THE FUNCTION AND IMPORTANCE OF TRANSITIONS

In both academic writing and professional writing, your goal is to convey information clearly and
concisely, if not to convert the reader to your way of thinking. Transitions help you to achieve these
goals by establishing logical connections between sentences, paragraphs, and sections of your papers. In
other words, transitions tell readers what to do with the information you present to them. Whether
single words, quick phrases or full sentences, they function as signs for readers that tell them how to
think about, organize, and react to old and new ideas as they read through what you have written.

Transitions signal relationships between ideas such as: “Another example coming up—stay alert!” or
“Here’s an exception to my previous statement” or “Although this idea appears to be true, here’s the
real story.” Basically, transitions provide the reader with directions for how to piece together your ideas
into a logically coherent argument. Transitions are not just verbal decorations that embellish your paper
by making it sound or read better. They are words with particular meanings that tell the reader to think
and react in a particular way to your ideas. In providing the reader with these important cues, transitions
help readers understand the logic of how your ideas fit together.

SIGNS THAT YOU MIGHT NEED TO WORK ON YOUR TRANSITIONS

How can you tell whether you need to work on your transitions? Here are some possible clues:

Your instructor has written comments like “choppy,” “jumpy,” “abrupt,” “flow,” “need signposts,” or
“how is this related?” on your papers.

Your readers (instructors, friends, or classmates) tell you that they had trouble following your
organization or train of thought.

You tend to write the way you think—and your brain often jumps from one idea to another pretty
quickly.

You wrote your paper in several discrete “chunks” and then pasted them together.

You are working on a group paper; the draft you are working on was created by pasting pieces of several
people’s writing together.

ORGANIZATION
Since the clarity and effectiveness of your transitions will depend greatly on how well you have
organized your paper, you may want to evaluate your paper’s organization before you work on
transitions. In the margins of your draft, summarize in a word or short phrase what each paragraph is
about or how it fits into your analysis as a whole. This exercise should help you to see the order of and
connection between your ideas more clearly.

If after doing this exercise you find that you still have difficulty linking your ideas together in a coherent
fashion, your problem may not be with transitions but with organization. For help in this area (and a
more thorough explanation of the “reverse outlining” technique described in the previous paragraph),
please see the Writing Center’s handout on organization.

HOW TRANSITIONS WORK

The organization of your written work includes two elements: (1)the order in which you have chosen to
present the different parts of your discussion or argument, and (2) the relationships you construct
between these parts. Transitions cannot substitute for good organization, but they can make your
organization clearer and easier to follow. Take a look at the following example:

El Pais, a Latin American country, has a new democratic government after having been a dictatorship for
many years. Assume that you want to argue that El Pais is not as democratic as the conventional view
would have us believe. One way to effectively organize your argument would be to present the
conventional view and then to provide the reader with your critical response to this view. So, in
Paragraph A you would enumerate all the reasons that someone might consider El Pais highly
democratic, while in Paragraph B you would refute these points. The transition that would establish the
logical connection between these two key elements of your argument would indicate to the reader that
the information in paragraph B contradicts the information in paragraph A. As a result, you might
organize your argument, including the transition that links paragraph A with paragraph B, in the
following manner:

Paragraph A: points that support the view that El Pais’s new government is very democratic.
Transition: Despite the previous arguments, there are many reasons to think that El Pais’s new
government is not as democratic as typically believed.

Paragraph B: points that contradict the view that El Pais’s new government is very democratic.

In this case, the transition words “Despite the previous arguments,” suggest that the reader should not
believe paragraph A and instead should consider the writer’s reasons for viewing El Pais’s democracy as
suspect.

As the example suggests, transitions can help reinforce the underlying logic of your paper’s organization
by providing the reader with essential information regarding the relationship between your ideas. In this
way, transitions act as the glue that binds the components of your argument or discussion into a unified,
coherent, and persuasive whole.

TYPES OF TRANSITIONS

Now that you have a general idea of how to go about developing effective transitions in your writing, let
us briefly discuss the types of transitions your writing will use.

The types of transitions available to you are as diverse as the circumstances in which you need to use
them. A transition can be a single word, a phrase, a sentence, or an entire paragraph. In each case, it
functions the same way: first, the transition either directly summarizes the content of a preceding
sentence, paragraph, or section or implies such a summary (by reminding the reader of what has come
before). Then it helps the reader anticipate or comprehend the new information that you wish to
present.

Transitions between sections—Particularly in longer works, it may be necessary to include transitional

paragraphs that summarize for the reader the information just covered and specify the relevance of this
information to the discussion in the following section.

Transitions between paragraphs—If you have done a good job of arranging paragraphs so that the
content of one leads logically to the next, the transition will highlight a relationship that already exists by
summarizing the previous paragraph and suggesting something of the content of the paragraph that
follows. A transition between paragraphs can be a word or two (however, for example, similarly), a
phrase, or a sentence. Transitions can be at the end of the first paragraph, at the beginning of the
second paragraph, or in both places.

Transitions within paragraphs—As with transitions between sections and paragraphs, transitions within
paragraphs act as cues by helping readers to anticipate what is coming before they read it. Within
paragraphs, transitions tend to be single words or short phrases.

TRANSITIONAL EXPRESSIONS

Effectively constructing each transition often depends upon your ability to identify words or phrases
that will indicate for the reader the kind of logical relationships you want to convey. The table below
should make it easier for you to find these words or phrases. Whenever you have trouble finding a word,
phrase, or sentence to serve as an effective transition, refer to the information in the table for
assistance. Look in the left column of the table for the kind of logical relationship you are trying to
express. Then look in the right column of the table for examples of words or phrases that express this
logical relationship.

Keep in mind that each of these words or phrases may have a slightly different meaning. Consult a
dictionary or writer’s handbook if you are unsure of the exact meaning of a word or phrase.

LOGICAL RELATIONSHIP TRANSITIONAL EXPRESSION

Similarity also, in the same way, just as … so too, likewise, similarly

Exception/Contrast but, however, in spite of, on the one hand … on the other hand, nevertheless,
nonetheless, notwithstanding, in contrast, on the contrary, still, yet

Sequence/Order first, second, third, … next, then, finally

Time after, afterward, at last, before, currently, during, earlier, immediately, later, meanwhile, now,
recently, simultaneously, subsequently, then

Example for example, for instance, namely, specifically, to illustrate

Emphasis even, indeed, in fact, of course, truly

Place/Position above, adjacent, below, beyond, here, in front, in back, nearby, there

Cause and Effect accordingly, consequently, hence, so, therefore, thus

Additional Support or Evidence additionally, again, also, and, as well, besides, equally important,
further, furthermore, in addition, moreover, then

Conclusion/Summary finally, in a word, in brief, briefly, in conclusion, in the end, in the final analysis,
on the whole, thus, to conclude, to summarize, in sum, to sum up, in summary

Paragraph Transitions: Making

Connections
When you are writing an essay or paper, your paragraphs do not function in a vacuum, and because
of this, making paragraph transitions is essential for creating coherent thought throughout an entire
written piece. Think of your body paragraphs as intricate puzzle pieces you must fit together to give
your reader the whole picture.

These paragraph transitions let your readers know when you are moving on to a new topic or
connecting two ideas. They also create continuity throughout an essay that shows the connection of
paragraphs to the overall focus or topic. To create effective paragraph transitions, follow the three
steps below throughout the process of writing.

Identifying the relationship for paragraph

transitions
The first step to creating smooth paragraph transitions is identifying how the paragraphs are
connected—the relationship between them. To identify the relationship, you might ask the following
questions about the transition to the next paragraph:

Does the next paragraph…

● Make a similar point?

● Make a new point?

● Elaborate on the previous point or idea?

● Continue an argument?

● Contradict an argument?

● Qualify the preceding information?

 ● Show cause(s) of the previous information?

● Show effect(s) of the preceding information?

● Make a generalization with the preceding point or idea?

● Show an exception?

● Provide emphasis?

● Give a new direction to the preceding point or idea?

While this list is not exhaustive, it does give you a good starting point for determining the relationship
between two paragraphs so that you can write effective paragraph transitions.

Choosing words, phrases or concepts to make

paragraph transitions
Once you have identified the relationship between two paragraphs, you can decide how you want to
do the paragraph transitions. Variety adds life to any paper or essay, so mixing it up between
different types of transitions is always your best bet.

There are two main ways you can make paragraph transitions to create a clear, logical connection:
with words/phrases or with implied or conceptual transitions.

Transitional phrases:
Transitional phrases are often a group of words or a phrase that includes a conjunctive adverb. With
these phrases, keep in mind that many different words or phrases can show the same relationship,
so if you are showing similar types of connections between multiple paragraphs, vary your selection
of words in your paragraph transitions. Consulting a [URL]transitional phrases
resource[/writing-resources/mechanics/transitional-phrases/] that gives examples of phrases and the
type of connection each makes using transitional phrases easier. Consider the below example:

Ending sentence of paragraph:

These relationships show that the establishment of traditional gender roles is influenced by the type
of toys children play with when they are younger.

Start of next paragraph:

In addition​, children’s peer groups and social experiences also influence whether they associate with
traditional gender roles.
“In addition” is the transitional phrase, and it creates a logical paragraph transition while also keeping
both ideas connected to the overall topic.

Implied/conceptual paragraph transitions:

Paragraph transitions that make a logical connection through implied or conceptual transitions do not
require transitional words or phrases. Instead, they use something common between the two
paragraphs. This is established in several ways. You can use a [URL]demonstrative
pronoun[/writing-resources/grammar/demonstrative-pronouns/] or a common word to make
paragraph transitions, or you can use a concept that connects the two ideas. Consider the below
example:

Ending sentence of paragraph:

When the men in my family joined the military, they did not think about how they would feel about
their decision years later.

Start of new paragraph:

Those​ who served during times of war have experienced lasting effects of engaging in combat.

“Those” is a demonstrative pronoun that modifies the subject of the first sentence in the new
paragraph by referring to the noun in the previous sentence, creating a connection.

OR
The men in my family​ have witnessed how fighting in wars creates lasting effects by the experiences
of our brothers, fathers, uncles, cousins and grandparents, even if they have not experienced
combat firsthand.

“The men in my family” are words that are present in both the preceding sentence and the new
paragraph. The connection is made through the use of a common term.

OR
Because the enlisted men in my family have often fought during times of war​, they have first-hand
knowledge of the long-term effects of war.

“Because the enlisted men in my family have often fought during times of war,” contains the topic or
idea in the preceding paragraph. By using this statement and following it with the idea from the
upcoming paragraph, you create a smooth paragraph transitions.

Checking for coherent thought and paragraph

transitions
While choosing the words that create paragraph transitions is something you should do as you write
your essay or paper, you need to read through your completed paper for smooth transitions that
maintain the flow of your writing and topic. During the overall editing process, look closely at how
each paragraph ends and how the next paragraph connects to it.

If you find one paragraph that does not connect well to the previous one, work on building better
paragraph transitions. In some cases, you may find that a reorganization of paragraphs is necessary
to maintain the flow of the content. If you cannot connect two paragraphs, it is best to move the
paragraph to a location where you can logically create a connection. The ability to create smooth
paragraph transitions helps you write a more cohesive paper that allows readers to easily follow your
train of thought.

Paragraphs: The main part of the essay: structure and

linking
This section should be read in parallel with that which looks at
the production of introductions and conclusions (next​module​). Here
the emphasis is on the writing which occurs between the two, the
main body of the essay. It takes practice to manage the material
you use in analysing and interpreting a work of literature. With this
in mind it should be stressed that it is important to ​plan the essay
in advance​. Even in timed conditions such as exams you must take
the time to ​think about the structure of the essay​. Think about
what points you want to make beforehand, and then think about the
best way of arranging this material in sequence. The order in which
you make the points will go a long way to determining how clear the
arguments you put forward will be. You do not have to say
everything there is to be said about a given subject and you should
try to develop a feel for the most important elements.

An essay should be the ​development of argument,

interpretation and analysis through an extended and flowing
sequence of points and illustrations​. This entails work at the
level of the sentence, of course, but also, very importantly, you
need to work at the level of the paragraph. The ​paragraph​ is
a ​coherent passage of logically connected sentences usually
concentrating on no more than one or two ideas relevant to
your argument​. Do not use very short and unconnected staccato
sentences, and develop your use of linking words by which the
various sentences of a paragraph are bound together. It takes
experience and practice to develop a sense of when a new
paragraph is needed and when it has run its course. Examine
the​ ​general guide to essay writing​ ​to get some sense of how the
paragraphs, or 'idea units' as they have also been called, have been
constructed, and how their 'natural' beginnings and ends appear.

The first sentence of the paragraph should generally be a

'​strong​' one, used ​to signal or indicate the idea to be
discussed within the paragraph​. Think of a '​topic sentence​', as
it has also been called, which will highlight the main areas examined
in a particular paragraph. Connecting and signposting words and
phrases should be learnt, used, and practised (examples are
'​furthermore'​ , '​moreover'​ , '​in addition'​ , '​to qualify the above'​ ,
'​however'​ , '​in order to​', '​in this connection​', '​having established that​'
etc.). The argument should develop through the language you use
and therefore in a short essay sub-headings are unnecessary.

Your essay will be the representation of an argument on a given

subject or subjects. It will include only points which are​relevant​ to
the subject, so be careful to ​get rid of material that is not
directly relevant​. Although students sometimes complain that the
lengths demanded of essays are too long, most of the essays you
will write are really relatively short. Part of the skill of writing is to
write concisely and economically, without wasting material or
'padding' the work with irrelevant diversions and repetition. Once
the points have been chosen they should be presented logically and
coherently, so do not leap about from point to point. Each point
generally will have some connection to the preceding one and the
one which follows. If you do leave one part of the essay to move
onto another, but intend later to go back to the point you have left
and show, for example, how the points may be connected or
related, then it can be useful to say so by '​signposting​', e.g. ​'this
point will be picked up later', 'this point will be returned to later,
after taking into consideration ...'​ . After each draft of the essay
check that each point is presented in a logical and coherent
order. ​Read each draft carefully and critically​. Is there a
significant idea you have not included in the essay? Do you need to
expand some of the points you have chosen to write about? Are
some of the points, after due consideration, not really relevant?
Have you been too long-winded or repetitive? If so, cut out and/or
reduce some of the text. Does your argument need to be clearer,
and do the links between some of the main points need more
emphasis? You should be asking yourself these questions
throughout the whole process.

Strong sentences are essential in terms of the flow of your

essay. When signalling the fact that they now want to begin a
discussion about the imagery of the text in question, students often
begin paragraphs with a sentence such as the following:​'I will now
go on to discuss the imagery, which plays an important role in this
story.'​ Whilst this would be fine in a first draft for more refined
essay writing there are much better alternatives and methods. What
is wrong with this particular sentence? To start with there is no real
need to introduce the subject so mechanically: as you are writing
about literature it will come as no great surprise to the reader that
imagery is to be discussed at some point. Secondly, as the student
has chosen to write about the imagery there is no need to state that
it is important. If it was not important then the student should not
have chosen to write about it. (Please note that there would be no
objection to a sentence such as 'I will now go on to discuss the
imagery, which is fundamental to a full understanding of the story',
although it would be even better if the type of imagery was
identified. This says something different. Do not repeat these
phrases mechanically in your essays - the imagery will not always
be absolutely key to understanding the story. Use your common
sense.)

You can introduce the subject of imagery in a strong sentence,

at the beginning of a paragraph, by simply starting to discuss it
straightaway. If you have identified a number of images,
metaphors, etc., but have decided that, in the end, they can be
collected under two separate headings, then it is a good idea to say
so. As an example, here is a paragraph which starts to deal with the
literary language in Graham Greene's '​The Destructors​'. This
paragraph would ideally come about a third or half way into the
essay, as it comes after the introduction and signals the fact that
some analysis has already been carried out.

Suggested Model
 A discussion of the imagery can reinforce the general points
made above; broadly speaking there are two main sets of images
and metaphors, dealing firstly with the tensions between the
individual and the community, to which I will turn later, and
secondly focusing on Christian symbolism. A number of the images
have religious connotations. It is significant that Old Misery's house
was designed by Christopher Wren, who was the seventeenth
century architect of St. Paul's cathedral. By mentioning Wren
Greene is attempting to show the presence of the past in the
present and how irrelevant it seems to the boys: 'Who's Wren?' asks
Blackie, the initial leader of the gang. Their experience of massive
destruction has eroded references and deprived them of values.
Instead of the integration and shared common values illustrated by,
among others, the fact that Wren designed both a public place of
worship and a private home, the post-war period leaves them with
fragmentation and mutual distrust: the gang are aware of rival
gangs, there is distrust between the generations - shown by the
gang's suspicion of Old Misery's gift of sweets - and T. rejects all
values. For him 'All this hate and love [is]soft, it's hooey. There's
only things.' For Greene, the ideological vacuum is reflected in the
wasteland in which the gang organises its activities.

The next paragraph might begin:

Furthermore, the passage describing the destruction of the

house is an ironic parody of the opening chapter of Genesis. The
vocabulary is similar: Blackie notices that 'chaos had advanced', an
ironic reversal of God's imposing of form on a void. Furthermore,
the phrase 'streaks of light came in through the closed shutters
where they worked with the seriousness of creators', used in the
context of destruction, also parodies the creation of light and
darkness in the early passages of the Biblical book.[...]

There might be another paragraph, or two, on religious

metaphors, or the next paragraph might begin:

Images and metaphors concerning the individual and community

are centred on Trevor, and are also linked to the theme of
leadership. [...]
 General Comments

What are the advantages of such a sequence of paragraphs?

Notice that the opening sentence in each paragraph is a strong one.
There are several strong points about the first paragraph:

· The fact that literary language (metaphors, symbols, images)

are now the focus is signalled efficiently and economically, through
the strategy of launching the discussion directly. The main extended
images are mentioned in the first sentence, which is preferable to 'I
am now going to discuss the imagery of Graham Greene's story.'
· The first sentence, however complex, is clear and does a lot of
work by clearly situating the reader in the overall structure of the
essay .
· The paragraph refers back to analysis already done, thus
emphasising the clear structure of the essay and enhancing the
interrelationships of its parts. Importantly, whilst it is obvious that
there is to be some reference to ideas already mentioned, it is also
clear that there is to be no repetition. Instead, the analysis is to be
deepened and extended.
· The paragraph also refers ahead to analysis still to come. The
anxious reader, who might be wondering why the important theme
of the individual and the community has not been mentioned, can
relax and enjoy the analysis of the religious symbolism in the full
knowledge that the former theme has not been neglected.
· The images are not merely identified, pointed out and listed.;
there is active interpretation and analysis of what they actually
mean. In other words the writer is actively engaging with Greene's
story.

What of the second paragraph? Firstly one might ask why a

second paragraph is needed, given that the theme is still that of
religion. True, but the first paragraph is becoming quite long, it is
reaching the 'natural' length of a paragraph. There are no hard or
fast rules and regulations here - no writing committee has decreed
that a paragraph should contain an ideal number of words or
sentences or run a certain length over a page. Extended writing
practice will give you a 'feel' and an instinct for realising that a
paragraph is complete and it is time to start a new one. More
importantly here there is a very strong sense that the first
paragraph in the model is 'full'. The writer has identified a link
between the house and the ideological vacuum in which the gang
exist and has tried to interpret and explain it. Next s/he wants to
highlight the links between Greene's vocabulary and that of the
book of Genesis. The theme is still religion, but the writer is now
going to approach a different aspect of it.

The third paragraph begins to produce what has been promised:

an analysis of the theme of the individual and the community. Note
how this is done. There is no need to state mechanically that this is
the theme that is now to be discussed. It has already been
anticipated and the 'full' nature of the first sentence makes clear
what is being discussed. Again, the reader is being clearly led
through the arguments in a well structured and thought out
manner.

One further point, by way of providing another model. The

analysis in the second paragraph could lead in the following
direction. '​The Destructors​' deals with, obviously, destruction,
whilst the book of Genesis deals with creation. The vocabulary is
similar: Blackie notices that 'chaos had advanced', an ironic reversal
of God's imposing of form on a void. Furthermore, the phrase
'streaks of light came in through the closed shutters where they
worked with the seriousness of creators', used in the context of
destruction, also parodies the creation of light and darkness in the
early passages of the Biblical book. Greene's ironic use of the
vocabulary of the Bible might be making the point that, for him, the
Second World War signalled the end of a particular Christian era.
Now, it is perfectly arguable that the rise of fascism is linked to this,
or that it is the cause. The cult of personality and secular leadership
has, for Greene, taken over from the key role of the church in
Western societies. In this way the two main themes identified above
- the tension between individual and community, and religion - are
linked. In terms of essay writing this link could well be made after
the discussion of the theme of the individual and the community,
and its links with the theme of leadership. This might be the general
conclusion to the essay. After thoughtful consideration and
interpretation a student may well decide that this is what '​The
Destructors​' boils down to: Greene is making a clear link between
the rise of fascism and the decline of the Church's influence. Despite
the fact that fascism has been recently defeated, Greene sees the
lack of any contemporary values which could provide social cohesion
as providing the potential for its reappearance. However, whilst this
is the conclusion the student has come to, this should not be
mentioned for the first time in the conclusion / concluding
paragraph. This is the climax to the essay, but the concluding
paragraph should generally be a brief paraphrase or summary of the
essay. This also adheres to the generally held view that the
conclusion should not introduce new ideas.

Coherent Paragraphs

Paragraphs need to be coherent, which will be only achieved

through the careful arrangement of the sentences within them.
Staying with an analysis of Graham Greene's '​The Destructors​', let
us see how this can be achieved.

Student Example

(1) The apple is compared to Old Misery's house and this house
symbolises perhaps the Church. (2) Actually it may mean that the
Church is losing its credibility, first from inside, and then, when
everything will be lost, a single push could destroy it. (3) But why
the Church? (4) We know that as well as the destruction of
everything this house symbolises temptation too; hence the image
of the apple: it refers to Adam and the temptation. (5) If Adam ate
the apple, all his happiness would be destroyed. (6) For Trevor, the
house is the only thing that tempts his urge to destroy.

General Comments

This is by no means a terrible paragraph, but there are

weaknesses within it, the chief of them being that whilst it
demonstrates that the student is going beyond superficial
summarising and interpreting the story, the ideas are struggling to
make themselves heard. Some of the sentences lack detail or are a
little ambiguous, and at times there is a lack of tight connection
between several of the sentences. Various ideas are referred to and
introduced without ever being fully explained or analysed. For
example there is no explanation for the introduction of the notions
of happiness and temptation. To some extent the reader has to
guess what the writer is really trying to express. This is a crucial
point: you must present your arguments clearly and
unambiguously, and grades will we lost if the marker has to try to
guess what is being said.

Detailed Comments

(1) In the first sentence there is a lack of detail and also

inappropriate emphasis. First of all, no apple has been mentioned
before in the essay and its introduction here is a little confusing.
This is because in the story the apple is not compared to a house,
but it is the house which is compared to an apple. Furthermore
there is no evidence provided for the assertion that the house can
be linked to a church. In addition, the 'perhaps' does not inspire
confidence that the student is fully on top of the idea. (2) There are
several problems with the second sentence. Most importantly there
is no clear connection with the preceding and succeeding sentence.
Also, the 'actually' is too informal and, equally importantly, it
suggests that the idea to come has just popped into the student's
mind. The first 'it' is ambiguous, and it is not exactly clear what it
refers to. Finally, the overall idea - that weaknesses within the
church make it vulnerable to attacks from the outside - is not very
clearly expressed. (3) There is no problem with the third sentence,
and a question can be a good way of introducing or emphasising a
particular subject. The problem with this paragraph lies in the other
sentences. (4) The fourth sentence does not really address the
question just asked in any coherent way. 'The destruction of
everything' is too sweeping and needs more detail. The phrase 'it
refers to Adam and the temptation' is a poor one - it should be 'it
refers to the tempting of Adam'. The main problem with this
sentence is that it has become detached from the first sentence of
the paragraph, and one of the problems of the paragraph is that the
theme of temptation is referred to and hinted at without ever being
fully interpreted and analysed. (5) The fifth sentence is far too
vague and empty, and introduces a subject - Adam's happiness -
which is not picked up on. Where in the story could the religious
references suggest that this is a significant point? Why happiness?
(6) The sixth sentence contains some of the problems of some of
the other sentences. The writer shifts the emphasis from Adams's
temptation - which has not been analysed - to Trevor's temptation,
without explanation. There is some dislocation in that whilst there
was an earlier suggestion or hint (again unclearly expressed) that
the church was destroying itself, now there is a suggestion that
Trevor is solely responsible for the destruction of the church, in the
symbolic form of the house. Furthermore, there is a weakness in the
comparison in that Trevor's destruction of the house is in no way
punished.

The paragraph could be rewritten in the following way:

The comparison of Old Misery's house to an apple may recall the

Garden of Eden and the temptation of Adam, given the many
religious images in the text and the fact that T. says 'We'd be like
worms, don't you see, in an apple'. Perhaps not the house in itself
but the prospect of completely destroying its beauty certainly
represents a strong temptation for the new leader. An important
difference is obviously the fact that whilst Adam fell from a state of
grace following his transgression, T. escapes any punishment. This
suggests that without a coherent and integrated system of values
contemporary society has no way of deciding what is right and
wrong.

Please note that there is a very large sense in which the student
example cannot really be redeemed, given its contradictory
arguments and lack of clarity. Students should learn how to
interpret literary texts and go beyond a mere recounting of the plot
or themes, for example, but they should avoid wild extrapolations.

Further model example:the theme of impersonality in '​The

Destructors​'

The theme of impersonality is embedded in the story in complex,

perhaps ambivalent, ways, reflected by the T.’s own ambivalence
towards the house. T. persuades the gang to destroy the house he
paradoxically admires: he finds the interior of the house 'beautiful',
and is particularly impressed by the old staircase and 'the opposite
forces' which prevent it collapsing. It should be noted that his
finding the house beautiful initially causes tension within the gang.
Blackie is immediately suspicious and, whilst it is explicitly stated
that this suspicion is related to class, implicitly it is the fact that T.
is making a personal response that is the source of the tension.
Evidence for this is found in the fact that 'it only needed a single use
of his real name and the gang would be at his heels.' His personal
response, symbolic of a set of values, is not permitted and it
threatens the identity he has within the gang.

The power the gang has to name is also linked to impersonality:

one's previous identity, symbolised by a 'real name', has to be
sacrificed in order to join. The gang itself has the characteristics of a
separate society; it has elaborate rules and punishes the breaking of
them, it is disciplined, it elects leaders, and it is also self-policing,
symbolised by the surveillance carried out during the game of
stealing rides. In other words it is a very impersonal society which
permits little individuality, symbolised by the description of it as 'a
hive in swarm.' Blackie also refuses to take his loss of leadership
personally, and stays because of the potential fame the impersonal
gang might gain.

Old Misery comes to be aware of the impersonal forces

dominating society. Locked in a toilet which has earlier been
described as a 'tomb in a neglected graveyard', which symbolises a
lack of respect and a brutal and callous world, his cries for help are
ignored and he is instead 'rebuked by the silence', suggesting a lack
of personal communication. At the end of the story the lorry driver
insists that his laughter is 'nothing personal', echoing an earlier
statement made by an unnamed member of the gang. Ironically the
driver denies his own humanity and expresses the callousness and
impersonality of world lacking values.

Exercises
After reading this module carefully, choose ​two subjects/topics/themes​from the list
below and write ​two substantial paragraphs​ on each of the two chosen
subjects/topics/themes. Each paragraph should consist of a minimum of five full, preferably
rather complex sentences (see module 2,​Sentences​). Use clear ​links​ and ​transitions​ and
make sure that ​the first sentence​ of ​each paragraph​ is a ​strong​ one (see ​above​).
 1. The theme of advertising in Larkin's '​Sunny Prestatyn​'. How
is it related to stereotyping?

2. The atmosphere evoked by the description of Mr Duffy's

house . ('​A Painful Case​'​ by James Joyce.)

3. The function and symbolism of the stuffed animals in

Clanchy's '​The Natural History Museum​'.

4. The theme of challenging authority in '​The Conversion of

the Jews​' by P. Roth.

Paragraph Transitions

Paragraphs represent the basic unit of composition: one idea, one paragraph.
However, to present a clear, unified train of thought to your readers, you must make
sure each paragraph follows the one before it and leads to the one after it through
clear, logical transitions. Keep in mind that adequate transitions cannot simply be
added to the essay without planning. Without a good reason for the sequence of your
paragraphs, no transition will help you. Transitions can be made with particular
words and phrases created for that purpose--conjunctive adverbs and transitional
phrases--or they can be implied through a conceptual link.

Conjunctive Adverbs and Transitional Phrases

Conjunctive adverbs​ modify entire sentences in order to relate them to preceding

sentences or paragraphs; good academic writers use many of them, but not so many
that they overload the page. Here is a list of some of them, courtesy of ​The Brief Holt
Handbook:​

accordingly meanwhile
also moreover
anyway nevertheless
besides next
certainly nonetheless
consequently now
finally otherwise
furthermore similarly
hence still
however then
incidentally thereafter
indeed therefore
instead thus
likewise undoubtedly
Transitional phrases can perform the same function:

in addition of course
in contrast as a result
for example in other words
for instance as a result
Use them wisely and sparingly, and never use one without knowing its precise
meaning.
Implied or Conceptual Transitions
Not every paragraph transition requires a conjunctive adverb or transitional phrase;
often, your logic will appear through a word or concept common to the last sentence
of the preceding paragraph and the topic sentence of the following paragraph. For
example, the end of a paragraph by Bruce Catton uses a demonstrative adjective,
"these," to modify the subject of the topic sentence so that it will refer to a noun in the
last sentence of the preceding paragraph:
When Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee met in the parlor of a modest house at
Appomattox Court House, Virginia,...a great chapter in American life came to a close.
These men were bringing the Civil War to its virtual finish.
In this transition by Kori Quintana in an article about radiation and health problems,
the connection between the paragraphs resides in the common term of "my family":

What I did not know when I began researching the connection between radioactivity
and genetic damage was that I would find the probably cause of my own family's
battle with cancer and other health problems.
Hailing from Utah, the state known for its Mormon population's healthy lifestyle,
my family has been plagued with a number of seemingly unrelated health problems.
The first paragraph outlines the origins of Quintana's research into the connection
between radiation exposure and disease, and ends with the revelation that her own
family had been affected by radiation. The next paragraph discusses her family's
health history. Each has its own singular purpose and topic, yet the first paragraph
leads to the topic of the second through a common term.
Paragraph transitions can expand the range of discussion as well as narrow it with an
example, as Quintana's transition does; this selection from an article by Deborah
Cramer on the ecological impact of the fishing industry shows how a single instance
of overfishing indicates a world-wide problem:
....The large yearly catches, peaking at 130 million pounds from the Gulf of Maine in
1942, wiped out the fishery. It has yet to recover.
The propensity to ravage the sea is by no means unique to New England. The
northern cod fishery in Canada is closed indefinitely. In Newfoundland more than
20,000 fishermen and fish processors were abruptly put out of work in 1992 when the
government shut down the Grand Banks...
Here, the transition alludes to the entire preceding section about New England
fishing. Although Cramer managed this transition in a single sentence, transitions
between large sections of an essay sometimes require entire paragraphs to explain
their logic.
Proofreading Paragraph Transitions
At some point in your editing process, look at the end of each paragraph and see how
it connects to the first sentence of the paragraph following it. If the connection seems
missing or strained, improve the transition by clarifying your logic or rearranging the
paragraphs. Often, the best solution is cutting out a paragraph altogether, and
replacing it with the right one.

Logical flow between paragraphs

Sentences or phrases at the beginning or end of paragraphs act
as TRANSITIONS to connect one paragraph to the next. Often
the final sentence of a paragraph will create
a ​link​ or ​transition​ into the next paragraph. The creation of
links between paragraphs means that the flow of information
across the whole text is smoother.
Look at the example below:

Concluding the What is required is an inclusive

issue discussed agenda for public discussion upon
in the technological futures, and open
paragraph debates about the costs, and benefits
of technological change. If the public
Transition is to be interested in such issues then
statement the concept of public interest requires
leading into more than lip service. ​The slippery
next paragraph redefinition of the public interest which
states that what is good for the
Repetition of market is good for us all could prove,
key words in in the long run, to mark the end
this paragraph of​ ​Australia as a democratic
continues the information society.
transition
between A democracy needs to be informed​,
paragraphs. and to have a right to information. It
also requires extensive public debate
and widespread participation in
decision-making. These are policies
that should overarch narrow
definitions of politics.......
Look at another example
The company completely ​upgraded their computer systems​...
(This paragraph goes on to detail these changes) ...
As a consequence of this upgrading​, the efficiency...
(This paragraph goes on to detail these consequences)...
As you can see from both of these examples, drawing out the
common themes of the information being presented or
highlighting the logical sequence of the information helps to
create a logical flow of information across the whole text
The point of having​ ​Body Paragraphs​ ​in your paper is to explain and develop the
points that you made in your introductory paragraph and your thesis statement. Each
paragraph must have a clear and focused point, set forth by your​ ​topic sentence​, and
must be continuous with the paragraphs before and after as well as support your
thesis.

1. An essential aspect of your body paragraphs is the presence of a Topic

Sentence.
o Your topic sentence is the sentence that focuses the paragraph and
outlines exactly what that paragraph is going to be about.
 o The topic sentence is usually the very first sentence of the paragraph, but
may be the second sentence or somewhere in the middle of the
paragraph.
o By placing the topic sentence first in your paragraph, however, you can
go ahead and state what you are going to talk about in that paragraph and
then devote the rest of the paragraph to supporting and developing that
point.
2. The Structure of Your Body Paragraphs
o Begin each body paragraph with general statement, or topic sentence,
about a point that you wanted to make in that paragraph and then devote
that entire paragraph to developing more specifically that statement,
using examples to back up the points you make.
o Remember that each statement you make in your body paragraph should
relate back to your thesis statement somehow whether in support,
defense, or explaination of the statement.
o Each body paragraph should be ended by making a reference back to the
topic sentence you started the paragraph with and then back to your
thesis statement to tie it all together.
3. Things to Remember When Writing Your Body Paragraphs
o Use the same language in your body paragraphs that you did in your
introduction. For instance, if you have phrased one of the points you
wish to make a certain way in your introduction, phrase it the same way
in your body paragraph.
o Devote each body paragraph to only one point. DO NOT try to include
too much information into each paragraph.
o Make sure that you phrase everything clearly so that your specific
audience can understand what you are trying to say.
o Paragraphs are used as a way to introduce a new idea, and break your
paper down into a series of related points that you wish to make in
support of your thesis statement.
4. Each of Your Paragraphs Should Contain These Elements: UNITY,
DEVELOPMENT, and COHERENCE
o Paragraph Unity:​ Paragraph Unity means that your paragraph develops
one main point, that is set forth by your topic sentence, and that all of the
sentences in the paragraph relate to and support that main point.
 o Paragraph Development:​ Paragraph Development means that you have
included all of the necessary information, explanation and support for
your main point or topic sentence so that your reader fully understands
the point you are trying to make.
o Paragraph Coherence:​ Paragraph Coherence means that you have
developed your point in an organized and logical way, which shows the
connections between your sentences and ideas.
5. TRANSITIONS
Transitions​ are one of the most important aspects of the body of your paper.
Transitions between paragraphs as well as between sentences are essential in
order for a paper to be readable, for the reader to fully understand the
connections between the points you are trying to make and for the overall
coherence of your essay. The use of transitions creates one unified paper
instead of several smaller papers all thrown together under a similar larger
topic.
o Where Do We Need Transitions?
1. Between Sections​ -- This divides the major ideas or topics of
your paper
2. Between Paragraphs​ -- This divides the minor ideas of your
writing because you must show a logical connection between your
paragraphs.
3. Between Sentences​ -- This shows the relationship between your
sentences. These transitions are generally only a word or two, and
can be done through the use of ​conjunctions​ which are words
used to combine two sentences and show the relationship between
them.
4. Between Parts of a Sentence​ -- This shows how phrases connect
within your sentences.
o Remember to use a variety of transitional expressions
o Remember to be consistent with your transitional expressions that
separate the sequential ordering of your points. For example, use first,
second and third if you are ordering your points, but not first, secondly,
and last
o A mark of ​punctuation​ such as a dash, colon or semicolon, is a transition
because it connects or shows a relationship between two things
 o Remember that if something connects or shows a relationship then it is a
transition
6. Useful Transitions and Transitional Phrases
7.

Conjunctions and, but, or, for, nor, neither, so, yet

Introduction to a
as for, concerning, with regard to, with respect to, in terms of
Topic
in all, in a word, in brief, briefly, in other words, in short, in summary, that is,
To Summarize finally, generally, in conclusion, on the whole, therefore, to sum up, to
conclude, and so, this shows, thus we see
by comparison, here again, in the same way, in a similar manner, likewise,
To Compare
similarly, so too, as, also, equally, accordingly, moreover, as well, and
conversely, however, instead (of), in spite of that, anyhow, on the contrary,
To Contrast on the other hand, otherwise, rather than, still, yet, nevertheless, in contrast,
notwithstanding, in spite of this, although, but, despite, even though
To Show Cause accordingly, as a consequence, as a result, consequently, for this reason,
and Effect hence, it follows that, so/so that, then, therefore, thus, thereupon
actually, admittedly, because, certainly, for example, in fact, indeed, really of
To Explain course, since, that is, for instance, namely, specifically, such as, to illustrate,
in particular, in this manner, thus
after all, at least, at the same time, apparently, even so, evidently, certainly,
To Show
conceivably, conclusively, doubtless, no doubt, perhaps, possibly,
Conviction
presumably, probably, surely, undoubtedly
in this event, in these circumstances, this (that) being so, provided that, in
To Show Various
spite of, none/nevertheless, at the same time, even if, if, unless, otherwise,
Conditions
although, even though, though, despite
add to this, again, also, besides, equally, further, furthermore, in addition,
To Add
moreover, once more, then too, too, yet again, yet another, and, as well,
Information
beyond that, even, next, similarly
after that, afterwards, later, shortly, subsequently, concurrently, in the
To Show meantime, in the meanwhile, now, simlutaneously, when/while/was,
Chronological first,second,etc., formerly, earlier, previously, before that, then, already, at
Order last, at length, by that time, finally, during, immediately, next, soon, still, in
the interim, presently, at the same time, in the end, temporarily, therafter
To Show admittedly, after all, all the same, at any rate, granted, however, in any case,
Concession in spite of, it is true that, nevertheless, obviously, of course, still, to be sure
 above, below, beyond, farther, further, here, hearby, opposite, there, to the
Location
left/right, under

Kinds of sentences in a paragraph

Thinking about paragraphs rigidly in terms of length may lead to formulaic writing. Instead, as
you revise your draft think about how each sentence is functioning in your paragraph, and
whether your paragraph has sufficient functional sentences to make its point.
Transition sentences​ guide your reader smoothly from the topic of the preceding paragraph
into the topic of your new paragraph. Writers sometimes begin with a transition sentence before
introducing the topic of the new paragraph.
A ​topic sentence​ states the main idea of a paragraph. Beginning a paragraph with a topic
sentence ensures your reader recognizes early in the paragraph what larger idea the paragraph
is going to demonstrate. Expert writers may not introduce the topic until the middle or end of
the paragraph, and often imply their topics without ever writing a topic sentence.
Body sentences​ develop the topic of the paragraph. These sentences work to analyze data or
quotations, describe a text or event, set up a comparison, showcase evidence, and sometimes
they enumerate the logical points for readers to give them a sense of a paper's bigger picture.
In body sentences, you need to consider how much quoted data or evidence will demonstrate or
prove your point.
Linking sentences​ relate back to the paper's main argument by showing how the idea of that
paragraph matches the overall goal of the paper.
Concluding sentences​ may bring a section to its end before you move on to a new section of
the paper.

Some sample paragraphs

Undergraduate art analysis
Notice how the writer develops the idea in the body sentences, as promised in the first
sentence, and concludes her paragraph by offering a keen, close observation of specific details.
In order to understand how Manet's work echoes or communicates with Titian's, one must first consider the similarities
between their paintings. To begin with, both take a nude woman as the subject. More than that, however, Manet directly
copies the composition of Titian's Venus; the overwhelming similarity in color and the figures' arrangement in each
painting prove this. Both women are lying in the same position with their heads on the left-hand side of the canvas. Both
women have their left leg crossed over the right. Both women have flowers and accessories. Other key elements unite
these paintings, as well: the arrangement of the sheets on the bed; the green curtains; the servants; and the small animal at
the foot of the bed. All these features clearly indicate that Manet echoes Titian. If one stopped at the similarity in the
composition, it would appear that both paintings communicate the same thing; both would be a celebration of the beauty
of the human figure, and Manet's voice would have added nothing new to the conversation; it would have no additional
meaning besides venerating the masterful work of Titian. ​(Used with permission.)

Undergraduate literary analysis

In this paragraph from a 2012 ​Lewis Prize-winning​ English essay, UW–Madison undergraduate
Abby Becker organizes her sentences savvily. She first transitions her reader into her topic,
then introduces the source of evidence for that paragraph before analyzing that source and
returning to the topic with the new critical perspective that her analysis suggests.
In order for a political or social revolution to occur, connections must be formed. More means of communication lead to
more opportunities to make connections. In Dos Passos' ​The 42nd Parallel​, J. Ward Moorehouse focuses on making
business connections but never forms any relationships. He explains at a party that "he had come down in a purely
unofficial way you understand to make contacts" (249). In business and politics, making contacts denotes an impersonal,
removed way of dealing with people. This type of communication does not result in connections. Moorehouse's
connections are for his own political personal gain. There may be a connection but no insight or true relationship.
Moorehouse views people as a tool to advance his own business and political agendas demonstrating that connections
with people are often made out of selfish, egotistical motives.

Magazine profile
From a September 2006 ​The Atlantic​ ​article​, by Marshall Poe, describing Jimmy Wales,
Wikipedia, and collaborative knowledge. Notice how the first sentence introduces a philosophical
issue that the body sentences define and link to both Wikipedia and Wales's own personality.
Wales was an advocate of what is generically termed "openness" online. An "open" online community is one with few
restrictions on membership or posting-everyone is welcome, and anyone can say anything as long as it's generally on
point and doesn't include gratuitous ad hominem attacks. Openness fit not only Wales's idea of objectivism, with its
emphasis on reason and rejection of force, but also his mild personality. He doesn't like to fight. He would rather suffer
fools in silence, waiting for them to talk themselves out, than confront them. This patience would serve Wales well in the
years to come.

Psychology
From ​Spontaneous Gestures Influence Strategy Choices in Problem Solving​(2011). UW-Madison
Psychology Professor Martha Alibali et al. present empirical research on how children use
physical gestures to acquire mathematical problem-solving knowledge. Notice the clarity of
expression in the first paragraph's topic sentence: the writer provides sufficient set-up to
prepare readers for the data which comes at the end of each paragraph.
We predicted that participants in the gesture-allowed condition would be less likely than participants in the
gesture-prohibited condition to generate the parity strategy, because the availability of gesture would promote use of
perceptual-motor strategies instead. This was indeed the case; the proportion of participants who used the parity strategy
on at least one trial was .74 in the gesture-allowed condition and .91 in the gesture-prohibited condition, _2(1, N = 85) =
4.17, p = .04 (Fig. 1). Once they generated the parity strategy, most participants (89%) used it on all subsequent trials.

Mechanical engineering
From ​Mounting methodologies to measure EUV reticle nonflatness​ (​SPIE Proceedings​ 7470,
2009), by the lab of UW–Madison Professor Roxanne L. Engelstad. Notice how Battula et al.
signal the practical consequence of their findings and also suggest that another result would be
possible depending on further research.
Unfortunately, to map the entire reticle with a single measurement, a 12 in. beam expander is needed. With such a large
optical system, the expander must be held rigidly, not allowing it to tip or tilt. Since the UW-CMC mount must remain
vertical to be effective, it cannot be used in this scenario. Consequently, the application of this mount is limited. Thus, a
number of new designs have been proposed by industry to address the alignment issues and provide for other options,
such as automated handling. Three of these designs are described and evaluated in the following sections.

Literary studies
From ​Dorothy West's Paradise: A Biography of Class and Color​ (2012), by UW–Madison
Professor Sherrard-Johnson. Notice how the first two sentences give crucial background
information in order to set up the topic sentence.
In ​Contested Waters: A Social History of Swimming Pools in America​, Jeff Wiltse examines how U.S. swimming pools
were transformed from interracial single-sex spaces in which class and gender were more important than race to "leisure
resorts, where practically everyone in the community except black Americans swam together." His study then follows
what he calls the second social transformation—"when black Americans gained access through legal and social protest"
and "white swimmers generally abandoned them for private pools." The various iterations of West's story, which discuss
the span from 1950 to 1980, fall between these two moments in social and legal history. I am particularly intrigued by
how the national history of segregated bathing areas informs the local, particular event described by West. Does the
exclusion of blacks from the high beach parallel the segregation of public pools? In the early twentieth century, public
bathing spaces were notoriously violent. The Chicago Riot in 1919 was touched off when white bathers threw rocks at
black teenagers who had drifted into a white beach on Lake Michigan. Northerners' use of pools during the Progressive
era reinforced class and gender but not racial distinction. Working-class folk did not swim with the upper classes, but
they were not as concerned about color. Following the Great Migration, the concerns about intimacy and sexuality that
have always been latent in conversations about public space (in particular the public space of the pool) were directed at
blacks. The peculiar democracy of the beach—in bathing suits it is more difficulty to determine class​-​worked against
 black Americans. Wiltse marks this shift between the years of 1920 and 1940. The social changes that took place during
this period shape West's complex politics. (26)

Legal writing
Former UW–Madison School of Law Professor Arthur F. McEvoy wrote this model paragraph as
part of a memorandum on effective writing. Notice that each of the body sentences illustrates
and develops the main idea or topic sentence.
The ideal paragraph contains five sentences. The topic sentence almost always comes first and states as clearly as
possible the point that the paragraph makes, just as the first sentence of this paragraph did. The three middle sentences of
the paragraph follow the topic sentence in some rational order and substantiate it with examples, analysis, or other kind
of development; if written clearly, middle sentences may employ conjunctions or subordinate clauses to put across
complex ideas without breaking the basic form. Every well-written paragraph ends with a "clincher" sentence that in
some way signals completion of the paragraph's point and places it in context, either by restating the topic sentence,
relating the topic back to the thesis of the writing as a whole, or by providing a transition to the paragraph that follows.
While good style may require a writer to vary this basic form occasionally, the five-sentence model captures the Platonic
essence of the paragraph and most effectively accomplishes its purpose, which is to state a single idea, in sequence,
discretely and comprehensively.

How to Make an Essay Flow 

by Nadria Tucker, Demand Media

0​Ask a friend to read your essay and evaluate whether it flows.

Related Articles 
● How to Write a Descriptive Essay on a Neighborhood
● How to Make a Good Outline for a Five Paragraph Essay
● How to Make a Strong Argument in an Essay
● How to Make a Comparative Essay Thesis
While rivers flow on their own, writers have to work to make their writing smooth and coherent. An essay
that flows is well-organized, well-written, concise and logical. Choppy sentences, poor word choice,
nonexistent transitions and illogical structure can make an essay unclear and difficult to understand.
Imagine yourself as the reader and improve parts of the essay that might give someone pause. Showcase
your research by concentrating on the quality of the writing you use to communicate your findings. A
variety of methods create stronger flow, or coherence.
Sponsored Link 

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Step​ 1

Create an outline to help determine where key points, which are the topics of your paragraphs, should go.
Organize key points in a logical fashion, so that each paragraph leads into the next in a way that makes
sense, whether it's chronological order, order of importance or another approach.
Step​ 2

Write topic sentences and conclusions for each paragraph. Introduce the main point of each paragraph
before you write supporting sentences. Conclude each paragraph with a brief summary of the ideas
you’ve just addressed.
Step​ 3

Include transitional words and phrases to indicate the relationships between connected ideas. Place
words and phrases such as “consequently” and “even though" at the beginning of paragraphs or
sentences to guide the reader through your paper.
Step​ 4

Repeat important words and phrases throughout the essay. Repetition helps connect paragraphs.
Step​ 5

Read your paper, and rewrite it to tighten up the structure, word choice and transitions. Writing a second
draft gives you a chance to perfect your work.

Paragraphs: The body of the essay 

Body paragraphs do the real work of the essay, developing, supporting, explaining, and proving the
thesis. A good body paragraph has a clear beginning, middle, and end. It consists of several basic
elements:

1. Transition idea
2. Topic sentence
3. Support
4. Closing sentence

Transition idea 
Unless it follows immediately after the introduction, a body paragraph should begin with a transition
idea that links the paragraph with the previous one. Think of this sentence as a bridge from one body
paragraph to the next that helps the discussion to move forward smoothly. Simple transition words
and phrases (in addition, furthermore) can mark the transition from one idea to the next, but more
meaningful transitions not only move to the next point, but show how the topic of one paragraph
relates logically to the topic of the next. This kind of linking reinforces the logic and unity the essay as
a whole.

To effect such a transition, start the new body paragraph with a ‘bridging’ sentence that looks back to
the topic of the previous paragraph while introducing the topic of the new paragraph. Example:

(Final sentence of ¶ A)....Addressing the opposition with name calling instead of reasoned
argument damages the author's credibility.

(Opening sentence of ¶ B) [transition/topic sent] Another hindrance to credibility is the author's

failure to draw evidence from reputable sources.

A bridging sentence can double as the topic sentence, as above, or it can simply lead the way for the
topic sentence that follows, as in the next example.

(Final sentence of ¶ A)....This arsenal of facts helps to convince the reader that the policy is
should be enacted.

(Opening sentences of ¶ B) [bridge sentence] While arguing successfully with facts, the author
also targets the reader’s values. [topic sentence] These appeals to the values of fairness and
justice make the claim more persuasive on an emotional level.
Notice that in each case, a key term is carried over from the end of paragraph A to the start of
paragraph B, to make a logical link.

Topic sentence 
A topic sentence is the most general sentence in the paragraph. It appears at or near the start of the
paragraph and states the paragraph’s main point or claim.

● TS as mini-thesis:​ Like a good thesis statement, a good topic sentence includes both the topic and an assertion
about the topic.
Topic​ + ​assertion​ = Topic sentence
Dwarf hamsters​ ​make great pets​.
Statistics from credible sources​ ​strengthen Weld’s claim that immigrants are more a benefit than a detriment to
U.S. society
In an essay, the topic sentence of a body paragraph should clearly state one of the primary points or reasons that
develop the thesis. If the thesis of the paper forecasts the paper’s several subtopics, then the topic sentences
should echo the key terms or ideas previewed in the forecast.

● TS as aid to essay logic and order:​ Topic sentences are critical to helping the reader follow the logic of the
essay. A reader should be able to get a good idea of the essay’s argument just by scanning the opening
sentence(s) of the paragraphs. Careful attention to topic sentences is also a way for the writer to check the logic,
unity and organization of the essay. Because each TS should clearly state a primary supporting point or reason,
highlighting and then reading through the topic sentences is one way of checking that all paragraphs relate to the
thesis, that enough support has been offered to thoroughly explain or prove the thesis, and that the body
paragraphs are arranged in the most logical order.
Support 
The supporting sentences make up the body of the paragraph, just as the supporting paragraphs
make up the body of an essay. While the topic sentence of a paragraph is a general assertion, its
support consists of more specific information that shows, explains, or proves the topic sentence idea.

The kind of support presented depends on the nature of the claim, but among the most commonly
used forms of support are details, examples, facts, opinions and testimony, along with explanation
and analysis that links the support to the main point or claim and creates the argument of the
paragraph. In any case, the support should be specific, relevant, and sufficient to explain the point
thoroughly or prove the claim convincingly.

The body of the paragraph should also demonstrate the basic qualities of any good paragraph:

● Unity:​ All sentences in the body serve to show, explain, or prove the main idea.
● Development:​ It contains sufficient supporting information to explain, show, or prove the main idea thoroughly
and convincingly. Any generalizations that call for support or greater elaboration are fleshed out with details.
● Organization:​ It shows a logical sequencing of ideas, appropriate to the point and purpose of the paragraph
(argument, comparison, analysis, cause-effect, and so on.)
● Coherence:​ Ideas flow smoothly and relate to one another clearly, aided by verbal linking techniques (transition
words, repetition) and logical arrangement of points.
Closing sentence 
The final sentence of a body paragraph should conclude the discussion and perhaps look ahead to the
idea of the next paragraph.

Paragraphs 
The manner in which you present your material is vital. As you know, an essay (or any academic
text) is built up around paragraphs. They help the reader understand the organization of your
essay and grasp its main points. A paragraph is a series of sentences that are organized and
coherent, and are all related to a single topic. The main rule is:

One paragraph= one new point in your argument 

Furthermore, each paragraph typically contains a three-part structure:
1. I
​ ntroduction​: including a topic sentence and transition words
2. B​ ody​: discussing the main thesis, using various forms of evidence
3. C ​ onclusion​: commenting and drawing connections

Paragraphs principles 
▪ Each paragraph should contain one new point in your overall thesis
▪ Each paragraph should be able to stand on its own and have its own internal structure
▪ Each paragraph should state its purpose early on, in the form of a topic sentence
Try extracting the first line from your essay paragraphs and see if you can follow your main line
of argument. If you can’t, they your essay is not so easy to follow as you might want it to be. (Of
course, not every argument has to be organized this way. But try to look up a few articles in
some “serious” newspapers: you will find this structure widely used!)
The reason why paragraphs should be “headlined” with reference to the overall argument is to
keep that argument in the reader’s mind, thereby making it easier for them to see the relevance
of the rest of the paragraph. This way, the reader doesn’t lose track, and neither do you.
▪ Let the thesis decide how your arguments should be organized, not chronology! (Neither
with literary texts nor “real” history).
▪ Paragraphs should be visually separated by either line shift or indents. Not both.

Connecting paragraphs 
Ideally, paragraphs should be well connected to each other. Order your paragraphs so that each
one follows logically on from the previous one. To make this logic more obvious, you can use
transition words (or “connectors”), so that the paragraphs flow better and the reader is always
kept on track. The easiest way of doing this is by using words like similarly, likewise, by the
same token, yet, nevertheless, however, etc. Or, you may use longer phrases such as “It is
ironic, therefore, that…….” or “Although less obvious, an equally important point here is the fact
that…..”

Writing Transitions
Good transitions can connect paragraphs and turn disconnected writing into a unified whole.
Instead of treating paragraphs as separate ideas, transitions can help readers understand how
paragraphs work together, reference one another, and build to a larger point. The key to
producing good transitions is highlighting connections between corresponding paragraphs. By
referencing in one paragraph the relevant material from previous paragraphs, writers can develop
important points for their readers.
It is a good idea to continue one paragraph where another leaves off. (Instances where this is
especially challenging may suggest that the paragraphs don't belong together at all.) Picking up
key phrases from the previous paragraph and highlighting them in the next can create an obvious
progression for readers. Many times, it only takes a few words to draw these connections. Instead
of writing transitions that could connect any paragraph to any other paragraph, write a transition
that could only connect one specific paragraph to another specific paragraph.
Example​: Overall, Management Systems International has logged increased sales in every sector, leading
to a significant rise in third-quarter profits.

Another important thing to note is that the corporation had expanded its international influence.

Revision​: Overall, Management Systems International has logged increased sales in every sector, leading
to a significant rise in third-quarter profits.

These impressive profits are largely due to the corporation's expanded international influence.

Example​: Fearing for the loss of Danish lands, Christian IV signed the Treaty of Lubeck, effectively ending
the Danish phase of the 30 Years War.

But then something else significant happened. The Swedish intervention began.

Revision​: Fearing for the loss of more Danish lands, Christian IV signed the Treaty of Lubeck, effectively
ending the Danish phase of the 30 Years War.

Shortly after Danish forces withdrew, the Swedish intervention began.

Example​: Amy Tan became a famous author after her novel, ​The Joy Luck Club,​ skyrocketed up the
bestseller list.

There are other things to note about Tan as well. Amy Tan also participates in the satirical garage band
the Rock Bottom Remainders with Stephen King and Dave Barry.

Revision​: Amy Tan became a famous author after her novel, ​The Joy Luck Club,​ skyrocketed up the
bestseller list.

Though her fiction is well known, her work with the satirical garage band the Rock Bottom Remainders
receives far less publicity.

Contributors:​Ryan Weber, Karl Stolley.

Summary:

A discussion of transition strategies and specific transitional devices.

Transitional Devices
Transitional devices are like bridges between parts of your paper. They are cues that help the
reader to interpret ideas a paper develops. Transitional devices are words or phrases that help
carry a thought from one sentence to another, from one idea to another, or from one paragraph to
another. And finally, transitional devices link sentences and paragraphs together smoothly so that
there are no abrupt jumps or breaks between ideas.
There are several types of transitional devices, and each category leads readers to make certain
connections or assumptions. Some lead readers forward and imply the building of an idea or
thought, while others make readers compare ideas or draw conclusions from the preceding
thoughts.
Here is a list of some common transitional devices that can be used to cue readers in a given
way.
To Add:
and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor, too, next,
lastly, what's more, moreover, in addition, first (second, etc.)
To Compare:
whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison,
where, compared to, up against, balanced against, vis a vis, but, although, conversely,
meanwhile, after all, in contrast, although this may be true
To Prove:
because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides,
indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case, that is
To Show Exception:
yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes
To Show Time:
immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later, previously, formerly, first
(second, etc.), next, and then
To Repeat:
in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been noted
To Emphasize:
definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively, naturally,
surprisingly, always, forever, perennially, eternally, never, emphatically, unquestionably, without
a doubt, certainly, undeniably, without reservation
To Show Sequence:
first, second, third, and so forth. A, B, C, and so forth. next, then, following this, at this time,
now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently, previously, before this,
simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next, and then, soon
To Give an Example:
for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation, take the
case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration, to illustrate
To Summarize or Conclude:
in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown, as I have said,
hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as a result, consequently

Transitions
One of the best ways to improve any essay is by incorporating transitions. Effective transitions
are what enable the main idea(s) and important points in an essay to flow together. In a sense,
it is transitions that make a paper become an actual essay as opposed to just a random
assortment of various facts. Without them, an essay will often seem to be lacking in unity.
How do you know that you need better and/or more transitions? If your paper seems choppy,
lacking in flow, or generally unorganized, these are all signs that your paper is lacking
transitions. Also, the longer an essay is and the more points that are presented, the greater the
need for transitions to connect all of the important ideas.
● Transitions should occur at a variety of places in an essay. They should be present
between sentences in a body paragraph and between the body paragraphs themselves.
● Transitions between sentences are often only one word (however, therefore, etc.) or a
brief series of words. These allow the reader to move from one sentence to the next and
show how all sentences are related together.
● Transitions between paragraphs are slightly more complex as they move the reader from
one main idea to the next. These become particularly important in longer essays where
more information is presented.
The following examples provide a paragraph without transitions, followed by a revised
paragraph that contains them:
● Example #1:​ Students who write academic essays need to provide effective
transitions. Transitions allow writers to connect the main ideas that are present in an
essay. Using conjunctive adverbs and other introductory elements allow a writer to
connect one sentence to the next. The use of these words will make the writing more
fluent and less choppy. Many students fail to use effective transitions, and the essay
comes across as disconnected. Writers should always be aware of the need to connect
both sentences and paragraphs together.
Notice how the paragraph above contains valuable information about the use of transitions, but
the sentences seem disconnected. It reads as if there are several ideas that are simply thrown
together. Now read the paragraph below and see how using a few minor transitions allows the
sentences and the information in them to be more connected (the transitions that have been
added are in bold):
● Revised Example #1:​ Students who write academic essays need to provide effective
transitions. ​ ​It is the use of these transitions​ t​ hat allow writers to connect the main
ideas that are present in an essay. F ​ or example​, by using conjunctive adverbs and
other introductory elements, a writer can easily connect one sentence to the
​ oreover,​ the use of these words will make the writing more fluent and less
next. M
choppy. ​ ​Unfortunately​, students often fail to use effective transitions, and,​ ​as a result,​
 the essay comes across as disconnected. T​ o avoid this​, writers should always be
aware of the need to connect both sentences and paragraphs together, and they should
strive to find creative ways to do so.
The following is a categorized list of transitional words that can be used, depending on the type
of transition that is needed:
To Add:​ ​additionally, in addition, again, besides, moreover, what’s more, equally important (also
important), finally, further, furthermore, first (second, third, etc.) next, lastly
To Repeat:​ ​as mentioned, as has been noted, in brief
To Show Exception:​ ​however, nevertheless, in spite of, yet, still, despite, of course, once in a
while, sometimes, unfortunately
To Compare:​ ​however, on the other hand, on the contrary, in contrast, whereas, but, yet,
nevertheless, by comparison, compared to, conversely, up against, balanced against, but,
although, meanwhile, after all, while this may be true
To Emphasize:​ ​indeed, certainly, in any case, without a doubt, obviously, definitely, extremely,
in fact, absolutely, positively, naturally, surprisingly, emphatically, unquestionably , undeniably,
without reservation, always, never
To Prove:​ ​furthermore, moreover, in example, in fact, indeed, because, for, since, for the same
reason, for this reason, obviously, evidently, besides, in addition, in any case
To Give an Example:​ ​for example, for instance, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration,
in another case, take the case of, on this occasion, in this situation
To Show Sequence:​ ​as a result, subsequently, consequently, concurrently,following this, now,
at this point, afterward, simultaneously, thus, hence, therefore, first (second, third, etc.)
To Show Time:​ ​ immediately, thereafter, then, soon after, next, and then, finally, later,
previously, formerly, first (second, third, etc.)
To Summarize or Conclude:​ ​In conclusion, as demonstrated, to conclude, summing up, in
brief, as a result, therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence, on the whole

Transition Words and Phrases

This structured list of commonly used English ​transition words​ — approximately 200, can be
considered as quasi complete. It can be used (by students and teachers alike) to find the right
expression. English transition words are essential, since they not only connect ideas, but also
can introduce a certain shift, contrast or opposition, emphasis or agreement, purpose, result or
conclusion, etc. in the line of argument.
The transition words and phrases have been assigned only once to somewhat artificial
categories, although some words belong to more than one category.
There is some overlapping with preposition and postposition, but for the purpose of clarity and
completeness of this concise guide, I did not differentiate.
Agreement / Addition / Similarity
The transition words like ​also, in addition, and, likewise​, ​add
information​, ​reinforce ideas​, and ​express agreement​ with preceding
material.

in the first place

not only ... but also
as a matter of fact
in like manner
in addition
coupled with
in the same fashion / way
first, second, third
in the light of
not to mention
to say nothing of
equally important
by the same token
again
to
and
also
then
equally
identically
uniquely
like
as
too
 moreover
as well as
together with
of course
likewise
comparatively
correspondingly
similarly
furthermore
additionally

Opposition / Limitation / Contradiction

Transition phrases like ​but​, ​rather​ and ​or​, express that there is evidence to
the​contrary​ or point out ​alternatives​, and thus introduce a change the line of
reasoning (​contrast​).

although this may be true

in contrast
different from
of course ..., but
on the other hand
on the contrary
at the same time
in spite of
even so / though
be that as it may
then again
above all
 in reality
after all
but
(and) ​still
unlike
or
(and) ​yet
while
albeit
besides
as much as
even though
although
instead
whereas
despite
conversely
otherwise
however
rather
nevertheless
nonetheless
regardless
notwithstanding

Cause / Condition / Purpose

These transitional phrases present specific ​conditions​ or ​intentions​.
in the event that
granted (that)
as / so long as
on (the) condition (that)
for the purpose of
with this intention
with this in mind
in the hope that
to the end that
for fear that
in order to
seeing / being that
in view of
If
... then
unless

when
whenever
while

because of
as
since
while
lest
in case
provided that
given that
 only / even if
so that
so as to
owing to
inasmuch as
due to

Examples / Support / Emphasis

These transitional devices (like ​especially)​ are used to introduce examples
as​support​, to indicate ​importance​ or as an ​illustration​ so that an idea is
cued to the reader.

in other words
to put it differently
for one thing
as an illustration
in this case
for this reason
to put it another way
that is to say
with attention to
by all means

important to realize
another key point
first thing to remember
most compelling evidence
must be remembered
point often overlooked
to point out
on the positive side
on the negative side
with this in mind
notably
including
like
to be sure
namely
chiefly
truly
indeed
certainly
surely
markedly
such as

especially
explicitly
specifically
expressly
surprisingly
frequently
significantly
particularly
in fact
in general
 in particular
in detail
for example
for instance
to demonstrate
to emphasize
to repeat
to clarify
to explain
to enumerate

Effect / Consequence / Result

Some of these transition words (​thus, then, accordingly, consequently,
therefore, henceforth​) are time words that are used to show that ​after​ a
particular time there was a ​consequence​ or an ​effect​.
Note that ​for​ and ​because​ are placed before the cause/reason. The other
devices are placed before the consequences or effects.

as a result
under those circumstances
in that case
for this reason
in effect
for
thus
because the
then
hence
consequently
 therefore
thereupon
forthwith
accordingly
henceforth

Conclusion / Summary / Restatement

These transition words and phrases ​conclude​, ​summarize​ and /
or ​restate​ ideas, or indicate a final ​general statement​. Also some words
(like ​therefore)​ from the ​Effect / Consequence​ category can be used to
summarize.

as can be seen
generally speaking
in the final analysis
all things considered
as shown above
in the long run
given these points
as has been noted
in a word
for the most part
after all
in fact
in summary
in conclusion
in short
in brief
in essence
 to summarize
on balance
altogether
overall
ordinarily
usually
by and large
to sum up
on the whole
in any event
in either case
all in all

Obviously
Ultimately
Definitely

Time / Chronology / Sequence

These transitional words (like ​finally)​ have the function of limiting, restricting,
and defining ​time​. They can be used either alone or as part of ​adverbial
expressions​.

at the present time

from time to time
sooner or later
at the same time
up to the present time
to begin with
in due time
as soon as
as long as
in the meantime
in a moment
without delay
in the first place
all of a sudden
at this instant
first, second

immediately
quickly
finally
after
later
last
until
till
since
then
before
hence
since
when
once
about
next
now
formerly
suddenly
shortly
henceforth
whenever
eventually
meanwhile
further
during
in time
prior to
forthwith
straightaway

by the time
whenever

until now
now that

instantly
presently
occasionally

Many transition words in the time category (​consequently; first, second,

third; further; hence; henceforth; since; then, when; and whenever)​ have
other uses.
 Except for the numbers (​first, second, third)​ and ​further​ they add a meaning
of ​time​in expressing conditions, qualifications, or reasons. The numbers are
also used to ​add information​ or ​list examples​. ​Further​ is also used to
indicate added space as well as added time.

Space / Location / Place

These transition words are often used as part of ​adverbial expressions​ and
have the function to restrict, limit or qualify ​space​. Quite a few of these are
also found in the​Time​ category and can be used to describe spatial order or
spatial reference.

in the middle
to the left/right
in front of
on this side
in the distance
here and there
in the foreground
in the background
in the center of

adjacent to
opposite to
here
there
next
where
from
over
near
above
below
down
up
under
further
beyond
nearby
wherever
around
between
before
alongside
amid
among
beneath
beside
behind
across
List of Transition Words

Transition Words are also sometimes called (or put in the category of)
Connecting Words. Please feel free to​download​ them via this link to the
category page:
Linking Words & Connecting Words​ as a PDF.

It contains all the ​transition words​ listed on this site. The image to the left
gives you an impression how it looks like.
Usage of Transition Words in Essays
Transition words and phrases are vital devices for ​essays​, papers or other
literary compositions. They improve the connections and transitions between
sentences and paragraphs. They thus give the text a logical organization and
structure (see also: a ​List of Synonyms​).
All English ​transition words​ and ​phrases​ (sometimes also called
'conjunctive adverbs') do the same work as ​coordinating conjunctions​: they
connect two words, phrases or clauses together and thus the text is easier to
read and the coherence is improved.

Usage: transition words are used with a special rule for ​punctuation​: a
semicolon or a period is used after the first 'sentence', and a comma is almost
always used to set off the transition word from the second 'sentence'.
Example 1:
People use 43 muscles when they frown; however, they use only 28
muscles when they smile.

Example 2:
However, transition words can also be placed at the beginning of a new
paragraph or sentence - not only to indicate a step forward in the
reasoning, but also to relate the new material to the preceding thoughts.

Use a semicolon to connect sentences, only if the group of words on either

side of the semicolon is a complete sentence each (both must have a subject
and a verb, and could thus stand alone as a complete thought).