, geometric and boundary nonlinearities as-
helpful in alleviating vibrations from severe ground sociated with the rubber parts. In addition, rubber is
motions, wind turbulence and traffic loadings. Ac- virtually incompressible during the deformation pro-
cordingly, attention has been given recently to the cess, which leads to numerical instability in standard
development of special bearings and devices to dissi- linear elastic analysis. In this study, a practical model
pate the energy induced in the structure under service is devised for energy dissipation devices for design
and environmental loading conditions. Elastomeric purposes based on experimental and/or a priori ident-
and lead-rubber bearings are among the devices that ified analytical information.
have been used for the seismic isolation and energy
dissipation for buildings [2, 31 and short-to-medium 2. NONLINEAR ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
span bridges [4-91. In addition, they started to draw
attention for long-span cable-stayed bridges [lo-141. Equations that govern the dynamic response of the
Analytical modeling of the behavior of lead and bridge structure can be derived by following the
rubber-made devices is not an easy task. A well-known fact that ‘the work of external forces is
Modeling nonlinear behavior of cable-stayed bridges 463
absorbed by the work of internal, inertial, and, in a where

general sense, damping forces for any small admissi-
ble motion that satisfies compatibility and essential 1 1 1
ao=B(dt)2* a’=--m, a,=l-jj
boundary conditions’. The equation of motion can be
written, at time t + At, in a finite element semi-dis-
cretized form as
b,=l-;, b,=At (5)
[M]{ii}‘+A’ + [c]{ti}‘+A’ + (F;“t}‘+A’ = {Fex,}‘fA’ (1)

where y and /I are Newmark’s integration parameters
or that can be chosen according to the accuracy and
stability concerns. The algorithm is unconditionally
stable if fi >, i(y + 0.5)2. Once the displacement incre-
[M]{z~}‘+~’ + [C]{ti}‘+A’ + [K]‘+A’{A~}‘+A’
ment {Au} ‘+A’ is solved for, the increments in the
acceleration and velocity components can be deter-
= {F,,tl’+A’ - Pint)‘, (2)
mined
where [Ml, [Cl, and [K]‘+” are the system mass,

{Ati} = a,{AC} + a, {ti}‘+ (a2 - l){ii}’
damping, and tangent stiffness matrices at time
(t + At). Accelerations, velocities, and incremental {Ati} = At{ti}‘+ Ary(Aii}, (6)
displacements are represented by ii, 2, and Au, re-
spectively. The external forces term {F,X,}‘+A’ in- where (Ati) is the displacement increment measured
cludes the effect of concentrated forces, body forces, from the previous convergence configuration (i.e.
and earthquake excitations. The vector of internal time t). The response quantities at time t + At can
forces is denoted by {emt}. These structure matrices now be determined as
are constructed by the addition of overlapping co-
efficients of corresponding element matrices which {u}‘+~‘= {u}‘+ {Azi)-
will be discussed in the following sections. It can be
noticed that the equation of motion is general and
{Cl ‘+A’= {ti)‘+ {Ati)
can account for different sources of nonlinearities.
Both geometrical and material nonlinearities affect
(li’) ‘+A’= {ii}‘+ {AC}. (7)
the calculations of tangent stiffness matrix and in-
ternal forces. In the solution process the Newton-Raphson iter-
Different step-by-step integration schemes can be ation method is used where the stiffness matrix is
used for the integration of equation of motion. For updated at each increment to speed up the conver-
problems with complicated nonlinearities, direct inte- gence rate. Details of the numerical scheme are well
gration methods are more expedient. Many methods established and can be found in many publi-
of direct integration are popular and choice of one cations [15, 161.
method over another is strongly problem dependent. The damping mechanism in cable-stayed bridges is
In this analysis, the Newmark integration scheme is not well understood. A correct representation of
used. For earthquake induced dynamic response of structural damping cannot be formulated from a
cable-stayed bridges, there is little to choose between practical standpoint. Accordingly, simplified assump-
Newmark and other integration schemes such as tions have to be used. In this analysis, damping is
Wilson-0 method. However, in genera1 it has been treated in two categories. First, a phenomenological
experienced that the Newmark method is the most damping approach is used by considering physical
suitable for nonlinear analysis; it has the lowest elastic-plastic hysteresis loss in energy dissipation
period elongation and has no amplitude decay or devices. In the second category, an equivalent viscous
amplifications. In addition, stability concern is not a damping is introduced in the system in the form
problem with the variable ratio of time increment to of damping matrix [Cl. Damping in cable-stayed
natural period. Using Newmark integration method, bridges is undoubtedly not viscous. However, it is
the equation of motion can then be expressed as difficult not to make this assumption. In this study,
two spectral damping schemes can be used. In the
(ao[M] + b,[C] + [K]‘+A’){A~}‘+A’ = {F,,,}‘+A’ first scheme, Rayleigh damping is used to form [C] as
a linear combination of mass and stiffness matrices
- ~F,“,Y-hwfl+ hPw~J’
fc] = %?,L”] + ak IKIT (8)
-(R[W + ~KIH~J’ (3)

where
or
2QV,(rlP, - ami)
%I = (9)
[KeN]{Au}‘+A’ = {Fe”}, (4) of-of
464 H. M. Ah and A. M. Abdel-Ghaffar
and obtained. Some special algorithms have been pro-

posed for various types of problems[l%231. How-
2(V,W, - Vi) ever, the solution techniques are complicated and
a, = (10)
CO;-,; difficult to utilize with other structural components.
Fortunately, in cable-stayed bridges, the displace-
The stiffness and mass proportional damping con- ments are not very large (compared to the size of the
stants (ak, a,,,) are given in terms of two different structure) and the geometry of the cables is somewhat
natural frequencies (wi, w,) and the corresponding well defined before the analysis. The use of the
critical damping ratios (q,, u,). Damping ratios for general and complicated algorithms will always be
other modes can be found as correct; however, the use of a more restrictive formu-
lation can be more effective and may also provide
more insight into the response prediction.
(11) There are two main approaches to the nonlinear
behavior of cable elements. In the first approach, the
The use of more than two porportional damping nonlinearity of the inclined cables is included by
constants is expensive. In order to prepare for a considering an equivalent straight chord member, as
situation where it is possible to have more than two shown in Fig. 2(A), with an equivalent tangential
damping ratios incorporated in the analysis, a second modulus of elasticity (E,,)
scheme is proposed [17] based on the matrix of
generalized damping values E
Eeq= AE(wL)”
(14)
1+----
2W,?, 0 0 12T3
0 &rl, 0 where E is the material effective modulus of elasticity,
Pl=[cIPl= L is the horizontal projected length of the cable, w is
‘.
the weight per unit length of the cable, A is the
0 0 2% ‘7, cross-sectional area of the cable, and T is the tension
l
in the cable. It can be noticed that the apparent axial
(12)
stiffness of the cable is affected by the sag (or tension
forces). The net effect is that when the cable tension
where [@I is the modal matrix. The damping matrix
can then be determined increases, the sag decreases, and the apparent axial
stiffness of the cable increases. This approach has
(‘F w {@,}>
been used by several investigators [24] and has been
[C] = [M] {G,}’ [M], (13) proven to be effective in modeling the axial behavior
j=l M,
of cables [19]. However, this approach lacks the
ability to catch the lateral behavior of the cable,
where n is the number of modes considered for
which may be of significant importance under wind
damping and ii;r, is the jth modal mass. One disad-
and earthquake excitations. The second approach to
vantage of this approach is that a full damping matrix
model cables is to replace each cable by a series of
[C] is obtained regardless of whether the stiffness and
short truss links. The approach has been used to
mass matrices are banded or not. An approximation
predict the static equilibrium and in-plane model
has to be introduced in this regard by discarding
properties [ 181. However, the method suffers from the
elements of damping matrix off the stiffness matrix
very large number of degrees of freedom required to
band width. The advantage of the second method,
determine the response specially in the case of dy-
however, when compared to Rayleigh damping, is
namic loadings. Instead in this study, an efficient
that only the damping ratios of the required modes
four-node isoparametric truss element is used. The
are accounted for.
model is capable of predicting the axial, in-plane and
out-of-plane responses.
3. MODELING OF CABLES
3.1. Cable element formulation
The analysis of cables under different configur-
ations and loading conditions is extremely complex. The governing nonlinear equilibrium equations can
These structures are generally elastic in nature but are be established by adopting a continuum approach. In
highly nonlinear in the geometric sense [ 181.For some a Lagrangian coordinate system, the equations can be
special structures (such as mooring lines, large cable specified for a line element in the following manner
antennae, flexible pipes connecting floating offshore
platforms) the convergence to the static equilibrium
configuration is a much more difficult problem. The
dynamic analysis is further complicated by the occur-
rence of singular behavior due to cables snapping or
slacking. Thus, a general explicit solution cannot be
Degrees of
EYeedoin
Horizontal Projection of
the cable ( L 1
Fig. 2. Modeling of cables: (A) equivalent element approach and (B) the proposed four-node element.
where S, is the arc length of the line element at initial incremental strains Ae, and Aqss respectively, are
configuration, as shown in Fig. l(B), Eis the modulus defined as
of elasticity and IR is the work of external forces. The
element is assumed capable of transmitting stresses, dAu du’ dAu dwf, dAw,,
Ae, = :+“? (17)
d ss5only in the direction normal to the cross-section, dS dS dS +ds dS ’
A. The normal stress is constant over the cross-
sectional area and during deformation the area 1 dAu, ddu, 1 dAw,, dAw,,
A’7Js=2dSdS+2dSdS. (18)
itself remains constant. This assumption means
that only small strain conditions can be analyzed.
On the other hand, arbitrary large displacements The total incremental strain At, can therefore be
can be represented by considering the longitudinal expressed in the following form
strain, c,
AC,, = Aess + A~I,,. (19)
The strain components can instead be expressed in

terms of the global displacements ui in the xi direction
where u, and w, are the in-plane and out-of-plane where i = 1,2,3. In this case, the element matrices are
displacements, respectively. The linear and nonlinear obtained directly in terms of the global displacement
components measured with respect to the initial where

configuration xp. However, it is extremely compli-
cated to formulate the problem in terms of lateral
displacements w,,, especially in the case of the three- (29)
dimensional formulation. Noticing the nature of the
Green-Lagrange strain, the strain components can be
In the above equations, the subscript (p) refers to the
obtained as
Gauss integration points and W, is the integration
weight where two points are used for exact inte-
'=3ax.aAu!+" 1=3 au’aAu.
de, = 1 2 A +x-2, (20) gration
i=las as +,ds as
1 ‘=3 aAu:+“‘aAu:+“‘,
Au, = 2 .z (21)
,-, as as
The second Piola-Kirchhoff stress component Q,, is where

defined as
ax
“= ‘f4 a+k(rp/3) xt,
(31)
dr k=l dr
where
Similarly
The displacement within an element (ui) can be

given as a function of the discretized nodal displace- where
ment (uf) as
u, = $kUf, (24) _I
‘x,=
kf4 a+k ($)
ar k=I
&. x:. (33)
where tjk is the displacement interpolation function
whose coefficients are given in terms of parent coor-
In the above equation, the arc length has been defined
dinates (r). In this study, a four-node isoparametric
numerically according to the known relation
element is used with lc/k expressed as
$1=h(--9r3 + 9r2 + r - I),
= &(9r3
i+b2 + 9r2 - r - 1),
Since the limits of integration (r,, r,) are not
ti3 = &(27r3 - 9r2 - 27r + 9), necessarily f 1 as is usually the case in finite element
applications, the weights (W,) and the locations (r,,)
I+//,= h(-27r3 - 9r2 + 27r + 9). (25) have been modified according to
The arc length at a material point x,(r) is given r, + r, r, - y/

by r P =-+-Fr’
2
k=4
G(r)=
k=l
1 $k(r)% w,=- r, - r, W, (35)
2
where Si is the arc length at nodal point (k) referred

to the initial configuration. The arc length can be where Wand r are the weights and locations for the
determined in terms of nodal coordinates (xi) using well known f 1 integration limits case.
numerical integration to account for arbitrary initial The resultant incremental forcedisplacement re-
cable shapes lationship can be defined as follows for static calcu-
lations
Modeling nonlinear behavior of cable-stayed bridges 46-l
where {F,} is the vector of external forces. The and

displacement-dependent part of the stiffness matrix is
defined as
(46)
The element body forces {Fb} is defined as
in which
where {f”} is the weight per unit volume in xi
directions, and
\ J $’ 0 0
Y
for node k, [H]3x,2= ..’ 0 Ii/k 0 .‘. (48)

[ 0 0 *k I
where
The element internal force {F,,,} can be determined as
w k ar a+k
_=--=__ i a*k
as as ar l4l ar (39)
axi _ ar axi
as - as ar
=&g;~xf (40) It can be noticed that the stress-dependent part of the
stiffness matrix is associated with both axial and
in which lJ0l is the Jacobian determinant lateral displacements once stresses start to build up.
If the element is given a pretension stress (of), [K,]
provides out-of-plane resistance to out-of-plane
(41) loads. Cables can therefore be analyzed. The stress
calculations have to take the initial tensile stresses
The second part of the straindisplacement matrix into account
[BL] is defined as
(50)
[B,],x,2=
[
. .
I!?ggw!&gg I...1
I
Y
I
(42) In the dynamic analysis of cables, the cable
matrices have to be evaluated. A consistent
matrix is defined by [M]
mass
mass
for node k,
where WI 12x I2--A “P,[Hl~.3[Hl3.,,lJ,Idr (51)

s -1
ad ar ax.
-2=-L
as as ar =$-J~<$~?. (43) in which P,,, is the mass density of the element. A
simpler and more economical lumped mass matrix is
used in this study. The HRZ lumping scheme is
The stress-dependent stiffness matrix [K,] can be used [25] in which only the diagonal coefficients of the
defined as consistent mass matrix are computed and then scaled
by the ratio of the total mass of the cable to one third
the summation of diagonal coefficients associated
with the translational degrees of freedom.
W) 3.2. Analytical and experimental veriJication
where As a first example, the transverse vibration of a

string is considered. It is assumed that the cross-
wo
as
0
sectional dimensions
compared
of the string are very small
to its length. The string has therefore
negligible flexural rigidity and the restoring forces are
0
w o
provided only by the initial tension in the string. The
as
. .
(45)
“. equation of motion for the transverse vibrations of a
w string with initial tension T is entirely analogous to
O OdS that for the axial vibrations of a bar with the tension
T replacing the axial rigidity EA of the bar. For a In the final application, a cable under its own
string clamped at both ends, the first three frequen- weight is subjected to a tensile force at both ends
cies can be defined as along its chord. The properties of the cable and the
finite element model are given in Fig. 4(A). The sag
of the cable, as calculated by the proposed model, is
compared with the parabolic formula for cables. As
shown in Fig. 4(B), it can be noticed that good results
are obtained. The longitudinal displacement along
the chord is also computed and compared to that
determined using the equivalent modulus ,!& for
incremental loading:
(52)
E
A numerical values of 16 lb, 9 ft, and l/8 1 slug/ft have Eq = (53)
, + (wL12(T, + T, ME
been assumed for tension T, length L, and mass per 24TfT;
unit length m, respectively. Frequencies of 1.99969,
3.99719, and 5.98749 Hz have been obtained com- where T, and T, are the initial and final values of the
pared to 2.0, 4.0, and 6.0 Hz out of the theoretical cable tension during the load increment. A consider-
solution for the string as a continuous system. A able difference can be noticed between the two ap-
lumped mass matrix was used in the analysis. proaches, as shown in Fig. 4(C). This difference is
In the second application, the model properties of ascribed to the fact that the equivalent modulus
a suspended cable are investigated. In order to have approach accounts for sag effect but does not account
a realistic picture of the cable behavior, the finite for the stiffening effect due to large displacements. In
element results are compared to an experimental order to clarify this difference, a straight cable of the
model behavior. The model cable employed in the same material properties is assumed to be subjected
experiment [26] is a seven-wire strand rope of 7.3 m to the tensile forces. The difference between the large
span length and 0.17 kg/m mass per unit length. Lead and small displacement formulation is shown in
weights of 15 x 10m3kg are attached along the cable Fig. 4(D) as a ratio of displacements calculated using
at 9.5 x 10e2m in order to adjust the weight of the large displacement approach to those obtained by
cable model. The tensile rigidity (EA) of the cable is linear analysis. Similar ratio of results using the
240 x lo5 N. A schematic diagram of the experimen- proposed cable model to those of the equivalent
tal setup is shown in Fig. 3(A). The model cable is modulus approach given in Fig. 4(C) is shown also in
wound with several turns around a horizontal steel Fig. 4(D). Nearly equal values are noticed for both
bar fixed at a thick steel plate which is connected to cases. The difference in results shown in Fig. 4(C) can
a rigid support and then mounted in the support therefore be ascribed to the stiffening effect of large
through a turn buckle. Sag of cables is adjusted by the displacements which is not considered by the one
turn buckle. The tested cable with a certain sag-to- element equivalent modulus approach unless a geo-
span ratio is forced to oscillate at each natural metric stiffness matrix is included.
frequency by using vibration exciter which was con-
nected to one point of the cable through a vertical 4. MODELING OF DECK AND TOWERS
thread. The excitation point is changed to have the
required mode purely excited. The sag-to-span ratio In order to model the deck, the main girders and
is chosen as a primary parameter. In the theoretical the towers of the bridge to accurately obtain the
model, coordinates and tensile forces along the cable response of each part and section of the structure,
are determined initially using a parabolic cable for- very large number of finite elements are required
mula. In the analysis, it was decided to use only two including she11 and beam elements and the problem
elements in order to examine the efficiency of the becomes very time consuming. Instead, the global
element since in practical cases of bridge modeling behavior of different sections along the structure will
small numbers of degrees of freedom are highly be considered. The details of different parts of the
desirable. The analytical and experimental results are bridge can then be estimated out of the global
shown in Fig. 3(B). It can be noticed that the first behavior. The approach is practically adequate
three modes are predicted quite well. A modal tran- and can provide a reasonable alternative to predict
sition feature [23,26] can be predicted as well. The the dynamic properties of the cable-supported
first asymmetric mode shape changes into a one order bridges [5, 24, 27-291 without great loss of accuracy.
higher symmetric mode with an increase in natural
frequency, while natural frequencies of other modes 4.1. Formulation of the beam element
decrease monotically with the increase in the sag The formulation of a typical element stiffness
ratio. There exists therefore a modal cross-over point matrix and load vectors is based on the beam element
at which the natural frequency of a symmetric mode formulation introduced by Bathe [30] for a rectangu-
coincides with that of an asymmetric mode. lar cross-section. In this study. however. the ap-
Position
6.00 i
0.001 0.01 0.10 1.00

SAG-MSPAN RATIO
Fig. 3. Effect of the sag-to-span ratio on the natural frequencies of a cable: (A) schematic diagram of the
experimental setup (Yamaguchi) and (B) analytical and experimental results.
preach is extended to include the possibility of analysis of straight thin beams, the Hermitian el-
modeling sections with different cross-section shapes. ement is undoubtedly more efficient from the time of
Among the cross-sections that can be modeled are computations point of view. However, the isopara-
the box sections with multiple vents and cut-off metric element can be accurate for small depth-to-
corner sections as well as different combinations of span ratios, and efficient for geometric and material
rectangular shape parts such as I-beams and plate nonlinear analysis. Moreover, the isoparametric for-
sections, as shown in Fig. l(A). It should be men- mulation is suitable in case of curved beams and
tioned that the cut-off corner sections can be used for stiffened shells; however, these two cases are not
towers [31] for wind resistance reasons while the box within the interests of this study.
sections can be used for the main girders and towers A generic beam element with four nodal points is
as well. shown in Fig. l(A) along with geometry and proper-
In this study, a four-node isoparametric beam ties of a general symmetric cross-section. As pre-
element is formulated using the total Lagrangian viously stated in the cable element idealization,
approach. The element represents an alternative to (r, s, I) refers to the isoparametric coordinates. The
the classical Hermitian beam element. Cubic descrip- displacement interpolation functions $,,(r) are estab-
tion of displacements is used for the element similar lished according to eqn (25). The basic assumption
to that introduced to the cable element. In linear for the interpolation of coordinates and displace-
12.00
i9.00
!!d
2 6.00
8
w = 3.16 Ib/ft
g 3.00
Finite Element
Area = 0.85 ft2 (-4) 2
t&de1
E = 19 x lo6 psi
0.00
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00
TENSION/rENSION UNDER OWN WEIGHT
gj 0.90
_.. kz
Ratio ofIJK cableelement model respon.~ to
; 0.80 -_-_---.-_-_+-.__- ..__ -- ..._
the equivalent modultts approach displacement I
(D)
. Ratio of noniineor to Iincnr responrr
2 0.70 ".'....."'_.""".........~......_...~
for a straight bar (1 cLmcnt) ,..__.......
_.. v1
I
6 i ..-..............-... - ..-.... -1. -.---.... -----

3 0.60
u
4
& 0.50
c)
%
.A e 0.40
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 2 0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00
TENSION/l-ENSIONUNDEROWNWEIGHT TENSIONfI'LQVSIONUNDEROWNWJ?IGHT
Fig. 4. Response of a cable under its own weight

ments of any point in the beam is based on the The incremental matrix-form of force-displacement
assumption that plane sections originally normal relationship can be expressed as follows for a static
to the center line axis of the element remain plane case, including the vector of concentrated forces {F,}
but not necessarily normal to the center line axis.
Accordingly, shear deformations can be included. W,l24x24 + K124x24)@1024x, = IF,),,. ,
The coordinates, (x,), of a point in the element are
given by + 16124 xI- Pint 124 x I (58)
k=4 in which the displacement stiffness matrix [KU] is

xi@, s, t) = c +k(r)x:“’ + ; ‘g4 $k(r)@ defined as
k=, k-l
+ 7 ‘g4 $k(r)@‘v (54) [Ku Ii!/ x 24 = PO + al x 6D-TX 3V0’13 x 3

k-l
Iw
x [T”‘l, x 6 [Bo + BL 16 x 24 do, (59)

where A and B are the external dimensions of the
section, Q,,ck’is the ith component of the unit vector
where expressions for [Bo] and [B,] can be found
Qlk’ in direction (t) at nodal point (k), and QP’ is the
elsewhere [30]. The stress-strain matrix [Co’] reflects
ith component of the unit vector Qp’ in direction (s)
only three components for strains (c,,, t,, L,,) and
at nodal point (k). Both Q$“’and Qi”’ are based on the
stresses (Q,~
, c,S, a,,)
initial configuration. The displacement components
at any time (t) can be determined as
(60)
Ui(l, S, 1) =x!” - xp
However, the material elasticity matrix has to be
k=4
expressed in a global 6 x 6 matrix by introducing a
= k;, tik(r)Utk’
transformationmatrix [T]
QX’Q!:’ 2Q:‘Q:’ 2Qx'Qi:'
Q;Q:’ 2Q:‘Q:’ 2Q:‘Qf

Ql:‘Q!:’ 2Q:‘Q::’ 2Q!:‘Ql:’
[ T(l’];x (61)
Q!:‘Q:’
3 =
QfQ:‘+ Q!:‘Qf QtQ$:'+

Q:;'Q;:'
Q:'Q: Q:'Q$' + Q!;Q: Q;Qi:'
+ Q$'Qi;
Q:'Q!:' Q;‘Q:’ + QX'QI:'
Ql:'Q::' + QE'Q;;
+ykz4
I,@’
k-l
- Qf']
where the unit vectors in the above equation refer to
the vectors at the integration points rather than the
vectors at the nodes Qck’. They can be obtained by
evaluating the coordinates, using eqn (54), for three
+; ‘g4 tik(r)@f’ - Qf’l, (55) points (I, II, III) of the cross-section at the integration
k-l
points as shown in Fig. l(A).

where Q(“’ are the unit vectors but referred to the The stress-dependent part of the stiffness matrix
configuration at time (t). For a beam formulation, can be obtained as
the displacement components and matrices should be
related to displacement and rotation components {u}
where
IKo124 x 24 = &&IX &fl, x v[Bml~ x 24 do, (62)
s 1’0
where ui is the displacement in the xi direction. In where [a] is the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress matrix
order to reach such a relationship, the following in the global coordinates x,
direction cosines/rotations expression can be used
(63)
Q!’ + ArW= Qj,‘lA) + @k’ x Qjr’W,
(57)
412 H. M. Ali and A M. Abdel-Ghaffar
where integration can be performed in the following

manner
011 612 013
El 3x3= 022 O23 (64)
L Sym. (133I
The expression for the nonlinear strain-displacement

transformation matrix, [BNL], can be found else-
where [30]. The element internal force vector {F,,,}
where (M) is the number of sub-areas of the beam
can be determined as
cross-section as shown in Fig. 5. For each sub-area
(m) of dimensions aCm)and b(“‘), the coordinates of its
center of gravity area assumed to be up) and bp). The
limits of integration for the sub-area (WI)are therefore
where {(i} is the stress vector
{6’r= {e,i O22 O33 cI2 Ol3 O23). (66)
The body forces vector can be obtained as:
FbI24x I= WI:4 x3V>3 x I dv, (67)

s u0
where {p} is the weight per unit volume in the three

directions (xi) and [H] is the displacement interp- (71)
elation matrix
+W 0
0
(k)
ti
WIT24x3=
The element mass matrix can be calculated similar to The number of Gauss points for geometrical nonlin-
the cable element using the HRZ method earity can be chosen with the following order: four
points along the beam (r-direction), two points along
the (s-direction), and two points for the (t-direction)
WI 24 x 24 = ~mWli-4
x3WlTx 24 dv (69)
s r” for every sub-area.
The material nonlinearity may also be included in
in which p, is the mass density of the element. the formulation simply by using a stress point algor-
A numerical integration approach using Gauss ithm to update the stress vector and matrix as well as
integration method is employed in order to evaluate the material elastic-plastic matrix. In case of steel
the element matrices. For the high-order element sections, the two-yield and multi-yield surface models
presented, a reliable and effective solution can be can be used [12]. However, in this case the number of
obtained using high-order integration. The reduced numerical integration points in (s) and (t) directions
numerical integration with all its problems and may need to be increased depending on the level of
difficulties is therefore not needed. The numerical nonlinearity.
s=-1 s=+l
L B/2
1 B/2 L
1 1 1
Fig. 5. Sub-areas for numerical integration of beam elements.
4.2. Validation of the beam element formulation applied loads. The results are compared in Fig. 7(B)
Three simple examples are presented to demon- with those by Bathe et al. [15] and by Holden [35]. It
strate the accuracy and efficiency of the beam element can be seen that good results are obtained even with
formulation. The results of analyses are compared the one element model.
with established analytical results by other investi- In the third example, the dynamic behavior of the
gators. cantilever considered before in Fig. 7(A) is studied. A
In the first example, Williams toggle frame is constant over time uniformly distributed load is
considered [32]. The basic toggle, as shown in applied to the cantilever. A support acceleration in
Fig. 6(A), was solved by Williams analytically and the the vertical direction is also considered so that the
results were compared to experimental results. In load distribution due to inertia forces is equivalent to
his analysis, Williams introduced a corrected axial the applied loads. The solution of the problem to
strain expression by solving the differential equation both cases is given in Fig. 7(C). The solution is
for each beam-column member. The correction in- predicted using a time step of 0.45 x 10e4sec. In the
cluded terms of up to the second order which analysis, linear and nonlinear procedures were con-
was obtained and used for elastic stability finite sidered using Newmark’s integration method with
deflection and flexural shortening analysis. Wood and /I = 0.25 and y = 0.5. The beam element formulation
Zienkiewicz [33] solved the problem using five para- gives typical results compared with those by Bathe
linear isoparametric elements over half the frame. et al. [15]. It should be noted that the main character-
Wong and Tin-Loi [34] analyzed the same example istic of the cantilever is predicted in the nonlinear
using a four beamxolumn element model for half the analysis. The structure stiffness with increasing dis-
symmetrical frame. In the present approach, a one- placement which results in a substantial decrease in
element model is adopted for half the frame with a amplitude and effective period of vibration.
vertical load applied at the center of the frame. The
loaddeflection results obtained is shown in Fig. 6(B)
5. MODELING OF RUBBER- AND LEAD-MADE
together with other theoretical and analytical results.
PASSIVE CONTROL DEVICES
As can be seen, excellent agreement is achieved. It
should be mentioned however that the limit point Passive energy dissipation units are analyzed in two
part of the load-deflection curve can not be predicted steps. First, a refined analytical procedure is used
in the current analysis. Only the stiffening part of the where sophisticated models are used for rubber, steel
curve was obtained by increasing the magnitude of and lead which constitute the main materials for most
load to avoid the limit point. In order to present the passive energy dissipation devices. The response of
snap through behavior, a displacement or an arc- the device can be obtained in this step under the
length control method should be used which is be- combination of loads to which the device is exposed.
yond the scope of this study. However, the inclusion of energy dissipation devices
In the second example, the large displacement along the bridge introduces numerical difficulties
static analysis of a cantilever is considered. The dealing with the very large number of degrees of
cantilever shown in Fig. 7(A) was analyzed by Bathe freedom that are associated with accurate modeling
et a/. [15] under uniformly distributed load using the of the bearings and the bridge components. A second
total Lagrangian and updated Lagrangian formu- step is therefore unavoidable where a simplified two-
lation with five eight-node plane stress elements. The node element model is proposed for the dissipation
problem is solved herein using one and two beam devices. It is assumed that the element is capable
elements with vertical body forces to simulate the of withstanding axial and shear forces. The model
414 H. M. Ali and A. M Abdel-Ghaffar
Load rOad/ 2
(A)
u
E = 10.3 x lo6 lb/in2
RESPONSE OF WlLLIAMSTOGGLEFRAME
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50

VERTICALDISPLACEMENTAT APEX (ii)
Fig. 6. Loaddeflection curve for a toggle frame.
parameters are to be determined out of the refined {F,} = {F:“‘} - {F:“‘}

analytical approach and/or an experimental study.
The modeling strategy is schematically shown in
-1nW
Fig. 8 for a typical lead-rubber bearing. ~ dv, - A, + I, {G,}, (73)
2
For rubber-like materials, a large displacement/
large strain finite element model is proposed based on
where [Kfi and [KF] are the displacement- and stress-
the isoparametric total Lagrangian formulation and
dependent parts of the stiffness matrix, respectively,
various strain energy functions that cover a wide
Z, is the third strain invariant, a is a penalty par-
spectrum of assumptions, from restrictive to a com-
ameter, v0 is the volume of the element in the initial
plicated representation of the stress-strain relation-
configuration, {G,} is a function of the derivatives of
ship [12, 361. The incompressibility is handled by
the constraint function [-i ln(Z,)] with respect to the
using a consistent penalty method. and a solution is
strain components, 1, is the initial pressure, ;I, is the
efficiently reached by approaching the equilibrium
elementwise constant pressure, and (F:“l} and {Fy}
state through a series of decreasing compressibility.
are the external and internal forces, respectively.
Using an eight-node isoparametric solid element and
Lead is increasingly used in energy dissipators for
an incremental procedure, the pressure (which is
its high purity and good fatigue properties under
assumed constant, elementwise) can be eliminated by
cyclic loading [37]. This good performance is most
condensation. The stiffness matrix, [K,], and the force
likely due to the fact that at room temperature the
vector, {F,}, for the rubber element can be expressed
lead is hot worked. Moreover, in shear, the lead yields
as
at a relatively low stress and behaves approximately
as an elasto-plastic solid [38]. Thus, reasonable sizes
Kl = RI + Klf; 0
{G,){G,Y (72) can be produced to achieve the required plastic
forces. For the steel parts of devices, a loading-
1.0 in
(A)
Cross section
Dynamic Analysis Dynamic Analysis

(uniform load case) ( support excitation )
@ 1 STATIC RESPONSE OF THE CANTILEVER
.--- Proposed model (I element)

--- Proposed model (2 elements)
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00

CrOTAL WJ3(3-lT x LENGTH) /(INERTIA x YOUNG’s MODULUS)
(c ) DYNAMIC RfW’ONSE OF THE CANTILEVER

0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.00 30.00 60.00 90.00 120.00 150.00 180.00 210.00 240.00 270.00
TIME/TA4EJNCREMENT
Fig. 7. Large displacement static and dynamic analysis of a cantilever
bounding stress point plasticity model is developed for lead-rubber bearings [ 121 where satisfactory
along with a multi-yield surface to be used depending agreement is generally obtained.
upon the experimental results of the stress-strain The two-node device element is proposed using a
relationship [12]. The analytical model for rubber, stiffness-type approach. The main model parameters
steel and lead is checked against experimental results include the stiffness of the device in axial and lateral
416 H. M. Ui and A. M. Abdel-Ghaffar
_
Elaborate or Exoerimental
&kJ
Two-Node Eauivalent Model
BRIDGE
MODEL
c
I
Strain ’ Strain
.
Fig. 8. Modeling of passive devices.
directions and the criterion that controls the response experiencing deformations, the stiffness matrix may
as a function of deformation, i.e. properties of the no longer be diagonal. The forces in the local coordi-
force-displacement curve during the cyclic loading nates at the mid-point (m) are given by
history. The element stiffness matrix, [Kdev], and force
vector, (F&j, are expressed as
where r, s and f refer to the local coordinate system

of the element (see Fig. 8).
5.1. Lead extrusion dissipators
In this device, energy is dissipated during cyclic

deformations by extruding lead through an
where [IV’)] 3X3 is a stiffness matrix similar to the orifice [37, 391. The device consists of a thick-walled
elastic-plastic material matrix that is calculated in the metal tube with a two piston shaft as shown in Fig. 9.
theory of plasticity-based stress point algorithms. The space between the two pistons is filled with lead.
However, displacements and forces are considered A thin layer of lubricant is used to separate the lead
instead of strains and stresses. In this study, it is from the tube. There are two different types of
possible to use loading-bounding or multi-yield sur- absorbers according to the orifice position. In the first
face models [12]. Initially, [K’“)] is diagonal type (Fig. 9A) a constriction is made on the tube
itself, while in the second type (Fig. 9B) a bulged shaft
is used instead. The absorber is to be fixed between
(76) two points on a structure. During operation, axial
loads are applied to the central shaft. Deformation of
lead results in elongation of the grains and a large
where kf and kg correspond to the initial Young’s increase in the number of defects in each grain. The
modulus E and the shear modulus G, respectively, lead then returns to original state by processes of
used in a stress-strain relationship. However, after recovery. One advantage of the lead is that it can
A 150KN lead extrusion dcvice
:
0 Rxperimental (Robinron od Green) :
__- Sawed mo&l(3 yield sqface model) j
Lz
.~.+...~......4..~..e....e...............~
-180.00 - l l
l
-240.00 I. I. I. t . I. 1. I
-250 0.00 2.50 5.00 7.50 10.00 12.50 15.00 17.50
EKTENSION(CM)
A 170 KN lead exausioa d&cc

200.00 _ l l
,.......a...,..........A.................... a . . . ..i”.......y
150.00 - (B) / :
I
:
100.00 .’
:
0 ,‘Zrperimental (Robkon and Green) :
50.00 --- StnpliJL?dnw&l(3 yield sur/ocr model) f
25 i
-150.00 -
. . . .l. . . . . m...........................g.....&.....*. 2’ l
-200.00 ’ . I .I. I. I. I. I.
-3.00 0.00 3.00 6.00 9.00 12.00 15.00 18.00 21.00
EXIENSION (CM)
Fig. 9. Unidirectional lead extrusion dissipators: (A) constricted-tube extrusion device and (B) bulged-
shaft extrusion device.
recover its properties almost immediately at room tally. It is recommended therefore to obtain the
temperature. The extrusion energy absorber is a governing parameters out of a sample of similar units
stable device where excessive forces cannot be to those used.
built up under high or low temperature. Tests In order to show the applicability of the method,
showed [37, 391 that the device has a good fatigue life two examples will be discussed [37, 391. In the first
so that it should be able to cope with a large number example, a 150 kN constricted tube device is con-
of earthquakes. The device has initial high stiffness sidered. A bulged shaft is used for the second appli-
and low creep rate. Any move of the bridge due to cation of a 170 kN device. The experimental and
traffic and day-to-day loadings can be kept to a analytical results are shown in Fig. 9. It can be
minimum. noticed that a good agreement is generally obtained
The mathematical modeling of the device can be for the bulged shaft device. On the other hand, the
done by using a local 2 x 2 stiffness matrix similar to constricted tube device has a peak on its hysteresis
a truss element loop after each reversal which cannot be represented
analytically. More symmetrical behavior is reported
for the bulged shaft which has more gradual change
(78)
of area.
In order for the lead extrusion devices to effectively
where k” is the axial stiffness of the device. The absorb significant energy, it must be placed in a
force-displacement parameters are varied by size and position where reasonable displacements and extra
geometry of the device [37,39]. There are no guide- large forces are expected. The devices have been used
lines available to obtain these parameters analyti- in New Zealand to protect two sloping bridges
from earthquakes and resist the emergency braking factor method is adequate over the practical range of
forces of downward moving vehicles [37,41]. In ca- strains [42,43]. The method predicts the behavior
ble-stayed bridges, it is suggested that these devices be by a shape factor (S) defined as the ratio of one
installed at the deck-abutment and the deck-tower loaded area to the total force-free area as shown in
connections in the longitudinal direction. The instal- Fig. 10(A). Thus, for a rectangular layer of side
lation of the device can be similar to that of the lengths (a, b) and thickness (ti)
longitudinal restrainers. Another way of using the
devices is to place them at cable-tower and cable- ab
si =
deck connections. However, the practicability and 2t,(a + b)’
safety of the idea have yet to be checked experimen-
tally. The compression stiffness, kE of a layer of area (A,)
is given by
5.2. Elastomeric bearings
Reinforced elastomers are more used over plain
k;=y(l +2&s;), (80)
rubber pads due to their superiority in compression.
The freedom of rubber to bulge is reduced by the
interaction of horizontal plates which increase the where E, is Young’s modulus for rubber and IV, is a
vertical stiffness of bearing. On the other hand, the practical constant less than unity that varies with
shear stiffness is not altered by the presence of these rubber hardness as shown in Fig. 10(B). The Young’s
plates. modulus E, is highly dependent on the hardness of
There are many methods to deal with the behavior rubber. A simplified formula for E, is obtained in this
of elastomeric bearings in compression beginning study based on experimental results reported by
from simple assumption of linear material behavior Stanton and Roeder [43]
to sophisticated finite element models. However, for
design purposes and overall behavior, the shape log E, = 2 + &(H, - 22.9, (81)
-Fin-
Shape factor ocmpression
30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00 50.00 55.00 60.00 65.00 70.00

HARDNESS H,
Fig. 10. Elastomeric bearings: (A) properties and (B) rubber constant M, as a function of the international
hardness degree H,.
where H, is the hardness degree. The resulting E, is 10(A). The compression stiffness can be modified by
given in psi and the relationship holds only for the a factor M,
most usable values for H,(22.5 Q H,,< 72.5). The
overall stiffness of the bearing, kE, can be determined M =(a -&it,)@ -En&)
by considering the stiffness of different layers con- e (86)
ab
nected in series
where es, and t,? are the shear strains in the two lateral
directions.
Mathematically, a 6 x 6 diagonal stiffness matrix
is to be used through the analysis, where expressions
where n is the number of rubber layers. For bearings for axial and lateral stiffnesses are given by kE and
under pure shear, the shear stiffness is given by kc. During the analysis, the only nonlinear effect
is due to the shear-compression interaction, The
force-displacement loop is therefore mainly linear. In
kG _ GrA practice, however, a small hysteretic loop is usually
f. ’ obtained. Analytically speaking, it is very difficult to
identify the required parameters of the response loop.
where G, is the shear modulus of rubber. However, a An attractive analytical attempt has been tried by
combination of shear and compression loadings is Koh and Kelly [46] to model elastomeric bearings
usually experienced where geometric effects enter into using a fractional Kelvin element. The viscoelastic
effect. This shear-compression interaction is believed properties have been fit quite well with experimental
to be one of the major unanswered questions in the results. However, the computational effort adds to
behavior of elastomeric bearings because of the few the difficulties encountered in the modeling and
and scattered theoretical and experimental work done analysis of cable-stayed bridges. One practical way
in this field. For example, Chhauda et al. [44] exam- for including the effect of hysteretic loop is to add an
ined the performance of elastomeric pads of different equivalent dashpot viscous damper or to use a multi-
vulcanizations in compression and shear. However, surface idealization if the experimental results are
they did not extend their study to formulate the available for similar bearings.
effect of compression on shear stiffness. Porter and The expressions for stiffness calculations have been
Meinecke [45] studied experimentally and verified compared with experimental results reported by
analytically, the behavior of one layer of a circular King [47]. Two different specimens (bearing I and
rubber block under combined shear and compression. bearing II) are considered. The details of the bearings
However, their results were affected by the exper- properties are shown in Table 1. Axial stiffnesses of
imental procedure they used. An inclination of the 274.94 and 134.0 MN/m are obtained theoretically
compression force was reported which created an for bearings I and II, respectively, compared with
additional shear aiding the original shearing force in experimental results of 264.9 and 137.7 MN/m. For
moving the rubber block. This case of study does not shear stiffness, analytical values of 1710 and
coincide with the nature of loads applied on bearings 855 kN/m are obtained compared with 1614 and
used in highway bridges. A modification factor, Mk 807 kN/m that were reported by King [47]. Only a
for multi-layered bearings has been proposed by difference of - 3% in compression and - 5% in shear
Ghobarah and the first author [8] for the shearing is noticed.
stiffness. Accordingly
5.3. Lead-rubber bearings
This type of bearings, as shown in Fig. 8, has the
desirable feature of combining load bearing and
isolation properties in one unit. It provides a compact
where
Table 1. Properties of elastomeric bearings I and II
Bearing I II
Durometer hardness 50 54
Shim length 365 mm 365 mm
where t, is the compression strain and t, is the total Shim width 285 mm 285 mm
height of the rubber layers. It should be noted that Shim thickness (internal) 3mm 3mm
Shim thickness (outer) 3mm 3mm
the formula presented above takes into account the
Number of inner layers 3 7
change in thickness and bulge of rubber layers which Thickness of inner layers 14mm 14mm
would increase the rubber area. Thickness of side layers Imm Imm
The effect of shear deformations on axial stiffness Overall bearing length 385 mm 385 mm
can be taken care of by considering an effective Overall bearing width 305 mm 305 mm
Overall bearing thickness 68 mm 136mm
compression zone of the bearing as shown in Fig.
and easily installed method of energy dissipation. according to the assumptions used in elastomeric
A typical hysteretic loop for the bearing is shown in bearings. In case that a relationship between the shear
Fig. 11. The bearing can withstand axial force and force at zero displacement, elastic and plastic stiff-
shear forces in both directions. Three main par- nesses and the axial loads is known, the radii of yield
ameters can define the limits of the force-displace- surfaces can be modified according to the applied
ment curve; namely the shear force at zero axial loads. In order to put the algorithm into action,
displacement (qo) and the elastic and post-elastic the response of the two bearings presented in Table
stiffnesses, k, and k,, respectively. 1 is compared to the simplified approach. The results
Experimentally, it has been noticed [38,47] that are shown in Fig. 12 in which a loading-bounding
energy dissipation generally increases with the in- surface model is used for both bearings. The par-
crease in vertical loads. The shear force at zero ameters for the models are given in Table 2. It can be
displacement (qo) increases with applied axial loads noticed that good agreement is generally obtained.
which gives a net increase in the energy dissipated per
cycle. Stiffness parameters k, and k, are also axial 6. SPECIAL FEATURES IN MODELING
load dependent. However, the theoretical justification CABLESTAYED BRIDGES
for the behavior is not well understood and cannot be
One of the problems in the analysis of large scale
expressed in simple formulas. Simplified assumptions
structures such as cable-stayed bridges is the storage
have to be considered in this regard. The post-yield
and time requirements for the solution of equilibrium
stiffness (k,) can be approximated by the shear
equations. In nonlinear dynamic analysis, the prob-
stiffness of the elastomeric bearing. The lead plug
lem becomes more severe and methods of reducing
accordingly is assumed to behave as a plastic solid.
the size of the problem have to be used. Another
However, this assumption is based on one of the
problem that may face the analysts is the offset
better results of various experimental results [38].
feature that is associated with cable-deck, cable-
Another parameter of interest is the initial elastic part
tower and bearing-deck connections.
of the forcedisplacement curve (k,). An elastic stiff-
ness/plastic stiffness ratio of ten was widely adopted 6.1. Offset at cable-deck and bearing-deck connec-
in many analyses. However, a ratio of 5-15 were tions
reported with most of the results near 10 [40]. The
In modeling cable-stayed bridges, cables are con-
force at zero displacement can be taken as the yield
nected to the tower beam elements and deck beam
force for the lead plug.
elements at an eccentricity from the middle plane of
Fortunately, for most bridge applications a rela-
the beam. Accordingly, end nodes of the cable do not
tively low vertical load (30-40% of the bearings rated
coincide with nodes of beams. The problem becomes
load) is used because live loads are much greater than
more pronounced if one beam is used to model the
dead loads [47]. For cable-stayed bridges in particu-
whole deck where the consideration of offset becomes
lar, most vertical loads are usually transmitted to
inevitable. The logical step in the analysis would be
towers through cables. The assumptions presented
to treat the cable nodes as slave nodes where degrees
above for the bearing behavior are practically ade-
of freedom can be expressed in terms of those at the
quate. For real applications, experimental work
corresponding master nodes of the beam element.
and/or more detailed analysis have to be performed
This scenario can be achieved by means of transform-
for similar bearings to those proposed for the bridge.
ation.
In the analysis, a 6 x 6 stiffness matrix is to be
As shown in Figs l(C) and 13, i is assumed to be
used. The two yield or multi-yield surface stress
the beam node and j is the cable node at the same
algorithms [12] can be used to update only the shear
plane. Displacement and rotation components at
terms in the stiffness matrix and internal force vector.
node j can be expressed in terms of degrees of
The axial stiffness and force terms are to be updated
freedom at node i by the following transformation
relation
FORCE $ r 1 0 0 T,, T,, T,, 1
j&f+&-&-;; where ’’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’’ (87)
Bounding Surface We)

Fig. 1 I. Typical hysteretic loop for lead-rubber bearings. {Au) 6x,={& Au, Au, AO, A@, AO,}T.
( 1) CASE OF A 400 KN VERTICAL LOAD

120.00 , I
90.00 .......
60.00 -
30.00
0.00
-30.00
-60.00
-90.00
1
-120.00~ . ’ ’ ’ ’ . ’ . ’ ’ ’ ’ .
-80.00 -60.00 -40.00 -20.00 0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00
STROKE (mm)
(11) CASE OF A 3.15 MN VERTICAL LOAD

500.00
375.00
250.00
z 125.00
0.00
8
@_ 125.00
-250.00
-375.00
-500.00~ ’ ’ ’ . ’ . ’ . ’ . ’ ’ ’
-120.00 -90.00 -60.00 -30.00 0.00 30.00 60.00 90.00 120.00
STROKE (mm)
Fig. 12. Force-displacement hysteretic loop for: (1) 356 x 356 x 140 mm bearing with a 100 mm diameter
lead plug, and (II) 650 (dia.) x 197 mm bearing with a 170 mm diameter lead plug.
In eqn (87), T,, are the elements of the transform- xj” and x!‘+~‘~. The two vectors can be defined as
ation matrix that relate the change in displacements follows:
at the cable node due to a change in rotations at the
beam node (i). In order to find the transformation
matrix [T], x 3, the configuration of the plane at point
(j) at times (t) and (t +At) is shown in Fig. 13.
In the figure d(‘) and d(‘+A’) are the vectors connecting
(88)
the two nohes (i and j) in the local coordinates
Table 2. Parameters of a loading-bounding surface model for two

lead-rubber bearings (K is a shape parameter for force-displacement
curve [12])
Bearing 356 x 356 x 140 mm 650 (dia.) x 197mm
90 220 kN 55 kN
9, 51 kN 12.75 kN
E, 17 kN/mm 6.25 kN/mm
J% 2 kN/mm 0.725 kN/mm
K (curve parameter) 2 2
X, y, z = Lccal Coordinates
(i) = Master Node
( j ) = Slave Node
Fig. 13. Typical beam cross-sections at different configurations.
or The displacement increment at joint (j) can be

instead given in terms of the rotation increment at
{d”‘} = [TI”]{D”‘} joint (i) by applying a matrix multiplication and
[Q,, (t + AI) Qg+AI) Q(:,+Aq arranging terms in the above equation
(d(‘+AO} = ,!+A0 ,~+AI)
{Au}(‘) = [7-h x 3{Ae}‘1’, (96)
(I+Af) ,,,+A,, ,,~.A,,
Q 1, 12 13
where
or
T,, =0
{&+A’)} = [~l’+“~,]j~(f+W},
(89)
T,, = Q’::d, + Qr:‘d, + Q!;d,
where {D’} and {D’+A’} are the corresponding vec-
tors of {d’} and {#+A’} in the global coordinates T,, = -Q;‘dr - Q$;d, - Qfd,
where
Tz, = -Qtdr- Qgd,- Qfd,
{Au(‘)} = (D}‘+A’ - (D}’ (90)
T,, = 0
but
T23= Q”‘d
r, r + Q”‘d
51 3 + Q{:‘d I
Q(r+At)= Q(r) + A(j x Q(f)
(91)
T,, = Q”‘d
I> r + Q”‘d
(2 s + Q”‘d
12 f
or
TX,= -Qj:‘d,-Qx’d,-Qj:‘d,
{Au) = IT,1V+W{~(~+AO}
_ [T,](‘){&)},(92)
T,3 = 0. (97)
A fair assumption can be introduced by considering
that Further simplification can be introduced to the part
of the transformation matrix [T] as defined in eqn
{&+A’)} = {d”‘}. (93) (87) by noticing that d, is usually equal to zero.
It might be thought that the transformation pro-
Accordingly posed herein may introduce an error that causes
displacements to be significantly overestimated, as is
usually the case in eccentric beam-plate connec-
{AU} = ([T,](‘+A’)- [T,]“‘) (94)
tions [48-SO]. However, the source of error in the case
or
of plates stiffened by beams is attributed to the fact da1 superposition technique depends on the number
that an incompatibility in the axial displacement field of mode shapes required to accurately simulate the
is introduced since the membrane mode of defor- response and the frequency of updating the mode
mation is characterized by a linear displacement field shapes. For mild nonlinear problems, a single set of
while the flexure mode is represented by a cubic modes (based on linear analysis) could be used
polynomial. The introduction of an additional degree throughout the analysis. The approach has been used
of freedom for beam elements circumvents the prob- for cable-stayed bridges by some investigators [24].
lem [50]. For the case of four-node isoparametric The accuracy of the method has been checked against
beam element, this error is not involved. A simplified analyzing the problem without reduction. A small
interpretation of the transformation in eqn (87) can difference has been noticed for medium span bridges.
be expressed as For long spans, where high nonlinearities are ex-
pected, the effect of the reduction technique was not
attempted. However, it is expected that when severe
nonlinearities are involved, the efficiency of the ap-
Since a cubic interpolation function for ubenmis used proach becomes questionable.
and accordingly quadratic representation for ebeam, For the analysis of cable-stayed bridges with en-
ucablcshould have a cubic nature, which is actually the ergy dissipation devices, severe local nonlinearities of
case in the formulation of the four-node cable el- the devices are associated with geometrical nonlinear-
ement. ities of the bridge structural components. The modal
In dynamic analysis, a diagonal cable mass matrix superposition approach becomes unreliable. Instead,
may be converted to a nondiagonal matrix if the in this study, a condensation process is employed to
transformation presented in this section is used. In eliminate, temporarily during the solution process,
this analysis and to avoid this problem, the cable the degrees of freedom associated with internal nodes
mass matrix is transformed first and then diagonal- of beam and cable elements as shown in Fig. 14.
ized using the HRZ technique. Accordingly, equations associated with internal de-
grees of freedom can be processed separately from
4.2. Reduction methods other equations of the structure. Separate processing
The essence of reduction methods for nonlinear can be both convenient and efficient.
analysis is to limit the deformation modes of the It may be argued, however, that the condensation
structure to some known basis vectors which are technique may be used only in static analysis. In
considerably smaller in number than the number of order to show its applicability and limitations for
degrees of freedom of the initial discretization. An dynamic analysis, one can rewrite eqn (3) at the
ideal set of basis vectors is defined as one which element level as
maximizes the quality of results and minimizes the
total effort in obtaining them. The vectors must be (a&~] + b,[c] + [k](‘)){Au}(‘+*‘)
linearly independent and they must characterize the
nonlinear response of important parts of structure. = {fext}(‘+A’)+{fb}(lfA’)- {j;nc}(‘)
The generation of these vectors should be both simple
and inexpensive. In static analysis, Rayleigh-Ritz
approximation functions technique may be used in - (a, [ml + b, [CIH~I”
this regard. In dynamic analysis the concept of modal
superposition may be used as a reduction technique - (a*[m]+ b,[c]){ii}“’
even for nonlinear problems [51-531. In this approach
a coordinate transformation is employed from the = {fext}(‘+A’) + {fb}(‘+A’)- {&}(‘)
finite element displacement coordinates to the modal
coordinate space. However, the effectiveness of mo- + {f(ri’, ii’,}. (99)
condensed
( Beam Element)
Fig. 14. Condensation of nodes.
The symbols are similar to those used in eqn (3) but The element can now be treated in the standard
with lower-case letters instead. During the analysis, it fashion. The condensed stiffness matrix, mass matrix
is assumed that the mass matrix corresponds to the and condensed force vector are assembled into the
external nodes and is diagonalized using the HRZ structure. The element damping matrix is used herein
method as mentioned earlier. If the degrees of free- only to prove the usability of the condensation
dom {AU} are partitioned so that {AU} = {Au, Au,}~, algorithm in dynamic analysis. The system damping
where {AUK}are bounding degrees of freedom to be matrix is obtained out of the system stiffness and
retained and {AUK}are internal degrees of freedom to mass matrices as previously shown. Once {AU,} be-
be eliminated by condensation, eqn (99) becomes comes known, {AU,} which is needed in stress and
stiffness matrix calculations can be obtained.
k, + aomr, + bo c,, kc Au, It can be noticed that the condensation type ap-
k,l( proach is strictly a manipulation and introduces no
kc, A,,) = {}’ (loo)
approximation compared with the reduction methods
where in dynamics which introduce an approximation. The
only assumption used is related to the mass matrix,
which has to be calculated considering only the
, +fr,+a’)-f$, ltf,(ti’,ii’)}, (101)
tfil={f g:A” element external nodes, and hence the assumption is
CL) = if b,tA’
-f :,t,1. (102) related to inertial forces which affects the distribution
rather than the total magnitude of forces. The reser-
In the above equations the subscripts (r) and (c) refer vation on the location of concentrated forces can be
to the retained and condensed degrees of freedom, controlled by using equivalent system of forces when
respectively. It can be noticed that inertial forces and necessary.
concentrated loads are introduced only at the bound- The condensation technique has been verified and
ary nodes. Two equations can be derived checked in static and dynamic cases shown before in
the previous sections and other simple examples as
(aoh + b,k,,l+ @,,I - [k,,l[k,,l~‘[k,,I))iAu,} well. Similar results have been obtained for different
v J condensed and uncondensed cases.
condensed[k]
7. A BRIDGE MODEL AND NUMERICAL PROCEDURE
A simple bridge model with relatively few degrees

and of freedom is used. The bridge, as shown in Fig. 15,
has only one vertical plane of stay cables along the
{Au,)= -k-‘@,,l{Au,) - i&I,. (104) middle longitudinal axis of the superstructure. The
Typical lead-rubber bearing
TOWER ,0.452 ft2
MENT
Typical elastomeric bearing

L 38 ft L
1
40 ft
4 1I, $ 0.40
I Tower cross-section
0.40
Pier cross-section Deck cross-section

Fig. 15. Three-dimensional view of a single-plane cable-stayed bridge.
cables in the proposed model are arranged using The finite element model, and its arrangement of
the harp system where the cables are connected to the nodes and different elements, is shown in Fig. 18. It
tower at different heights and placed parallel to each can be noticed that two nodes are assigned to the
other. In such a system, considerable rigidity is tower-deck connection in order to accommodate a
required for the main girder to keep the change of device element when considered. In addition, the
cross-section deformations due to live loads within locations of slave nodes are shown on the deck
allowable limits. A hollow box section is therefore cross-sections at abutment and tower connections as
proposed for the girder as shown in Fig. 15. One well as at the deck-pier connection. In this example,
disadvantage of this system is its apparent limitation no offset considerations have been given to the cable
to relatively short spans. Only the longitudinal and connections. The cables are assumed attached to the
vertical motions are considered. nodes of the main girder and towers with no eccen-
In the seismic analysis presented in this study, it is tricity. During the solution process of the equilibrium
assumed that the bridge starts motion at rest in the equations, the internal nodes of both beam and cable
dead-load deformation position. It is therefore elements can be eliminated using the condensation
necessary to perform a nonlinear static analysis to technique.
compute the tangent stiffness matrix, mass matrix, The bridge model (without using passive devices)
internal forces, displacements and rotations, and the has the deck rigidly connected to the tower while
stress distribution of the bridge structural com- rollers are provided at the deck-abutment connec-
ponents. In the case of elastomeric and lead-rubber tions. For the proposed bridge case with the passive
bearings, the bearings may undergo considerable control system, lead-rubber pads are incorporated in
shear and compression deformations under the the same bridge design at the deck-abutment connec-
bridge’s own weight, as shown schematically in tions, while the deck is mounted on elastomeric
Fig. 16(A). Excessive deformations of the bearings bearings at the towers, as shown in Fig. 15. The
due to creep, especially in shear, can jeopardize their force-displacement response of the lead-rubber
performance. It is proposed that the bridge be con- devices is assumed linear in compression and uncou-
structed, and consequently analyzed, with rollers pled from shear behavior. A loading-bounding sur-
provided at the deck-abutment connections. Once the face plasticity model and its equivalent eight-yield
bridge settles in its dead load deformed shape, bear- surface plasticity model are used to idealize the
ings can be installed and rollers may then be removed shear response behavior of lead-rubber bearings. The
as shown in Fig. 16(B). It may be argued that the combined plastic stiffness of the bearings at the
structure may suffer more displacements, with the towers and abutments are assumed to be 0.35 Wjft
rollers, than with elastomeric bearings had they (1.15 W/m), where W is the part of the deck weight
been mounted from the beginning. However, the carried by bearings. The definition of W is chosen to
magnitude and distribution of deformations can be be consistent with that used in short-to-medium span
controlled by changing the magnitude and distri- highway bridges [7,8]. In cable-stayed bridges, part
bution of initial tensions in the cables as shown in of the deck weight is transmitted to the towers
Fig. 17. through the cables, while in highway bridges the
B. 1 Deformations with rollers

at deck-abutment connection
A. Lead-rubber or elastomeric
bearings under considerable
dead load deformations.
B.2 Rollers replaced with

lead-rubber or elastomeric
bearings.
Fig. 16. Precautions during the construction of cable-stayed bridges with elastomeric and lead-rubber
bearings.
3.00
(I) Tower’s top (Longitudinal direction) - nonlinear
(2) Tower’s top (Longihcdinal dimcrion) - linear
8 2.60
g
“d
!z
g 2.20
2
3
ii
3 1.80
h
??
z
E 1.40
1.00
-0.60 0.00 0.60 1.20 1.80 2.40 3.00
DISPLACEMENT(Fl-)
Fig. 17. Effect of initial tension in cables on the static displacement of the bridge.
weight of the deck is totally transmitted through the In the analysis of the two bridge cases, the strong
bearings. The elastic stiffness of lead-rubber bearings motion records of the October 15, 1979 Imperial
is assumed to be 10 times the asymptotic (plastic) Valley earthquake (Array No. 6) are used. The
stiffness. This assumption seems to enjoy broad ac- seismic input is assumed different in direction but
ceptance among bearing designers [38]. The design uniform along the bridge. The duration of the strong
shear force level for the yielding of lead plugs (i.e. the shaking represented by the first 10 set of components
initial size of the bounding surface) is taken to be 7% S40”E and DOWN are used in the longitudinal and
of the weight, W. The behavior of elastomeric bear- vertical directions, respectively. In the solution al-
ings is assumed to be linearly elastic where the small gorithm of the nonlinear model, a time step of 0.005 set
hysteretic behavior, which is usually noticed exper- is used. A damping ratio of 2% is considered for the first
imentally, is neglected. two modes using the Rayleigh damping assumption.
Deck-Abutment Connection Deck-Cable Connection
Note: there are two condensed nodes

between deck, tower, pier and
cables main nodes.
Pier-Deck Connection
Fig, 18. Finite element idealization of the single-plane cable-stayed bridge.
The time history responses for selected locations on 8. PRESENT AND FUTURE DESIGNS FOR
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
the bridge are shown in Figs 19 and 20 for the bridge
with passive control devices compared to a reference The bridge model with a single-plane cable system,
case (where the deck is rigidly connected to the tower used in the previous section, was intentionally tai-
and floating at the abutments). Generally, it can be lored to provide a simple model with as few degrees
seen, from Fig. 19, that moments are significantly of freedom as possible in order to examine the effect
reduced with the proposed passive control scheme of passive control systems on the response of the
at the pier-foundation connection (53%) and at the bridge. However, this bridge system does not rep-
deckcable connection in the middle section (40%). resent a wide class of bridges. In the course of
Furthermore, fewer forces are resisted by the end investigating the sensitivity of cable-stayed bridge
cable at the abutment side (78%) for the bridge case response to different parameters of passive control
with the control devices. On the other hand, displace- systems, a simple bridge model is proposed to rep-
ments (as shown in Fig. 20) increase, although by just resent most of the current bridge systems and their
a small percentage as compared to those of the effective spans. The three-dimensional view of the
non-isolated bridge case, at the top of the towers model is shown in Fig. 21. The bridge has a center
(112%). More deflections are noticed in the longitudi- span length of 1100 ft (335.50 m), and two side spans
nal direction at the mid-point of the deck (191%), of 450 ft (137.25 m) each; it has also a double-plane,
accompanied with reduced displacements in the verti- multi-cable harp system. The finite element nodes
cal direction (62%). and the connection cross sections are shown in the
MOMENT AT THE PIER-FOUNDATION CONNECTION

0.84E45
ST
: 030EMX
ci
“z &?&E+O5
: -0.78E+OS
E proposed passive control
-1328+05
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
TIME (set)
MOMENT AT DECK-CABLE CONNECTION, MIDDLE SECTION
z? - deck rigid at tower, rollers at abutment

.g 03g8+05.-proposed passive control
E3
g 0.40EAJ4 -
g -031EtO5 -
-0.66E+O5~ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ n ’ . ’ . ’ v ’ ’ ’ a
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.M) 4.M) 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
TIME&c)
HORIZONTAL FORCE IN END-CABLE, ABUTMENT SIDE

800.00
- deck rigid at tower, rollers at abutment
.$
C 400.00---- proposed passive control
-800.00 ’ ’ ’ ’ * ’ 1 ’ a ’ . f 1
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.M) 9.00 10.00
TIME (set)
Fig. 19. Effect of the proposed passive control system on forces.
DISPLACEMENT AT TOP OF TOWER IN LONGITUDINAL DIRECTION

15.00 -
7.50 - - proposed passive control
0.00
-7.50-
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 ml 9.00 10.00
TIME (xc)
DISPLACEMENT OF DECK MID-POINT IN VERTICAL DIRECTION

20.00
- deck rigid at tower, rollers at abutment
1200 - - proposed passive control
-12.00’’ ’ . ’ ’ . ’ . ’ ’ v , I . I I
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
TIME (se4
DISPLACEMENT OF DECK MID-POINT IN LONGITUDINAL DIRECTION

10.00
_ -deck rigid at tower, rollers at abutment_ !5 \
f ::
5.00F -proposed passive control 1,
f ‘1
2: j; .:,
:
-10.00’ ’ ’ n ’ ’ ’ . ’ ’ ’ . ’ ’ ’
0.00 1.M) 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.CKI 9.00 10.00
TIME (set)
Fig. 20. Effect of the proposed passive control system on displacements.
same figure. It can be seen that one beam element is deck-abutment connection while the deck is sup-
used to idealize the whole deck accompanied by ported on elastomeric bearings at the towers. Two
different slave nodes at various locations along the cases of plastic stiffness levels are shown in Table 3.
bridge to tackle the offset associated with the cable- The elastic-plastic ratio of hysteretic-type units is
deck connections and the eccentric installation of assumed to be 10 while the characteristic shear
devices with respect to the beam nodes. strength is taken as 5% of W. The results shown in
As the popularity of these bridges increases, their Table 3 indicate a similar response behavior for the
span lengths also increase. Thus to represent the future design model; that is a reduction in seismic
future trend in cable-stayed bridge design, a second forces. However, the longer span bridge is less sensi-
bridge model (Fig. 22) with a center span of 2200 ft tive to the variation in plastic stiffness of bearings
(671 m) and 960 ft (292.80 m), respectively, is con- implying that the passive control technique is more
sidered. A fan-type double plane cable system is effective for the first bridge model.
adopted. The finite element idealization of the bridge
is shown in the same figure. In the model, cables are
9. CONCLUDING REMARKS
anchored to concrete pylons and steel box section-
type deck. Based on the theoretical formulation, experimental
The sensitivity of longer span bridges to energy verification and numerical applications presented in
dissipation parameters is studied by comparing this study, the following conclusions are arrived at:
the response of the two bridge models for different
plastic stiffness levels of devices. In both bridge 1. The four-node isoparametric truss element is
models all hysteretic-type bearings are installed at the simple to formulate yet general for use in taut cable
Tower (above deck)
Tower (below deck) bk Connection
0 Main Node
4 Master Node Deck-Tower Conneciion
.@;-‘1
6 Slave Node
I 15
142 l
40
40
100
1
I:
L fo10
1040
Fig. 21. Three-dimensional view and finite element idealization of a present bridge design model.
problems. The developed element retains all geo- namic vibrations which is a feature the one element
metric nonlinearities for elastic deformations. Cables equivalent modulus approach lacks.
that are initially curved or that assume a curved
shape as a result of deformation can be modeled 2. The formulation of the four-node isoparametric
using the proposed element. The following remarks beam element is simple, general and versatile. The
are specially oriented for the use of the element in element predicts the significant displacements and
cable-stayed bridges: stresses based on the beam theory accurately for large
displacements. The shear deformations are included
. The cable configuration under its own weight in this high order element where reduced numerical
can be reached accurately with few iterations integrations are avoided. The isoparametric formu-
even starting with a straight configuration; how- lation assures no directionality for displacements
ever it is recommended that the initial pattern be interpolation. The formulation is based on stress
estimated using a parabolic representation for the point integration; hence the material nonlinearity
cable so that one or two iterations will only be could be included efficiently by considering plasticity
needed. theory-based stress point algorithms. Simpler and
l The formulation of the element includes the stiffen- more accurate formulation can therefore be obtained
ing effect of the cable associated with tensile forces compared with moment-curvature based formu-
which is not represented by the one-element equiv- lations. The present approach differs from previously
alent modulus approach unless a geometric stiff- published isoparametric elements in its general cross-
ness matrix is added. section consideration which provides along with the
l The element can be useful in predicting the in-plane offset inclusion of the cable connections an efficient
and out-of-plane response of the cable under dy- way for controlling the problem size.
Tower (above deck)
6
=t 0.2
24
i
Tower (below deck) Deck-Abutment Connection Deck-Cable Coonecho 100 ,J,, //lloo
0 Main Node
Deck-Tower Con"CCtlOn
4 Master Node
0 Slave Node
Fig. 22. Three-dimensional view and finite element idealization of a future bridge design model.
3. The transformation procedure proposed for the computation tool for reducing the degrees of free-
non-coincident cable beam nodes introduces no error dom.
for the four-node isoparametric elements as might be 5. The two-node device element is simple, practical
compared to the error associated with beam-plates and easy to implement in stiffness-type approach
offset connections. codes. The possibility of using either the two-surface
4. The reduction methods that are usually em- model or the multi-yield surface model provides
ployed for dynamic analysis of large-scale structures options to deal with different analytical and exper-
are not used in this study. The reduction approach imental behaviors.
which relies on choosing a set of transformation basis 6. The initial tensions given to the cables affect the
vectors are unsuitable where high levels of nonlinear- dead load configuration and accordingly the dynamic
ities are expected. The reduction of the problem size characteristics of the bridge. The geometric nonlinear
in this study is achieved instead through elimination behavior of the structure becomes more pronounced
of internal nodes for cables and beams. The conden- for lower ratios of tensions with respect to the
sation-type approach is a manipulation and intro- superstructure weight.
duces slight approximation where the mass matrix is 7. The elastomeric and lead-rubber bearings may
calculated considering only the outer element nodes be subjected to considerable deformations in shear
and using the HRZ method for matrix diagonaliza- due to creep resulting from their initial shear defor-
tion. The elimination of nodes accompanied by mations under the bridge’s own weight. It is rec-
the possibility of using one beam element to simulate ommended that the bridge be erected with rollers at
the three-dimensional behavior of the whole deck the deck-abutment connections where they can be
and the cable offset formulation provides a useful replaced by the isolation bearings once the bridge
Table 3. Energy dissipation for present and future bridge designs lpresent design: (450 + 1100 ft + 450), Fig. 21; future
design: (960 + 2200 ft + 960) Fig. 221
Plastic stiffness of hysteretic-type Plastic stiffness of hysteretic-type
devices + stiffness of elastic-type devices + stiffness of elastic-type
devices = 0.3 B’jftt devices = 1.30 wjftt
Present Future Present Future
bridge design bridge design bridge design bridge design
Forces
Deck (mid-section) Axial force 0.59 0.620 0.700 0.720
Z-moment 0.420 0.445 0.600 0.615
Y-moment 0.510 0.535 0.650 0.662
Y-shear 0.450 0.480 0.618 0.625
Deck (near abutment) Axial force 0.640 0.675 0.740 0.761
Z-moment 0.600 0.630 0.741 0.750
Y-shear 0.550 0.575 0.720 0.731
Forces
Tower-foundation Axial force 0.710 0.745 0.770 0.785
connection X-shear 0.580 0.615 0.700 0.719
Z-shear 0.550 0.567 0.645 0.652
Z-moment 0.531 0.550 0.680 0.690
X-moment 0.560 0.590 0.712 0.725
Axial forces in cables Cable (I) 0.765 0.788 0.850 0.862
Cable @) 0.680 0.711 0.760 0.764
Cable (III) 0.736 0.750 0.783 0.790
Cable (VI) 0.725 0.740 0.770 0.774
Displacements
Mid-section of the deck X-displacement 1.178 1.208 1.080 1.110
Y-displacement 1.212 1.240 1.195 1.200
Z-displacement 1.265 1.292 1.200 1.225
Top of the tower X-displacement 1.040 1.060 1.010 1.025
Y-displacement 1.100 1.125 1.080 1.100
Z-displacement 1.242 1.265 1.170 1.180
Mid-point of cables Cable (I) 1.120 1.145 1.078 1.090
Cable (II) 1.223 1.240 1.172 1.180
Cable (III) 1.100 1.110 1.050 1.060
Cable (VI) 1.205 1.221 1.150 1.160
t Refers to the part of the deck’s weight supported by bearings.
takes its dead load configuration. Increased deflec- Report (in Japanese), The Public Works Research Insti-
tute, Tsukuba (1986).
tions associated with providing roller supports can be
2. M. C. Griffith, I. D. Aiken and J. M. Kelly, Displacement
partially avoided by changing the magnitude of the control and uplift restraint for base isolated structures.
initial tensions in cables along the bridge. J. Strucf. Engng, ASCE 116, 1135-1148 (1990).
8. The use of energy dissipation devices offers a 3. J. M. Kelly, Base-isolation: linear theory and design.
potential advantage for the design of earthquake- Earthquake Spectra, EERI 6, 223-244 (1990).
4. I. G. Buckle and R. L. Mayes, The application of
resistant bridges. Generally, the magnitude and seismic isolation to bridges. Proc. ASCE Structural
distribution of forces for the bridge structural com- Congress, Seismic Engineering Research and Practice,
ponents can be controlled by proper choice of prop- pp. 633642 (1990).
erties and locations of the devices. However, an 5. J. F. Fleming, Nonlinear static analysis of cable-stayed
bridge structures. Compuf. Strucf. 10, 621635 (1979).
increase in displacements is to be expected unless
6. A. Ghobarah and H. M. Ali, Design of base-isolated
more damping is augmented. The advantages gained highway bridges. The Ninth World Conference on Earth -
by the passive control technique are concluded for quake Engineering, Vol. 5, pp. 615620, Tokyo, Japan
both present and future design trends of cable-stayed (1988).
bridges. However, shorter span bridges are better 7. A. Ghobarah and H. M. Ali, Seismic performance of
highway bridges. Engng Srruct. 10, 157-166 (1988).
candidates for more effective application.
8. A. Ghobarah and H. M. Ah. Seismic design of base-iso-
lated highway bridges utilizing lead-rubber bearings.
Acknowledgemenrs-This study is supported in part by the Canadian J. Civil Engng 17, 413422 (1990).
National Science Foundation and partly by the Department 9. A. Ghobarah and H. M. Ali, The use of base-isolation
of Civil Engineering at University of Southern California. in the design and retrofit of bridges. Proc. of the Third
This support is greatly acknowledged. International Conference on Short and Medium Span
Bridges, Toronto,“Ontario, Canada, pp. 439448 (1990).
10. A. M. Abdel-Ghaffar and H. M. Ali. Enerev dissioation
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Nonlinear Cable Analysis Using Four-Noded Isoparametric Elements PDF

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Compurcrv & Sm~tures Vol. 54. No. 3. pp.

MODELING THE NONLINEAR SEISMIC BEHAVIOR OF

H. M. Alit and A. M. Abdel-Ghaffarf

(Received 21 August 1993)

1. lNTRODUCTlON not to allow plastic deformations for such mega-type

Fig. 1. Modeling of cable-stayed bridges.

absorbed by the work of internal, inertial, and, in a where

[M]{ii}‘+A’ + [c]{ti}‘+A’ + (F;“t}‘+A’ = {Fex,}‘fA’ (1)

where [Ml, [Cl, and [K]‘+” are the system mass,

-(R[W + ~KIH~J’ (3)

and obtained. Some special algorithms have been pro-

The strain components can instead be expressed in

components measured with respect to the initial where

The second Piola-Kirchhoff stress component Q,, is where

The displacement within an element (ui) can be

$1=h(--9r3 + 9r2 + r - I),

The arc length at a material point x,(r) is given r, + r, r, - y/

where Si is the arc length at nodal point (k) referred

where {F,} is the vector of external forces. The and

The element body forces {Fb} is defined as

for node k, [H]3x,2= ..’ 0 Ii/k 0 .‘. (48)

where WI 12x I2--A “P,[Hl~.3[Hl3.,,lJ,Idr (51)

where As a first example, the transverse vibration of a

0.001 0.01 0.10 1.00

6 i ..-..............-... - ..-.... -1. -.---.... -----

Fig. 4. Response of a cable under its own weight

k=4 in which the displacement stiffness matrix [KU] is

+ 7 ‘g4 $k(r)@‘v (54) [Ku Ii!/ x 24 = PO + al x 6D-TX 3V0’13 x 3

x [T”‘l, x 6 [Bo + BL 16 x 24 do, (59)

QX’Q!:’ 2Q:‘Q:’ 2Qx'Qi:'

Q;Q:’ 2Q:‘Q:’ 2Q:‘Qf

QfQ:‘+ Q!:‘Qf QtQ$:'+

points as shown in Fig. l(A).

where integration can be performed in the following

The expression for the nonlinear strain-displacement

where {(i} is the stress vector

{6’r= {e,i O22 O33 cI2 Ol3 O23). (66)

The body forces vector can be obtained as:

FbI24x I= WI:4 x3V>3 x I dv, (67)

where {p} is the weight per unit volume in the three

Fig. 5. Sub-areas for numerical integration of beam elements.

0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50

parameters are to be determined out of the refined {F,} = {F:“‘} - {F:“‘}

Dynamic Analysis Dynamic Analysis

@ 1 STATIC RESPONSE OF THE CANTILEVER

.--- Proposed model (I element)

0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00

(c ) DYNAMIC RfW’ONSE OF THE CANTILEVER

Two-Node Eauivalent Model

Fig. 8. Modeling of passive devices.

where r, s and f refer to the local coordinate system

5.1. Lead extrusion dissipators

In this device, energy is dissipated during cyclic

A 150KN lead extrusion dcvice

A 170 KN lead exausioa d&cc

30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00 50.00 55.00 60.00 65.00 70.00

FORCE $ r 1 0 0 T,, T,, T,, 1

j&f+&-&-;; where ’’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’’ (87)

Bounding Surface We)

( 1) CASE OF A 400 KN VERTICAL LOAD

(11) CASE OF A 3.15 MN VERTICAL LOAD

Table 2. Parameters of a loading-bounding surface model for two

Fig. 13. Typical beam cross-sections at different configurations.