Journal

ELSEVIER Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996) 127-147

Groundwater-surface water interactions in headwater

forested wetlands of the Canadian Shield
K.J. DevitoaT*, A.R. Hillb, N. RouletC
aDepartment of Geography, University of Toronto in Mississauga, Erindale College, 3359 Mississauga Road
North, Mississauga, Ont. L5L IC6, Canada
bDepartment of Geography, York University, 4700 Keele Street, North York, Ont. M3J IP3, Canada
‘Department of Geography, McGill University, 805 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Que. H3A 2K6.
Canada

Received 16 November 1994; revision accepted 20 August 1995

Abstract

Groundwater and surface water interaction in two conifer swamps located in headwater
catchments with contrasting till depth, typical of the southern Canadian Shield, were studied
from June 1990 to August 1992. Both swamps had little influence on the regulation or attenua-
tion of seasonal runoff response in the catchment. The two valley bottom swamps were con-
nected to local aquifers but the upland-wetland connection was continuous in the catchment
with deeper till and ephemeral in the catchment with thin till-rock ridges. Groundwater move-
ment through the wetlands was restricted mainly to the surface peat layer in both wetlands,
because a large portion of inputs from shallow soil layers and stream inflows enter near the peat
surface. However, differences in upland-wetland connections resulted in contrasting hydro-
logic regimes in the two swamps. During seasons with larger inputs, both swamps were hydro-
logically connected to uplands and had a similar hydrology characterized by a high water table,
rapid storm response, and predominance of saturated overland flow. In summer, upland inputs
were absent in the catchment with thin till-rock ridges, resulting in cessation of baseflow and a
lower water table that varied in response to variations in rainfall. Continuous upland inputs
throughout the summer in the catchment with deeper tills (l-3 m) sustained baseflow and kept
the water table near the peat surface. This study demonstrates the control of morphology and
shallow subsurface geology on the hydrology of valley bottom swamps influenced by local
aquifers.

* Corresponding author.

0022-1694/96/$15.000 1996 - Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

SSDI 0022-1694(95)02912-5
128 K.J. Deviio et al. / Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996) 127-147

1. Introduction

Valley bottom wetlands are a common feature of headwater basins in humid gla-
ciated lowland regions and are also areas where groundwater and surface water
hydrology are inseparable (Roulet, 1990a). Groundwater-surface water interactions
in wetlands have received increased attention in recent years (Siegel, 1988a). These
interactions influence runoff production (Verry and Boelter, 1978; Waddington et al.,
1993) and water chemistry (Hill, 1990; Devito and Dillon, 1993) in wetland systems.
Groundwater-surface water interactions in wetlands are complex and interpreting
the different hydrologic functions of wetlands requires knowledge of the hydro-
geologic setting of the particular wetland within the landscape (Verry and Boelter,
1978; Siegel, 1988b; Winter and Woo, 1990). Some studies have emphasized that the
important control on the hydrologic behaviour of wetlands is the interaction of
intermediate or regional scale groundwater with smaller scale local groundwater
flows (Verry and Boelter, 1978; Siegel, 1988a,b; Roulet, 1991). In wetlands which
receive continuous groundwater discharge, such as in fens and swamps, water table
position and surface hydrology are relatively uniform as groundwater sources buffer
episodic precipitation events. Studies on wetlands isolated from large-scale ground-
water discharge, as in many raised bogs and poor fens, suggest that water interacts
primarily with the surface layer of peat, and water table fluctuations and the surface
hydrology of these wetlands are influenced by the seasonality of local scale ground-
water links and precipitation (Verry and Boelter, 1978; Taylor and Pierson, 1985;
Whiteley and Irwin, 1986).
Field studies and numerical simulations of hillslope and lake hydrology have
shown that ephemeral or continuous groundwater flow can occur in transient local
flow regimes, depending on the unsaturated zone thickness and permeability (Winter,
1983; Hinton et al., 1993). Consequently, wetlands connected to local aquifers may
show a range of groundwater connections and contrasting seasonal patterns of
surface saturation and water levels resulting in different runoff patterns and water
balance. It may be possible to generalize the hydrologic characteristics of valley
bottom wetlands with respect to physiographic setting in regions restricted to local
flow systems because of their simpler hydrogeology. However, the range of hydro-
logic behaviour of wetlands in these hydrogeologic settings is not well documented.
To examine this behaviour a hydrometric approach was used to analyse the tem-
poral and spatial variation in upland-wetland links, water table fluctuations and flow
path in valley bottom forested swamps of headwater catchments of the Canadian
Shield. This is a region of shallow, but varying, depth of glacial till over impermeable
bedrock which restricts catchment runoff to local flow regimes; thus, groundwater
sources are considered ephemeral and insignificant to the water balance of these
wetlands (Winter and Woo, 1990).
The two study sites are in catchments which represent the ends of the physiographic
continuum, characteristic of the shallow till-rock ridges physiographic regions of the
southern Canadian Shield, with till depths of less than 1 m and up to 10 m depth,
respectively. In comparing the hydrology of sites in catchments with contrasting till
depth we ask several questions about how the seasonality and complexity of the
 K.J. Devito et al. 1 Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996) 127-147 129

hydrology may differ in valley bottom forested swamps, the dominant wetland type in
this landscape (Riley, 1988). Specifically, with an increase in till depth: (1) does the
upland-wetland linkage shift from ephemeral to continuous? (2) Does an increase in
input and depth of interaction of groundwater result in a larger proportion of subsur-
face flow (SSF) through deep peat? In headwater catchments, increased groundwater
interaction moderates water table fluctuations and maintains wetland surface satura-
tion (Roulet, 1990a), and the relative contribution of saturated overland flow (SOF)
and SSF varies seasonally with water table response (Devito and Dillon, 1993). There-
fore, (3) do differences in temporal and spatial upland-wetland connections result in
differences in the amplitude and periodicity of water table variations and duration of
surface saturation? (4) Do these differences influence the seasonal runoff response and
proportion of SOF vs. SSF, particularly during dry periods?

2. Study sites

The two wetlands are in headwater catchments of Harp Lake (45’23’N, 79”08’W)
and Plastic Lake (45”1l’N, 78”5O’W),which are situated near the southern limit of the
Precambrian Shield in south-central Ontario (Fig. 1). Annual precipitation in the
area is 900-l 100 mm with 240-300 mm falling as snow between December and April.
The mean January and July air temperatures are -10°C and 17.7”C, respectively.
Annual runoff is similar in both catchments, varying between years from 400 to 600
mm. The physiography, geology and some hydrological and geochemical studies of
Harp and Plastic Lake catchments have been reported by Devito and Dillon (1993),
Hinton et al. (1993), and Devito (1994).
Both catchments are underlain by impermeable Precambrian metamorphic silicate
bedrock covered with thin basal till. Overburden in Plastic catchment is classified as
thin till-rock ridges (less than 1 m depth), with a small area (10%) of sandy till l- 1.5
m depth. Most of the catchment of Harp swamp is classified as minor till plain (63%),
with deposits of sand (29%) on the north side of the stream. Plastic is forested
primarily with stands of white pine (Pinus strobus), hemlock (Tsuga canadensis)
and balsam fir (&es balsumea). Vegetation in Harp is a deciduous forest of primarily
maple (Acer spp.) and birch (Bet& spp.) on the dry uplands and a coniferous forest
(white cedar (Thu$z occidentalis), hemlock and balsam fir) in low-lying areas.
Plastic conifer swamp (2.2 ha) occupies a central bedrock depression and represents
about 10% of the total basin area of 21.1 ha (Figs. 1 and 2). The swamp is forested
primarily with white cedar and black spruce (Piceu muriunu) with some birch and
maple. There is an understorey of Alnus spp. and Ilex verticillutu, and a well-
developed layer of Sphagnum. A hummock-hollow micro-topography has developed
throughout the swamp. Peaty humic mesisols up to 6 m depth (average 2-3 m) overlie
regions of gyttja and deposits of silt, clay, sand and gravel up to 1 m depth in the
bedrock basin (Devito, 1994). The soils of the adjacent hillslope are a combination of
orthic humo-ferric and orthic ferro-humic podzols (LoZano et al., 1987). Soil and
sandy basal till depth are generally less than 0.5 m with small areas near l-l.5 m.
Three ephemeral inflows drain the upland forests.
 PLASTIC CATCHMENT HARP CATCHMENT

MinorTill Plain

Wetland
y Stream
- catchmentboundafy
Weir
Stillingwell
Meteorobgii site

Fig. 1. Location of study conifer swamps and hydrometeorology stations in Plastic and Harp catchments.
 K.J. Devito et al. / Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996) 127-147 131

PlAsTlc SWAMP
la3

HARP SWAMP
_ WP

Fig. 2. The topography of Plastic swamp (upper) and Harp swamp (lower) showing the streams and
location of weirs, groundwater wells and piezometers. Contour elevations are in metres above the outlet
stream weir.

Harp conifer swamp (1.2 ha) occupies the valley bottom and represents 5% of the
total basin area of 22.7 ha (Figs. 1 and 2). The swamp forest is dominated by white
cedar with beech (Ezgxr grundzjbliu) and maples. It has a poorly developed shrub and
bryophyte mat. Average swamp soil depth is 2-3 m of peaty cumula humisols, over-
lying layers of gyttja and pockets of silt, clay, and sand and gravel (Devito, 1994).
Upland soils are orthic, humo-ferric podzols (LoZano et al., 1987). Depth of till and
sand on the north hillslope is around 1 m and till on the south hillslope ranges from
132 K.J. Devito et al. / Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996) 127-147

1 m to more than 2 m. One channelized inflow draining forested uplands and swamp
lowland (14.2 ha) enters the swamp at the highest elevation. Subsurface inputs drain
adjacent, steep forested upland slopes (7.3 ha).

3. Methods

3.1. Hydrometeorology

Measurements of the hydrological variables and parameters were made from June
1990 to October 1992. The hydrologic year used in this study is from 1 June to 31
May. Precipitation and snow depths, relative humidity, air temperature and net
radiation were obtained from an Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy
(OMEE) meterological station located within 1 km of each wetland (Fig. 1). These
measurements were used to compute swamp evapotranspiration using a simplified
form of the Penman-Monteith combination model (Munro, 1986). A canopy resis-
tance of 100 s m-l and aerodynamic resistance of 5 s m-l were assumed for both
swamps (Munro, 1987). Throughfall amounts were estimated from 10 m x.0.05 m
ABS troughs (surface area 0.5 m2) at two locations with differing vegetation within
each swamp (Fig. 2). Snow on the ground was measured two to four times each winter
at the throughfall trough locations. Snow storage was estimated from the change in
water equivalent between measurements. Snow depth and water equivalent were
supplemented by additional measurements taken within each catchment by the
OMEE.
Stream stage at the catchment outflow. and the outflow and main inflow of both
swamps were continuously monitored at 90” V-notch weirs (Figs. 1 and 2) as
described in Devito (1995). Instantaneous discharge at three inflow streams (42,
43 and Q4) to Plastic swamp was measured on an event basis.
Groundwater wells and piezometers were installed along a longitudinal and trans-
verse transects in both swamps (Fig. 2). Groundwater wells were made from 5 or 10
cm diameter perforated ABS pipe and installed up to 1 m below the ground or peat
surface. The piezometers were made from 1.25 cm diameter PVC pipe with a slotted
point of 20 cm length. Piezometers. were installed in nests ranging from 0.5 to 5 m
depth. The location and elevation of all weirs, wells, and piezometers were surveyed in
October 1990 and May 1991 and 1992.
Water table level and piezometric head in both swamps were monitored at least
once a month at all locations, often more frequently, but only twice from December
to March owing to problems with ice. At selected sites within the swamps, water table
elevation was continuously monitored throughout the year with a float and poten-
tiometer or strip chart recorder (Fig. 2). Groundwater wells in the hillslope and
swamp perimeter were measured to estimate hillslope runoff on an event basis or at
least once a week during lower flows. Water level elevation in one hillslope well (P12
and H13) was continuously monitored from September 1991 to October 1992. The
piezometers along the middle’transverse (Pll-P18 and H12-H21) and longitudinal
(Pl-PI0 and HI-HI 1) transects and all groundwater wells in the hillslopes (see
 K.J. Devito et al. / Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996) 127-147 133

Fig. 2) were used for the measurement of hydraulic conductivity by Hvorslev water
recovery method (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). The hydraulic conductivity and specific
yield in the top 50 cm of peat was predicted by regression with estimated bulk density
as developed by Boelter and Verry (1977).

4. Results

4.1. Precipitation and evapotranspiration

There were no clear seasonal patterns in precipitation at both Plastic and Harp
swamps (Figs. 3 and 4). Precipitation at Plastic swamp was 1025 mm and 930 mm,
with 25% and 29% falling as snow from November to April in 1990-1991 and 1991-
1992, respectively. Maximum snow accumulation of 185 mm and 2 16 mm (as average
water equivalent) occurred at the end of March in 1991 and 1992, respectively. Total
precipitation at Harp swamp was 1032 mm and 914 mm, with 29% and 38% falling as
snow in 1990-1991 and 1991- 1992, respectively. A maximum snow accumulation of
110 mm and 181 mm average water equivalent occurred at the end of March in the
two years. There was considerable variation in depth of summer rainfall during the
study period (Figs. 3 and 4). Total summer precipitation (June-August) at Plastic
swamp was 120 mm, 219 mm and 275 mm, whereas Harp swamp received 159 mm,
191 mm and 213 mm from 1990 to 1992, respectively.
Evapotranspiration was in excess of 100 mm month-’ from May to August, with
the exception of June 1992, and decreased through September and October in both
swamps (Figs. 3 and 4). It was assumed that no evapotranspiration occurred between
November and March. Monthly evapotranspiration was in excess of monthly
precipitation during the summer except for July 1991 and August 1992. Cal-
culated evapotranspiration in Plastic swamp was 542 mm for 1990-1991 and
576 mm for 1991-1992, and corresponding values for Harp swamp were 532 mm
and 562 mm.

4.2. Stream Jlow

The mean daily discharge at the outlet stream of both sites showed seasonal trends
(Figs. 3 and 4). Discharge peaks during the late autumn to spring were associated with
rain and melting snow, whereas some autumn peaks and many smaller discharge
peaks were associated with rain events.
The mean daily discharge at the outlet stream of Plastic swamp was 4.7 1 s-i (range
O-97.3 1 s-l) and 2.9 1 s-i (range O-68.3 1 s-l) during 1990-1991 and 1991-1992,
respectively, and the corresponding total annual catchment runoff (including the
swamp area) was 695 mm and 431 mm. Outlet stream discharge stopped for 132,
110, and 69 days during the summer and early autumn of 1990 to 1992. Sporadic
discharge occurred during July 1991 and July and August 1992 (Fig. 3). There was a
low flow period in January and February in both years where the discharge dropped
below 0.2 1 s-l. Seasonal patterns of discharge for the three inflow streams (Q2, 43
134 K.J. Devito et al. 1 Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996) 127-147

15c
100

50
0
so xEr
n rainfall
100

150

200

c)
- -

+i.A!!L
1J JASO
K.J. Devito et al. / Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996) 127-147 135

“‘JJA-SOi’dDjJF-MAMJJASONDIJFMAMJJASO
1990 ’ 1991 1 1992
136 K.J. Devito et al. / Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996) 127-147

and 44) were similar to those for the outflow. All surface water inflow stopped for
several months during the summer and 2-4 weeks during the winter (Fig. 3).
The mean daily basin discharge for Harp swamp was 4.9 1 s-’ (range O-98.6 1 s-l)
and 3.7 1 s-’ (range O-55.2 1 s-t) during 1990-1991 and 1991-1992, respectively
(Fig. 4). The total annual catchment runoff was 677 mm and 554 mm for each
year, respectively. In contrast to Plastic swamp, Harp basin discharge continued
throughout the summer, with the exception of 2 days during early September in
1990 and 1991 (Fig. 4). Small discharge peaks related to rainfall occurred throughout
the summer. The seasonal pattern of discharge for the inflow streams (12) was similar
to that for the outflow (11; see Fig. 2). The mean daily discharge of the inflow stream
during 1990-1991 and 1991-1992 was 3.0 1 s-i (range 0.1-49.5 1 s-l) and 2.4 1 s-i
(range 0.1-39.4 1 s-l), respectively. During extreme summer low flow the inflow
discharge exceeded that of the outflow in Harp swamp.

4.3. Groundwaterflow

4.3.1. Distribution of hydraulic conductivity

The hydraulic conductivity of the surface peat in Plastic swamp decreased from
10e2 cm s-l at O-10 cm to 10-3-10-4 cm s-l at 20-30 cm depth, as determined from
mean bulk density measurements of the surface peat at nine locations. The hydraulic
conductivity of the deeper peat, below 100 cm depth, and the underlying substrate in
the bedrock basin in Plastic swamp generally ranged between lop5 and 10e6 cm s-l.
The exception was a layer at about 200 cm depth where the conductivity was between
10d4 and lop5 cm s-’ . The conductivity of the shallow soil and till as measured in ten
upland wells was high, over 10m2cm s-l.
The conductivity decreased from 10p2- 1O-3 cm s-l at 0- 10 cm to 10p3- 10m5cm
s-’ at 30-40 cm depth in the surface peat of Harp swamp, as determined from mean
bulk density measurements of the surface peat at five locations. The hydraulic con-
ductivity of the deeper peat, below 100 cm depth, generally ranged between 10e4 and
lop5 cm s-i, and was one to two orders of magnitude lower in the silt clay layer that
confines much of the organics in Harp swamp. The conductivity of shallow soils and
till (O-50 cm) of the adjacent uplands was high, 10-2-10-3 cm s-l. Conductivities in
deeper mineral substrate (10-4-10-5 cm s-l) were similar to conductivities in the
organic peat. The conductivities in areas predominated by sand and gravel were

Fig. 3. Plastic swamp, 1 June 1990 to 31 August 1992. (a) Daily depth of precipitation. (b) Monthly
evapotranspiration, rainfall, snowfall and snow accumulation (mm water equivalent (WE)). (c) Swamp
outflow discharge (l s-r) and water table elevation (cm above weir). The straight horizontal lines show
periods when the upland is hydrologically connected to the swamp. Arrows show dates of groundwater flow
nets in Fig. 6.

Fig. 4. Harp swamp, 1 June 1990 to 31 August 1992. (a) Daily depth of precipitation. (b) Monthly
evapotranspiration, rainfall, snowfall and snow accumulation (mm water equivalent (WE)). (c) Swamp
outflow discharge (1 SK’) and water table elevation (cm above weir). The straight horizontal lines show
periods when the upland is hydrologically connected to the swamp. Arrows show dates of groundwater flow
nets in Fig. 7.
 K.J. Devito et al. / Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996) 127-147 137

,80 aI Plastic Swamp

-- - uplrndconnactfd
I
1eo-
I

140-

120-
2
1oo-

00-

60-

40-

201 : : :I: : : 1: * : : : : :n: : :,: : : ’ : : :r : : :,: :

JJA8ONDJFMAMJJAbONDJFMAMJJA

Fig. 5. (a) Plastic swamp; (b) Harp swamp. The water table elevation relative to outtlow weir for the two
hillslope wells and three wetland wells along the mid-transverse transect (see Fig. 2 for location of wells), 1
June 1990 to 31 August 1992. Continuous records for hillslope wells (P12 and H13) from September 1991 to
August 1992 only. Straight line segments for Wells Pll and P12 represent periods when no water was in the
well. The straight horizontal lines show periods when upland is hydrologically connected to the Plastic
swamp.
138 K.J. Devito et al. 1 Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996) 127-147

high (more than 10e3 cm s-l). These areas were located below the organic and silt
layer at the downstream and upstream boundary and in pockets along the lateral
perimeter of Harp swamp.

4.3.2. GroundwaterJEowpatterns
Fluctuations in water table elevations at Wells Pl 1 and P12, located just upslope of
the wetland perimeter, are indicative of seasonal variations in shallow groundwater
inputs to Plastic swamp from the uplands during the study period (Fig. 5). Ground-
water inputs were ephemeral, occurring during the autumn and spring, with peak
groundwater elevations resulting from rain storms and snow melt. For several months
during the summer and several weeks during the winter the hillslopes were dry. Thus,
when 44 inflow stream was dry, the wetland was hydrologically disconnected from
the upland catchment.
Groundwater elevations at Wells H12 and H13 at the base of the hillslope represent
groundwater flow along the south hillslope in the downstream portion of Harp
swamp (Fig. 5). Groundwater input from this hillslope was continuous throughout
the study period. Annual low flow occurred during late August and early September.
Peak groundwater elevations and flow occurred during late autumn and spring.
Water table elevation at H19, H20 and H21, located at the base of the opposite
hillslope, were all similar (see Fig. 2). Groundwater flow at this location represents
seasonal variations observed along the north hillslope and the south hillslope at the
upstream portion of the swamp. The water table elevation in the upland wells peri-
odically fell below that at the wetland perimeter and flow reversals (i.e. flow from the
wetland to the hillslope base) occurred.
Flow nets during low or no flow periods and peak flow conditions, representing the
full range in water table fluctuation and groundwater flow development over a year,
are shown for transects longitudinal and transverse to downstream flow in both
swamps (Figs. 6 and 7). The lateral gradients in hydraulic head in Plastic swamp
were generally less than 15 cm over the length of the swamp (Fig. 6). After large inputs
(e.g. April), groundwater and stream inflow occurred at the slope-wetland contact,
with predominantly horizontal flow to the wetland centre. There was little ground-
water discharge through deep peat. Surface water in the centre of the upstream
portion of the swamp was recharged to mid-depths of the peat and discharged to
the surface near the outflow. Water deep in the bedrock basin, probably originating
from the wetland margins, converged near the centre of the swamp below 3 m depth,
This resulted in recharge into the mid depth of peat both from the surface and from
basal peat. When Plastic swamp was not connected to the upland (e.g. September,
1991), the flow of groundwater in the peatland reversed. Water discharged from mid-
depths of peat to the surface, the slope-wetland contact and outflow, as well as to
deeper peat and mineral deposits.
The flow nets reveal that the Harp swamp is situated in a groundwater discharge
zone and the hydraulic gradients were much greater than those of Plastic swamp
(Fig. 7). The flow nets constructed for low flow and peak flow indicate that seasonal
reversals in groundwater flow do not occur in Harp swamp. Diffuse vertical discharge
occurred near the south swamp-slope contact and the downstream portion of the
K.J. Devito et al. / Journal ofHydrology181 (1996) 127-147 139

i”
0
140 K.J. Devito et al. / Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996) 127-147

F r

~:
E
’ . . . .
I
l!
z
8
. . . .
8
. I?

s8

SM3J.W NI NOllVA313
 K.J. Devito et al. 1 Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996) 127-147 141

swamp. This is due to a break in slope and the presence of high permeability
material overlain with low permeability gyttja and peat. The flow in these
locations switched from more horizontal during low flow periods to more
vertical during higher flow periods. Deflection or convergence of water through
higher conductivity peat at the gap in gyttja and clay that confines most of the
peat resulted in upwelling at Piezometer Nest H5. This one location is where
most of the deep groundwater contribution (90-99%) to Harp swamp originates
(Devito, 1994). During high flow periods groundwater flow from both the
north and south slope converged at the lagg (H18). The convergent zone at
the lagg breaks down during low flow and water from the south slope flows across
the wetland into the north slope. The upstream portion of Harp swamp switched
from a discharge region during higher flows to a recharge region in low flow
conditions.

4.3.3. Flowvelocities in peat

Groundwater flow through peat was computed using measured hydraulic conduc-
tivity and head gradients. Water table and horizontal head gradients varied little and
the volume of lateral flow contributing to outflow at a given depth in saturated peat
was similar throughout the year (Figs. 6 and 7). Lateral subsurface flow in the top
50 cm of peat was greater than flow in underlain peat owing to greater hydraulic
conductivities. The lower gradients in Plastic were offset by greater conductivity of
the surface peat compared with Harp (lo-’ vs. 10e3 cm s-l) and maximum velocities
approached lop5 cm s-’ in both swamps. Estimated flows through the top 50 cm
were in the range of 0.01-0.1 mm day-‘. Gradients within deep peat of Plastic
swamp ranged from 0.002 to 0.005, producing velocities ranging from 10e9 to
lo-* cm s-l. Gradients within deep peat of Harp swamp were an order of
magnitude greater (about 0.01) and lateral velocities ranged from 10e6 to
lop7 cm s-l. Maximum water velocities of lop6 cm s-l through a cross-section of
peat of 100 m width by 3 m depth, excluding the surface 0.5 m, generates only
0.01 mm day-’ (0.003 1s-l) laterally to the swamp outflow. These calculations suggest
that lateral subsurface water transport does not contribute appreciable volumes of
water when compared with the average annual outflow discharge in either swamp.
Appreciable lateral transport of water through both wetlands must occur overland or
near the surface (O-10 cm depth) through living vegetation or peat which is poorly
humified.
The vertical hydraulic gradients were steeper than lateral gradients, ranging
from 0.01 to 0.1 in both wetlands, and resulted in greater velocities through deep
peat, ranging from 10e6 to lo-* cm s-’ and 10e5 to 10e7 cm s-l in Plastic and
Harp swamps, respectively. Owing to the orders of magnitude increase in cross-
sectional area, estimates of vertical flux of water range from 0.01 to 1 mm day-’
and from 0.1 to 10 mm day-’ at various locations and seasons in Plastic and Harp
swamp, respectively. Maximum estimates of vertical groundwater flux represents as
much as 20% of the total annual runoff from Harp swamp basin. The net flow
through Plastic swamp on an annual basis was near zero, owing to seasonal recharge
and discharge.
142 K.J. Devito et al. / Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996) 127-147

Plastkeo-82 -
do- Hup 20.22 ..___-

PercentQreaterThan

Fig. 8. Mean daily water table (a) and outflow stream discharge (b) duration curves for Plastic and Harp
swamp average for two years, 1990-1991 and 1991-1992.

4.4. Water table and discharge fluctuations

Mean daily water table depths at Site P15 in Plastic swamp showed similar seasonal
trends to swamp discharge and the water table was generally above the surface in the
autumn and spring and below the surface for much of the summer and winter (Fig. 3).
Annual change in the mean daily water table was 98.1 cm and 62.4 cm, and the
median water table elevation was -3.9 cm and -1.8 cm relative to the peat surface
for 1990- 1991 and 1991- 1992, respectively. Changes in water table depth decreased
over the three summers of the study in response to different amounts of rainfall.
Maximum water table depths of 62.5 cm, 23.5 cm and 13.1 cm below the surface
occurred in the summers from- 1990 to 1992, respectively.
Mean daily water table elevations at H16 in Harp swamp showed seasonal trends
similar to the outlet discharge and were more stable than the water table at Plastic
swamp (Fig. 4). The annual change in mean daily water table was 49.4 cm and
36.3 cm, and the median water table elevation was 0.1 cm and - 0.2 cm relative to
the peat surface for 1990- 1991 and 1991- 1992, respectively. Changes in water table
depth decreased slightly between three summers of the study, with maximum depths
of 14.1 cm, 6.1 cm and 1.9 cm below the surface for 1990 to 1992, respectively.
The influence of the magnitude and duration of groundwater flow on water table
elevation and outflow discharge are summarized in the water table and discharge
duration curves (Fig. 8). The water table duration curve of Harp swamp was much
 K.J. Devito et al. / Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996) 127-147 143

flatter than that for Plastic swamp, and the water table in Harp swamp remained
within 5 cm of the surface over 90% of the time. The water table was above the
surface for less time in Plastic (35-40%) than Harp swamp (50%). However, the
water table in Plastic swamp was more than 5 cm above the surface as well as more
than 10 cm below for a longer time compared with Harp.
Discharge duration curves of both swamps were similar for mean daily discharge
greater than 5 1 s-i (Fig. 8). The duration curve for Plastic swamp was much steeper
than that for Harp during lower flows, and no flow occurred about 25% of the time in
Plastic swamp. There was more constancy in baseflow at Harp swamp and the dis-
charge remained between 2 and 5 1 s-i approximately 50% of the time.

5. Discussion

5.1. Upland-wetland linkages and wetland surface hydrology

These data show that a small increase in till depth resulted in the upland-wetland
linkage shifting from ephemeral to continuous in the two headwater catchments. The
ephemeral groundwater connections observed in Plastic swamp have been reported in
wetlands connected only to local flow systems in catchments elsewhere on the
Canadian Shield (Buttle and Sami, 1992), other boreal regions (Bay, 1969), as well
as in temperate (Taylor and Pierson, 1985; Whiteley and Irwin, 1986) and arctic
landscapes (Roulet and Woo, 1968). However, the occurrence of both ephemeral
and continuous upland-wetland connections in catchments where only local flow
systems develop have not been emphasized previously. This study shows the
importance of slowly moving groundwater in the deeper strata of moderate depths
of till (2-3 m) in maintaining an upland-wetland linkage during low flow periods in
Harp swamp. The volume of continuous groundwater is small, well within the budget
uncertainties (see Devito (1995)), and owing to inherent measurement errors the
absolute values should be treated with caution. Nevertheless, groundwater from
the deeper till is critical to the surface hydrology of Harp swamp.
These results also show that the relationship between catchment physiography and
the maintenance of a groundwater connection during seasons of small inputs is very
important in controlling the amplitude of water table drawdown in wetlands which
interact only with local aquifers. The seasonal variability in the amplitude and dura-
tion of water table elevation in response to the frequency and magnitude of rainfall in
Plastic swamp is the classic seasonal response in ephemeral or ephemerally connected
wetlands (Verry and Boelter, 1978; Taylor and Pierson, 1985). There are large inter-
annual variations in water table elevation with variations in precipitation and these
wetlands are susceptible to large water table drawdown during extended dry periods
(Verry et al., 1988). In contrast, the surface hydrology of Harp swamp is similar to
that of wetlands connected to larger-scale groundwater systems (Verry and Boelter,
1978; Roulet, 1990b). Although small relative, to total inputs, diffuse discharging
groundwater is critical in sustaining saturation and reducing the temporal variability
in saturation of the peat surface of Harp swamp. Maintenance of baseflow and the
144 K.J. Devito et al. / Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996) 127-147

low antecedent water storage capacity in the swamp results in saturated overland
flow (SOF) and storm runoff responses during larger rain events throughout the
summer.
Regardless of local physiography, all valley bottom wetlands will have high water
tables during seasons of large inputs as a result of connections with the uplands.
Saturation of peat and low antecedent water storage in the wetland results in storm
runoff responses and a large portion of seasonal runoff as SOF. High water table and
the predominance of SOF during autumn and spring have been demonstrated in a
variety of wetland types (Bay, 1969; Taylor and Pierson, 1985; Buttle and Sami, 1992)
characteristic of valley bottom wetlands in this landscape.
The water table fluctuations in both study wetlands are large relative to annual
changes of 10 cm in regional groundwater connected headwater wetlands (Roulet,
1990b). Annual changes in the water table of the study swamps reflect their connec-
tion to only local aquifers and are a little greater than changes of 40-50 cm in perched
water table wetlands (Taylor and Pierson, 1985; Verry et al., 1988) and similar to
those in a small headwater wetland (Buttle and Sami, 1992).
Similar to other wetlands, the results of this comparative study demonstrate that
despite the range in upland-wetland connections to local aquifers, valley wetlands
have little influence on regulation or attenuation of seasonal and annual runoff
response (Bay, 1969; Roulet, 1990b). Storage in Plastic swamp did not appear to
be significantly greater than storage in the uplands during the summer, owing to its
small area relative to the catchment area (lo%), low water retention capacity and
rapid water table rise in compacted peat. Evapotranspiration appears to have little
effect on the magnitude of stream discharge from the catchment during the summer
because cessation of outflow from Plastic swamp occurred shortly after disconnection
of upland inputs. It is unlikely that the evapotranspiration loss by the upland forests
would be much different from that for the wetland forests (Munro, 1987). In Harp
swamp integrated daily evapotranspiration for the summer would remove about
4 mm of water per day (120 mm month-‘) or equivalent to 0.5 1 s-l. This is similar
to the reduction in discharge from the inflow to outflow during late summer in the
swamp. However, reduction in baseflow at Harp swamp was associated with reduced
stream inputs and reduced hydraulic gradients at the base of the hillslopes. Recharge
into the underlying substrate and the hillslopes could also account for reduction in
stream flow during the summer.

5.2. Subsurface flow through peat

These results indicate that there is, in general, an increased probability of discharge
beneath the peat throughout the centre of the wetland with an increase in till depth.
The dominance of vertical movement of water through the peat is sign&ant because
upon discharging to the surface the water interacts with the surface environment and
is transported laterally as surface or shallow subsurface flow down gradient. The
water table location relative to the peat surface and vertical variations in hydraulic
conductivity controls the type and magnitude of lateral water transport through the
wetland.
 K.J. Devito et al. 1 Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996) 127-147 145

Hydraulic conductivities, which vary vertically but little laterally, resulting in the
subsurface movement of water in peat observed in this study, are similar to those
observed in many continental wetlands (Boelter and Verry, 1977; Hammer and
Kadlec, 1986; Roulet and Woo, 1986). Boelter (1972) reported lateral flows of less
than 0.03 1 s-i per 100 m of ditch in deep peat from the Marcel1 Forest wetland with a
K,, of 10e5 cm s-l. However, macropores associated with root and coarse woody
debris can greatly increase the flow in deeper peat (Siegel and Glaser, 1987;
Waddington et al., 1993). Such pores were observed occasionally when digging well
holes in the study swamps (K. Devito, unpublished observation, 1990). However, as is
typical of wetlands in continental climates (FitzGibbon, 1982; Verry et al., 1988),
outflow discharge ceased when the water table dropped below 10 cm depth in Plastic
and Harp swamps (Devito, 1995) suggesting no direct lateral link of macropores to
the outflow below this depth.
The larger vertical component of subsurface flow in the peat of Plastic and Harp
swamps supports recent studies that show water can actively move through deep peat
in a range of wetland types (Siegel, 1988a; Roulet, 1990b). Siegel and Glaser (1987)
reported vertical velocities of 10-5-10-7 cm s-l and fluxes ranging from 22 mm
year-’ (0.06 mm day-‘) to 1260 mm year-’ (3.5 mm day-‘) from a bog and fen
complex connected to regional groundwater. These vertical fluxes are similar to
estimates for Plastic and Harp swamps which represent the range of wetland-
groundwater interactions in valley bottom wetlands in catchments where only local
flow systems develop.
Although the seasonal reversal in Plastic swamp results in a net annual flux near
zero, the reversals impart measurable subsurface flow through deep peat confined
within a bedrock basin. The setting of Plastic swamp is similar to that of kettle wet-
lands and raised bogs (Verry et al., 1988) and represents a hydrogeologic setting
where groundwater movement is assumed to be absent (Verry and Boelter, 1978;
Ingram, 1983). Subsurface flow in Plastic swamp shows that pore water in decom-
posed peat may not be stagnant in any hydrogeologic setting.

6. Summary and conclusions

Roulet (199Qa) has developed the idea of groundwater connectivity as a framework

in understanding peatland hydrology. The present study is the first to show a wide
range of hydrologic behaviour owing to ephemeral and continuous upland connec-
tions to wetlands located in settings where only local flow systems develop. In com-
paring two wetland sites located in catchments which represent the ends of the
continuum of local physiography (till depth) this study documents a large proportion
of the range of hydrologic response of wetlands in the Shield landscape. The compar-
ison between Plastic and Harp swamp suggests that a modest increase in till depth
from less than 1 m to l-3 m is suElcient to create a change in groundwater flow from
ephemeral to continuous which results in contrasting seasonal patterns of water table
fluctuation and surface hydrology. Considerable areas throughout the Canadian
Shield landscape have till depths of more than 1 m (Chapman, 1975), suggesting
146 K.J. Devito et al. / Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996) 127-147

that continuous groundwater connection to valley bottom wetlands may be common

in this landscape. These contrasts in hydrologic behaviour have important implica-
tions for biogeochemistry as water table position influences both elemental export
and transformations within wetlands (Devito, 1994, 1995).
This comparison of the hydrology of two conifer swamps demonstrates the range in
hydrologic function which can occur in wetlands with similar vegetation and classi-
fication. The current classification of wetland types (e.g. bog, fen, swamp and marsh;
National Wetland Working Group, 1988) is not effective in evaluating groundwater-
surface water interactions and cannot be used to generalize hydrologic function.
Existing classifications of depth and type of surficial geology may provide a promising
approach to generalizing the ephemeral or continuous nature of upland connections,
and seasonal surface saturation of wetlands in the Canadian Shield and similar land-
scapes. Further evaluation of these classes of surficial geology in predicting contrasts
in the hydrologic function is an important topic of study.

Acknowledgements

We thank David Cruickshank and Stan Sutey for invaluable assistance both in the
field and in the laboratory, and three anonymous reviewers for their helpful
comments on earlier versions of the manuscript. The authors wish to acknowledge
the co-operation and logistic support provided by the staff at Dorset Research Centre.
B. Warner and R. Aravena, University of Waterloo, provided peat substrate compo-
sition data. We thank C. Randall, York University, for drafting figures. The work for
this study was conducted while K.J.D. was supported by NSERC and OGS Post-
graduate Scholarships, and the research was funded by an Ontario Ministry of the
Environment Research Grant to K.J.D. and an NSERC Grant to A.R.H.

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