Mathematics in Temple Designs

Dr. UDAY DOKRAS, Phd Stockholm, SWEDEN

KARAN DOKRAS,Brand Guru

Srishti Dokras,Architect
Indo Nordic Author’s Collective
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 Mysteries Solved?

The most important principle of environment is that

you are not the only element. Mahavirji

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 Mathematics in Temple Designs
Of Hindu,Jain & Budhist temples and Stupas

First Edition 2021

Copyright 2020 Uday Dokras. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by means of electronic, mechanical, photocopy, micro-film, recording or
otherwise, without prior permission of the copyright holder.
ISBN No. applied for. Cost US $150. I N R 1500/- Euro 120

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 CONTENTS
CHAPTER I -INTRODUCTION -TEMPLE Design Concepts from mathematics: 6
TEMPLE GEOMETRY 8
EVOLUTION OF PLAN FORMS THROUGH ITERATION 10
Fractal Geometry – Application and Importance 13
a parametric equation 15
Kinematics 16
Nature has always served as inspiration for architects and designer 20
Parametric vs direct modeling: How to choose? 20,21
Power Surfacing 23
Catia 23
Autodesk 3ds Max 23
Autodesk Maya 23
Grasshopper 3D 23
Revit 24
Marionette 25
Modelur 26
Archimatix 26
REASON BEHIND THE USE OF FRACTAL GEOMETRY IN HINDU & JAIN TEMPLE
ARCHITECTURE 27
Geometry 28
CHAPTER II.THE GEOMETRY OF TEMPLE. 31
Mathematics and architecture 32
Vaastu Shastra, the ancient Indian canons of architecture and town planning 33
Adinath temple 34
Indian Maths 35
Symmetry 35
IMPORTANCE OF GEOMETRY IN HINDU TEMPLES 47
Hindu philosophy views the cosmos to be holonomic 48
Mathematical Interpretation of Fractal Dimension 49
Symbolism in Temple Architecture & Fractal Geometry. Tanisha Dutta 53
CHAPTER III - Mathematics and Numerology in the Borobudur Temples 67
4:6:9 Ratio 68
How to build using fractal Dimensions 71
CHAPTER IV.Tessellation Patterns - From Mathematics toart Geometry and symmetry
in Indian Architecture 74
A Brief History of Tessellations and how Jain art is ignored 80
Tessellation In Jain Art and Architecture 80
The Symmetry and Wallpaper Groups 85
The Periodic and Aperiodic Tiling 86
Parashnath Jain Temple-The Temple of a Million Mirrors 94
CHAPTER V, Fractals & Lotus-Design Elements of Borobodur 97
Sahasrara chakra 108
CHAPTER VI-Archaeoastronomy and the Borobudur temples 112

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 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
TEMPLE Design Concepts from mathematics:

Ancient Temple Texts and Mathematical transliterations: The instructions to generate built
forms in the treatise on ancient Temple Architectural manuals such as Samranganasutradhara
and the Mayamatam show processes of dwellings, palaces and temples‐ which resemble text
algorithms in a generative parametric design system employed as a tool to design with.
Parametric is referred to as a set of instructions to generate a form utilizing algorithms which are
an explicit statement of a sequence of operations needed to perform a task.

The logic and structure of the design process is the focus of parametric design and the end
product is an “Back” to the Future infinite set of solutions which, are made finite by the
individual intellect of the architect. The focus is on requirements of the process instead of its
product which is generated from the textual instructions is in the form of a three dimensional
object – parameters and schema. Parametric design processs is an iterative activity which
involves continuous generation of a design artefact, evaluation of its ability to satisfy
requirements efficiently, which if unacceptable to the architect is followed by a new iteration
which involves either a radical reformulation of design concept and/or a modification of design
parameters. The linguistic parametric design lists a finite set of instructions, analogous to
cooking recipes and furniture assembly instructions, where the individual stage needs to be
explicit, detailed and adaptable 1 Accordingly, such Textual instructions in the design process
have increases productivity by rejecting unviable options, extends functionality, enhances
precision levels, evaluates conditions and reacts efficiently within constraints like budget and
context . Therefore, it is viable to explore the treatise as a traditional knowledge system
interpreted for relevance to architecture. Parametric design methods are evolving from a
representational tool to a thinking aid which lends credibility to the treatise, by association, as
based in theory and practice of architecture instead of an obscurantist manuscript. It is inferred
that on one hand, computation based design process has historical lineage and simultaneously,
historical design process, as

evidenced in a treatise, is relevant to contemporary explorations in alternative paradigms all as a

instrument knowledge from Past.

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Blast from the past: The primitive, but beautifully complex, and satisfying form of these
temples has been arrived at; not through the use of complex computer algorithms, generative of
structures; but by intuitive processes, giving a fair idea of human intrinsic affiliations, satisfying
intellectual needs. It is estimated that, had fractal geometry not been used in the physical
manifestation of the temple philosophy, it would have been difficult to impart the knowledge
intended by temple construction. Every element in the temple structure, the prasada, the
shikhara, the finial, the sculpture on the exterior and interior walls, the jagged plan form and the
appearance in totality, take help of fractal geometry; within the perceivable scales; to promote
their idea and concept. The implementation of fractal geometry ensures that the underlying
structure resemble the structure found in nature and hence provides the temple with its aesthetic
appeal. It has been noticed that, not only does the physical manifestation follow the principles of
fractal geometry, but also the idea of construction, i.e., the concept of the temple and its
philosophy, is akin to the concept of fractal geometry and fractal progression. This, points
towards the conception that even though the formal theory of fractals had not been developed;
like today; at the time of temple construction, the concept existed in the minds of the priest and
sthapaty. This concept is in tune with the cosmological and philosophical theory attested by the
temple structure. This attempt has been directed, not so much, towards creation, or recreation, of
a temple form, but focus has been on the process for arriving at these forms. The use of fractal
geometry in the construction and design of temples is evident, but the question raised here is,
'why?'. This can be answered by analysing the cosmological and philosophical requirements the
temple structure aims to fulfil symbolically, alongside the theory of fractals. The author's work
here, centres on the establishment of the mediatory role of fractal geometry and its theoretical
application, in the relationship of the philosophical concept and the physical manifestation of a
Hindu temple. It should be noted that this article has touched upon the concept theoretically, and
suggests the possibility of the existence of this relationship. This project can succeed with a
trans-disciplinary approach, where every subject is given importance and analysed through
fractal lenses. 'The human mind has first to construct forms, independently, before we can find
them in things'. – Einstein 2
A Hindu Temple should be designed to maintain its ancient aesthetics, mysticism, philosophy,
design principle, components, quality, nature and comfort. This can be done with incorporating
the Vaastu in building Hindu Temples. Hindu temples use fractal and mathematics as do Jain,
Buddhist, and Islamic architecture as well as early Christain architecture -universal forms that
manifest fractals of consciousness for the well being of humanity.

Oft repeating architectural forms found in Hindu temple are jagged waves of blocky
ornamentation, rhythmically repeating, echoing the temple’s form. These temples are
algorithmically generated, following the ancient procedural rules or recipes for their design,
layout and build (including the positions of ornaments) provided by ancient Vastu Sustra texts.
The texts transmit recursive programs, by verbal instruction, to masons so that according to Kirti
Trivedi, the Hindu Temple becomes a model of a fractal Universe. A model which represents
‘views of the cosmos to be holonomic and self-similar in nature’. 3 The idea of fractal
cosmology is no stranger to western academia but definitely the Hindu Temple builders(
craftsmen) were the forerunners to using mathematics in temple design.

The initial temple plan is based on a grid form known as the Vastu-Purusha Mandala. Tellingly
Trivedi remarks in his paper that the Vastu-Purusha Mandala is ‘not a blueprint for a temple, but

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a ‘forecast’, a marking of the potential within which a wide range of possibilities are implied’.
The significance here, should not be underestimated. A ‘potential for possibilities’ within a
predefined rule-set predisposes architecture to be governed by a degree of emergence. While
emergence in parametric architecture arrived, recently, with computers and algorithms, India has
been enacting emergent masonry for thousands of years thanks to the open rules of the Vastus
Sustra.
Using a system of measurement called the ‘Tala’, dimensional relationships of proportions rather
than exact structural specifications are defined. Initial decisions (why not call them algorithmic
seeds?) combined with rule sets are used to define the final outcome of the building. The ‘Tala’
system is scale invariant, just like fractal mathematics, so that a building of any size can be
created, and decorated without compromising the model of self containment. The temple, as a
whole, is built by interweaving fractalization processes with repetition and superimposition. An
example of a typical recursive instruction, verbalised, is:

Fractals: Self-similarity‟ is the phenomenon of each part being geometrically similar to the
whole. It is the core concept of the Fractal Theory. Interestingly, self-similarity is one of the
basic principles of organization in the Hindu Temple Architecture. The Hindu Temple is
designed and constructed as miniature forms of the Cosmos as envisioned in Hindu philosophy
and beliefs. Hindu Philosophy describes the cosmos as holonomic. The holonomic character
implies the virtue of self-similarity, homogeneity, isotropy and symmetries of various kinds.
Like a hologram, each fragment of the cosmos is considered to be whole in it and to contain
information similar to the whole.4

1.TEMPLE GEOMETRY

In Hindu temple architecture, geometry always plays a vital and enigmatic role. The geometry of
a plan starts with a line, forming an angle, evolving a triangle, then a square and distinctly a
circle and so on, ultimately deriving complex forms. As per the previous discussion, the
occurrence of complexity, results into self-similarity and further it leads to the occurrence of
fractal geometry. Geometry is a disciplined field and the fractals follow it. Both of them have
definite paths of action. In following diagrams as shown in figure 03 below, the role of fractal
theory in basic geometry of Hindu temple plans is exhibited.

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 Figure 05: Site plan of Minakshi Sundareswara Temple, Madurai Source: http://www.art-
and-archaeology.com/india/madurai/minplan.jpg

In Sanskrit ‘Vinyaasa’ means orientation and ‘sutra’ means thread, line or axis. It is related
with the lay out and orientation of temple plans. Vastupurushamandala is the base of evolution
of a temple plan. Vinyasasutra comes into play after the initial evolution of the temple plan.
During the determination of the axis and orientation of the temple and its surroundings, ancient
architects used to follow the process described in Hindu scripts like Vastushashtra, Manasara
etc. However, all the plans followed geometries with fractal character. It is postulated that,
some of them were made consciously and some unconsciously.

TEMPLE COMPLEX
The design of the temple complex varies according to the style of the temple. Most of the
temples in North India do not have a boundary wall. However, in the South Indian style, it is an
essential design element of the temple complex. In some areas, the entire temple complex
consists of only the Mulaprasada. To the trained eye, the miniature fractals of the main shrine
stand out in a well-designed temple complex. All the elements including the Toranas,
Gopurams, miniature shrines, Pushkarinis etc. either have been repeated in a disciplined order
or have been constructed following the rules of fractal theory.

The above example of Minakshi Sundareswara Temple (figure 05) shows how fractal has
worked starting from the boundary wall to the main shrine. One can notice the positioning of
the Torana, the placement of miniature replicas of the main shrine around itself, the hypostyle
halls, etc. have evolved with the feature of self-similarity.

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2. EVOLUTION OF PLAN FORMS THROUGH ITERATION
In keeping with the site plan, the plan of the main temple structure also follows the rule of
fractals. At the very beginning, the steps are the simplest form of fractals from which the halls or
mandapas grow expansively. First, the Mukhamandapa or the hall of entrance and then the
Ardhamandapa, the half-heighted hall and finally the Maha Mandapa, the grand hall are
positioned. After the mandapas, comes Mulaprasada, which encloses the Garbhagriha, the inner
sanctum. The enclosures of these halls and the spaces.

Silhouette of Digambar Jain

lal mandir- temple

One can divide the temple into several parts like Pitha, Vedibandha, Jangha, Varandika,
Sikhara and Ghanta. Ghanta is actually a part of Shikhara but its features are so distinct, one
can consider it as a separate entity. The above-mentioned parts are similar in all Nagara
temples, but they have different denominations in different places.

Pitha
Pitha is the base or the altar on which the structure grows

Jangha
Jangha is the walled section of the shrine acting, as the enclosure of the mandapas and
Garbhagriha. Fractals are worked in two different ways in its formation. Initially it is generated
from the folds at the very base layer, which follow the iteration. The types of decorative works
on the Jangha at the outer level are also self-similar and repetitive.
Varandika
Varandika is the cornice part of the temple. Huge long chunk of stones are placed along the
inner side to form the cornice. However, on the outside, it is quite decorative (as shown in
along the central axis. Pitha is also divided into several parts founded on the – Khura, Kumbha,
Antarpatrika, Kalasha and kapotali. All the fragments are basic moulds and repetitive in form.
In figure 09 below, the fractals of the central mould repeat in numbers around the plan in
different scales.

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 Figure 11: Jangha of a typical North Indian Temple Source: Hardy, Adam. The
Temple Architecture of India

gure 09: Pitha of a typical North Indian Temple

Source: Hardy, Adam. The Temple Architecture of India

Vedibandha
Vedibandha is the next upper part of the pitha. It is mainly a connection between pitha and
jangha. It has almost the same character of that of pitha. The mouldings and the typical parts
are mostly similar in both the cases. The only difference in this case is that the sculpting of
moulds is more decorative. One can find similar type of small repetitive ornamental mouldings
at the central space of every wall section in figure 10.
Figure 12: Varandika of a typical North Indian Temple Source: Hardy, Adam.
The Temple Architecture of India below

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 Fig 10: Vedibandha of a typical North Indian Temple Source: Hardy, Adam. The Temple
Architecture of India

Figure 13: Sikhara of a typical North Indian Temple Source: Hardy, Adam. The
Temple Architecture of India

Sikhara
Sikhara is the identity of a temple. All the variations in temple architecture are mainly
because of the variation in its formation. (figure 13) below

Ghanta
Ghanta is the topmost part of the temple. It is a part of the Sikhara. It also has separate parts
with Kantha or Griva as the base and gradually Amlaka, Padmashirshaka, Kalasha, etc. The
connector of Sikhara and Ghanta is known as the Kantha or the Griva. In this section of the
temple, fractal mainly works in the Amlaka part by creating self-similar ribs. (as in figure 14)

Figure 14: Ghanta of a typical North Indian Temple Source: Hardy, Adam. The
Temple Architecture of India

The formation of Jangha also depends upon the formation and style of the Sikhara as shown in
the figure 15 below. It is similar to the head and the structure. One fold is added to the Jangha
for every additional fold in the Sikhara.

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 Figure above: Image showing the interdependent formation process of Jangha and Sikhara-
Source: Hardy, Adam. The Temple Architecture of India

Fractal Geometry – Application and Importance

“… the dynamic formal structure of Indian temples shows irresistible analogies with certain
metaphysical ideas recurrent in Indian thought: of the manifestation in transient, finite
multiplicity of a timeless, limitless, undifferentiated yet all pervading unity; of the identity of this
oceanic infinitude with the all-containing infinitesimal point; of finite things as fleeting
transmutations of the infinite momentarily differentiated, then sinking back into unity, in
unending cycles of growth and decay.” (Hardy, 2007)

The existence of the phenomenon of self similarity in the natural world has been observed and
known since antiquity, but its mathematical understanding and the process of arriving at it began
with Mandelbrot’s work in 1977, even though the credit should be shared by various
mathematicians and philosophers for their contributions during the twentieth century which
made this possible. The fractal dimension is a statistical quantity that gives an indication of how
completely a fractal appears to fill space, as one zooms down to finer scales (Xiaoshu Lu, 2012).
Fractal analysis is being increasingly used for analysis in various fields including medicine,
psychology, urban form and architecture. These developments include refinement in the software
usage for computing fractal dimension, which is a measure of the roughness and degree of
details. This, when applied to the field of temple architecture enhances understanding of the
structure geometrically. In particular, Anderson and Mandell (1996) argue that human evolution
in a fractal world has required “the incorporation of fractal structures as well as fractal processes,
and these in turn would be integrated into sensory systems, recognition, memory, and adaptive
behaviours” (Joye, Architectural lessons from environmental psychlogy: the case of biophillic
architecture, 2007).

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Figure 4: Sun Temple, Modhera; Fractal development of form is profound

The role of fractal geometry in the construction and physical manifestation of the Hindu temple
has not been fully understood until recent developments in the field of fractal software helped in
the partial understanding of the deep relationship between them. The fractal characteristic of an
architectural composition presents itself in this progression of interesting detail as one
approaches, enters and thus uses a building (Bovill, 1996). This represents a progression of
observation from across the street to inside a room. The idea that temple architecture has a
progression of detail from a large to small scale is accepted. But, fractal analysis provides a
quantifiable measure of the progression of detail, also quantifying the mixture of order and
surprise in a rhythmic composition (Bovill, 1996).

In many practical applications, temporal and spatial analysis is needed to characterise and
quantify the hidden order in complex patterns; fractal geometry is an appropriate tool for
investigating such complexity over many scales for natural phenomena (Xiaoshu Lu, 2012).
Although employed in various fields in different roles, fractal geometry has been applied
particularly in architecture as a language which translates the beauty of complexity as well as the
ideas of architects (Thomas, 2002) into visible dynamics (Figure 4: Sun Temple, Modhera;
Fractal development of form is profound). It also reflects the process of universe and its energy
through the buildings (Jencks, 1995 ). Hindu temple is one of the best examples of those fractal
buildings which were constructed in the past, long before the birth of fractal theory and
manifested the religious cosmic visions (Jackson, 2004 ). In his paper, Md Rian, et. al., evidence
the deep relationship between fractal geometry and the deepest truth in Hindu temples. Trivedi
pointed out that there exists a striking resemblance of temple forms to images based on fractal
geometry. Countless temples exist all over India… which could be viewed as three dimensional
structures based on fractal geometry (Trivedi, 1993). There are various methods to evaluate the
fractal dimension, among which the box counting method is suitable for measuring the fractal
dimension of the elevation of buildings, mountains, trees or any objects which are not true
fractals (Md Rian I, et. al., 2007). This measurement of the fractal dimension helps in
quantifying the beautiful mix of order and surprise in a structure. This contributes in forming the

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appropriate heuristics in the human minds, and therefore setting the stage for higher and clearer
understanding.

Discussion – Integration of above mentioned ideas

The most remarkable aspect of the relationship of fractal geometry and Hindu temple
architecture is that, not only does the physical manifestation of a Hindu temple confirm to the
geometry of fractals, but also the theory behind fractal geometry, i.e., the fractal concept is
parallel to the concept and idea of temple and its philosophy. The parameters of replication in
multiple iterations, self similarity, dynamics and complexity at varying scales are the ones that
render Hindu temples fractal-friendly, therefore, forming the base for fractal analysis in the
Hindu temple.
The literature in this regard, addresses how fractal geometry can be applied to the underlying
concept and the physical manifestation of a Hindu temple to arrive at the final form. These
studies ignore the aspect of ‘symbolism’ which is evident in a temple complex. It holds a very
important position in the overall concept as well as the symbolic representation of the ‘ultimate
truth’. The Vastu Purush Mandala, geometrical basis of the Hindu Temple plan, is the result of
fractal iterations. Arnheim, in his book, ‘Art and Visual Perception’, describes intricately the
hidden fields of forces within the square where each side of the square applies force towards the
centre. Thus increasing the number of squares in a Mandala helps the diagram to contain the
(cosmic) energies more concretely where the field of forces is increased in a fractal manner.
These restored energies in the Mandala radiate outwards to the physical world eternally from the
centre. With time, the final shape of Mandala turns into a complex matrix through various
transitional stages. In these stages, plans of some earlier temples evidence that the fact of
radiating cosmic energy took the main role for amending the basic shape of Mandala.
Interestingly, it turns out in some cases that the process of amendment is nothing but the fractal
iteration of Mandala (Md Rian I, et. al., 2007). The well-controlled zigzag plan of the temple
creates the vertical visual rhythm, accentuated in the elevation through its sharp recessions and
projections, whereas the horizontal friezes on the elevation create the horizontal rhythmic growth
upward (Md Rian I, et. al., 2007). In the shikhara, the amalgamation of the form of lotus
blossom and that of mountain has been frozen into the form of multiple recursive archetypes (Md
Rian I, et. al., 2007). As discussed earlier, the circle depicts the endless cycles of time, the
wholeness and the consciousness due to its never-ending shape.

Each iteration starts from the intersection between a side of the diagonal square and the last
iterated line, and stops at the intersection between grid line and the circle. This iteration stops at
the corners of the square. Hindu cosmology, manifested in the plan of Hindu temple two
dimensionally, was also manifested in its elevation but three dimensionally and more
symbolically (Md Rian I, et. al., 2007). Looking at a well known and well researched Shiva
temple of India, the Kandaria Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho, in the light of the previous
discussion, it is brought about superficially, that these Hindu temples confirm to the idea which
is a beautiful combination of the religious faith, geometrical achievements, understanding of
human comfort and aesthetics, how human beings perceive (psychology), fractal geometry and
its concept, knowledge of cosmology and its philosophy, and most importantly, symbolism.5
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334398121_
PRINCIPLES_OF_FRACTAL_GEOMETRY_AND_APPLICATIONS_IN_ARCHITECTURE_
AND_CIVIL_ENGINEERING

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Mathematics and its constituents are applied to sole many design issues and create
satisfying perspectives of the architectural context of design parameters. Here is a list of
some mathematics as applied to the drawing board of temples.

1. a parametric equation defines a group of quantities as functions of one or more independent

variables called parameters. Parametric equations are commonly used to express
the coordinates of the points that make up a geometric object such as a curve or surface, in which
case the equations are collectively called a parametric
representation or parameterization (alternatively spelled as parametrisation) of the object.
For example, the equations
X= cos t
X=sin t

The butterfly curve can be defined by parametric equations of x and y.

form a parametric representation of the unit circle, where t is the parameter: A point (x, y) is
on the unit circle if and only if there is a value of t such that these two equations generate
that point. Sometimes the parametric equations for the individual scalar output variables are
combined into a single parametric equation in vectors:

(x,Y,) = (Cos t, sin t )

Parametric representations are generally nonunique (see the "Examples in two dimensions"
section below), so the same quantities may be expressed by a number of different
parameterizations.
In addition to curves and surfaces, parametric equations can describe manifolds and algebraic
varieties of higher dimension, with the number of parameters being equal to the dimension of the
manifold or variety, and the number of equations being equal to the dimension of the space in
which the manifold or variety is considered (for curves the dimension is one and one parameter
is used, for surfaces dimension two and two parameters, etc.).
Parametric equations are commonly used in kinematics, where the trajectory of an object is
represented by equations depending on time as the parameter. Because of this application, a
single parameter is often labeled t; however, parameters can represent other physical quantities

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(such as geometric variables) or can be selected arbitrarily for convenience. Parameterizations
are non-unique; more than one set of parametric equations can specify the same curve.

Kinematics is a subfield of physics, developed in classical mechanics, that describes

the motion of points, bodies (objects), and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without
considering the forces that cause them to move. Kinematics, as a field of study, is often referred
to as the "geometry of motion" and is occasionally seen as a branch of mathematics. A
kinematics problem begins by describing the geometry of the system and declaring the initial
conditions of any known values of position, velocity and/or acceleration of points within the
system. Then, using arguments from geometry, the position, velocity and acceleration of any
unknown parts of the system can be determined. The study of how forces act on bodies falls
within kinetics, not kinematics. For further details, see analytical dynamics.
Kinematics is used in astrophysics to describe the motion of celestial bodies and collections of
such bodies. In mechanical engineering, robotics, and biomechanics[7] kinematics is used to
describe the motion of systems composed of joined parts (multi-link systems) such as an engine,
a robotic arm or the human skeleton.

Geometric transformations, also called rigid transformations, are used to describe the movement
of components in a mechanical system, simplifying the derivation of the equations of motion.
They are also central to dynamic analysis.

Kinematic analysis is the process of measuring the kinematic quantities used to describe motion.
In engineering, for instance, kinematic analysis may be used to find the range of movement for a
given mechanism and working in reverse, using kinematic synthesis to design a mechanism for a
desired range of motion. In addition, kinematics applies algebraic geometry to the study of
the mechanical advantage of a mechanical system or mechanism.
Computer-aided design
Another important use of parametric equations is in the field of computer-aided design (CAD).
For example, consider the following three representations, all of which are commonly used to
describe planar curves.

Type Form Example Description

1. Explicit Line

2. Implicit Circle

Line
3. Parametric
;
Circle

Each representation has advantages and drawbacks for CAD applications. The explicit
representation may be very complicated, or even may not exist. Moreover, it does not behave
well under geometric transformations, and in particular under rotations. On the other hand, as a

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parametric equation and an implicit equation may easily be deduced from an explicit
representation, when a simple explicit representation exists, it has the advantages of both other
representations. Implicit representations may make it difficult to generate points of the curve,
and even to decide whether there are real points. On the other hand, they are well suited for
deciding whether a given point is on a curve, or whether it is inside or outside of a closed curve.
Such decisions may be difficult with a parametric representation, but parametric representations
are best suited for generating points on a curve, and for plotting it.

The Church of Colònia Güell for example represents a new form of mathematical models
knolwn as hyperbolic parabolics. n geometry, a paraboloid is a quadric surface that has exactly
one axis of symmetry and no center of symmetry. The term "paraboloid" is derived
from parabola, which refers to a conic section that has a similar property of symmetry.
Every plane section of a paraboloid by a plane parallel to the axis of symmetry is a parabola. The
paraboloid is hyperbolic if every other plane section is either a hyperbola, or two crossing lines
(in the case of a section by a tangent plane). The paraboloid is elliptic if every other nonempty
plane section is either an ellipse, or a single point (in the case of a section by a tangent plane). A
paraboloid is either elliptic or hyperbolic.
Equivalently, a paraboloid may be defined as a quadric surface that is not a cylinder, and has
an implicit equation whose part of degree two may be factored over the complex numbers into
two different linear factors. The paraboloid is hyperbolic if the factors are real; elliptic if the
factors are complex conjugate.
An elliptic paraboloid is shaped like an oval cup and has a maximum or minimum point when its
axis is vertical. In a suitable coordinate system with three axes x, y, and z, it can be represented
by the equation.
Z= x2 / a2 + y2/ b2

where a and b are constants that dictate the level of curvature in the xz and yz planes
respectively. In this position, the elliptic paraboloid opens upward.

Hyperbolic paraboloid
A hyperbolic paraboloid (not to be confused with a hyperboloid) is a doubly ruled
surface shaped like a saddle. In a suitable coordinate system, a hyperbolic paraboloid can be
represented by the equation
z= y2/b2 + x2/a2
Y= x2/a2 + y2/b2

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I
n this position, the hyperbolic paraboloid opens downward along the x-axis and upward
along the y-axis (that is, the parabola in the plane x = 0 opens upward and the parabola in the
plane y = 0 opens downward).
Any paraboloid (elliptic or hyperbolic) is a translation surface, as it can be generated by a
moving parabola directed by a second parabola.

The Church was built as a place of worship for the people on a hillside in a manufacturing
suburb in Santa Coloma de Cervelló, near Barcelona (Catalonia, Spain) Colònia Güell was
the brainchild of Count Eusebi de Güell; who enlisted the help of architect Antoni Gaudí in
1898. However, work was not started until 1908, 10 years after commission. The plan for the
building consisted of constructing two naves, an upper and a lower, two towers, and one
forty-meter-high central dome. In 1914, the Güell family halted construction due to the death
of Count Güell. At the time, the lower nave was almost complete so between the years of
1915 and 1917, it was completed and readied for use.

The Church is one of the seven properties Gaudí built near Barcelona that are Unesco World
Heritage Sites. Collectively, these sites are known as the Works of Antoni Gaudí, and show
his, "exceptional creative contribution to the development of architecture and building
technology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

At the age of 28, the Church of Colònia Güell was one of several commissions Guadí
received from Count Güell in the suburb of Santa Coloma de Cervelló.

Planning
To start the designing process of the church, Gaudí used his very unique process of gravity
and rope, known as a funicular system. As seen in the planning of La Sagrada Familia, Gaudí
hung hemp ropes attached to lead-filled sacks from the ceiling. By doing this, it allowed him
to reproduce the curves of the church at a 1:10 scale. Guadí also used canvas sheets to
imitate the vaults and walls of the structure. By weighing down the ropes with lead-filled
sacks, it allowed him to see the loads that would be exerted on the actual structure. To turn
this hanging structure into his actual design, Guadí photographed his model, flipped the
image, and traced over it while adding some ornament and design. All that remains of the
model for Church of Colònia Güell is an image in a book written by architect Josep Francesc
Ráfols i Fontanals.
This method of planning led to the development of a new architectural vocabulary, such
as hyberbolic paraboloids and hyperboloids, which are prominent elements in many of
Gaudi's designs.

19
 The crypt portion of the church, constructed from 1908 to 1915, was the only segment of
the church that was fully completed. It was built partially below ground, due to being on a
hillside, and it was designed so that it would feel like it belonged in the surrounding nature.
There are pillars on the exterior of the crypt, made of many bricks, while others were made
of a solid block of stone. The roof of the structure has a geometric shape that is morphed by
the connecting of the various pillars.
The crypt is very dimly lit, due to it being built partially underground since the structure is
on a hillside. There are however, 22 lead stained glass windows in the crypt, to let in some
colorful lighting.
Although it remains unfinished, the chapel is a very important aspect of the church. The
designs of the chapel is similar to that of the Sagrada Familia. This is a common theme seen
throughout the church, since Gaudí used it in preparation for the building of the Sagrada
Familia. He tested many of his ideas and theories here, since Güell gave him the liberty of
being as creative as possible.
The shape of the worship area was planned in extensive detail, right down to the pews.[1] All
of the furniture in the Church was designed by Gaudí himself, and have been preserved.
Very few pieces of his furniture have been saved, though some examples are still seen in the
Sagrada Familia and private homes. In 2000, local architects set about repairing the crypt.
This took away aspects of the unfinished nature of the buildings. However, it did present a
more tourist-friendly structure, and now visitors can stand on the roof, which would have
been the church floor.

Nature has always served as inspiration for architects and designers. Computer technology
has given designers and architects the tools to analyse and simulate the complexity observed in
nature and apply it to structural building shapes and urban organizational patterns. In the 1980s
architects and designers started using computers running software developed for the aerospace
and moving picture industries to "animate form".[6]

One of the first architects and theorists that used computers to generate architecture was Greg
Lynn. His blob and fold architecture is some of the early examples of computer generated
architecture. Shenzhen Bao'an International Airport's new Terminal 3, finished in 2013, designed
by Italian architect Massimiliano Fuksas, with parametric design support by the engineering

20
firm Knippers Helbig, is an example for the use of parametric design and production
technologies in a large scale building.

Parametric design is a process based on algorithmic thinking that enables the expression
of parameters and rules that, together, define, encode and clarify the relationship between design
intent and design response.
Parametric design is a paradigm in design where the relationship between elements is used to
manipulate and inform the design of complex geometries and structures.
The term parametric originates from mathematics (parametric equation) and refers to the use of
certain parameters or variables that can be edited to manipulate or alter the end result of an
equation or system. While today the term is used in reference to computational design systems,
there are precedents for these modern systems in the works of architects such as Antoni Gaudí,
who used analog models to explore design space.
Parametric modeling systems can be divided into two main types:
 Propagation-based systems where one computes from known to unknowns with a dataflow
model.
 Constraint systems which solve sets of continuous and discrete constraints.
Form-finding is one of the strategies implemented through propagation-based systems. The idea
behind form-finding is to optimize certain design goals against a set of design constraints.

Design Softwares based on parametrics

3D modeling software can be really useful for many different applications, especially when you
need to use 3D printing. If you are looking for a method to design technical products, you will
certainly have to use a parametric modeling software. In this blogpost we are going to see what is
parametric modeling and what are the specificities of this process. Then, we will see what are the
best parametric modeling software available on the market to create your projects.

Parametric modeling can also be called parametric solid modeling. It is used to define a
dimension’s ability to change the shape of model’s geometry immediately when the dimension
value is modified. This modeling process is great for projects with a lot of manufacturing
requirement and that need a high accuracy such as mechanical projects. This modeling process is
built from mathematical equations.
It is a practical process if you need to produce products with little variations. Indeed, it is good to
create designs that need to be modified on a regular basis. It will totally be adapted to your
design intent.
All the models created with this process have what we call features. These are attributes that
include length, width, depth, orientation, geometry, material, density functions, etc. Parametric
modeling is actually focusing on relationships between features, and between parts, assemblies
and drawings.

Why you should use a parametric modeling software

These 3D programs are really great to see how the model directly changes when something is
modified, and you can easily reuse the data of a 3D model to create a new design. Parametric
modeling software is a really good tool for manufacturing. Indeed, it can reduce your production
time as it can easily be integrated inside of your manufacturing process.

21
Be careful, you will have to be a little bit experienced if you want to use a parametric software. If
you need some help, we have a blog post that will help you to deal with design guidelines while
working with a parametric modeling software.
This tool can be useful for many different industries, but parametric modeling is especially used
in mechanical engineering. It is great to have parametric software if you have an automotive
project for example. It is also used for architecture projects, aircraft design, or even machinery.
These CAD programs might be perfect for your rapid prototyping process.

Parametric vs direct modeling: How to choose?

Parametric and direct modeling are two different modeling techniques. Direct
modeling doesn’t create model features such as parametric solutions. Indeed, direct modeling
is more used to make geometries, you can’t work on the relationships between features, you can
only modify the selected surface of your model. Direct modeling allows to manipulate your
design more quickly, so it can be convenient at the beginning of the conception of a project. For
more accuracy, technical specificities and better visualization of the project, parametric modeling
software is a better solution.
Some direct modeling software are also really useful for your geometric models, thanks to their
various powerful tools, such as Blender.
It depends on what you need and your level of expertise, but you could also use both direct and
parametric program for your project.
Example below of CAD

.
credit: https://www.freecadweb.org/wiki/About_FreeCAD

22
Power Surfacing
Power Surfacing is a SOLIDWORKS application for industrial design / freeform organic surface
solids modeling. Tightly integrated with SOLIDWORKS, it works with
all SOLIDWORKS commands. Reverse Engineer scanned meshes with Power Surfacing RE.
Catia
CATIA (Computer Aided three-dimensional Interactive Application) was used by
architect Frank Gehry to design some of his award-winning curvilinear buildings such as
the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao. Gehry Technologies, the technology arm of his firm, have
since created Digital Project, their own parametric design software based on their experience
with CATIA.

Autodesk 3DS Max

Autodesk 3ds Max is a parametric 3D modeling software which provides modeling, animation,
simulation, and rendering functions for games, film, and motion graphics. 3ds Max uses the
concept of modifiers and wired parameters to control its geometry and gives the user the ability
to script its functionality. Max Creation Graph is a visual programming node-based tool creation
environment in 3ds Max 2016 that is similar to Grasshopper and Dynamo.

Autodesk Maya
Autodesk Maya is a 3D computer graphics software originally developed by Alias Systems
Corporation (formerly Alias|Wavefront) and currently owned and developed by Autodesk, Inc. It
is used to create interactive 3D applications, including video games, animated film, TV series, or
visual effects. Maya exposes a node graph architecture. Scene elements are node-based, each
node having its own attributes and customization. As a result, the visual representation of a scene
is based on a network of interconnecting nodes, depending on each other's information. Maya is
equipped with a cross-platform scripting language, called Maya Embedded Language. MEL is
provided for scripting and a means to customize the core functionality of the software, since
many of the tools and commands used are written in it. MEL or Python can be used to engineer
modifications, plug-ins or be injected into runtime. User interaction is recorded in MEL,
allowing novice users to implement subroutines.
Grasshopper 3D

23
The Grasshopper canvas with some nodesPIC in preceding page

Grasshopper 3d (originally Explicit History) is a plug-in for Rhinoceros 3D that presents the
users with a visual programming language interface to create and edit geometry.
Components or nodes are dragged onto a canvas in order to build a grasshopper definition.
Grasshopper is based on graphs (see Graph (discrete mathematics)) that map the flow of relations
from parameters through user-defined functions (nodes), resulting in the generation of geometry.
Changing parameters or geometry causes the changes to propagate throughout all functions, and
the geometry to be redrawn.
Autodesk Revit
Autodesk Revit is building information modeling (BIM) software used by architects and other
building professionals. Revit was developed in response to the need for software that could
create three-dimensional parametric models that include both geometry and non-geometric
design and construction information. Every change made to an element in Revit is automatically
propagated through the model to keep all components, views and annotations consistent. This
eases collaboration between teams and ensures that all information (floor areas, schedules, etc.)
are updated dynamically when changes in the model are made.

Autodesk Dynamo
Dynamo is an open source graphical programming environment for design. Dynamo extends
building information modeling with the data and logic environment of a graphical algorithm
editor.

GenerativeComponents
GenerativeComponents, parametric CAD software developed by Bentley Systems,[10] was first
introduced in 2003, became increasingly used in practice (especially by the London architectural
community) by early 2005, and was commercially released in November 2007.
GenerativeComponents has a strong traditional base of users in academia and at technologically
advanced design firms. GenerativeComponents is often referred to by the nickname of 'GC'. GC

24
epitomizes the quest to bring parametric modeling capabilities of 3D solid modeling into
architectural design, seeking to provide greater fluidity and fluency than mechanical 3D solid
modeling.[
Users can interact with the software by either dynamically modeling and directly manipulating
geometry, or by applying rules and capturing relationships among model elements, or by
defining complex forms and systems through concisely expressed algorithms. The software
supports many industry standard file input and outputs including DGN by Bentley Systems,
DWG by Autodesk, STL (Stereo Lithography), Rhino, and others. The software can also
integrate with Building Information Modeling systems.
The software has a published API and uses a simple scripting language, both allowing the
integration with many different software tools, and the creation of custom programs by users.
This software is primarily used by architects and engineers in the design of buildings, but has
also been used to model natural and biological structures and mathematical systems.
Generative Components runs exclusively on Microsoft Windows operating systems.

Marionette
Marionette is an open source graphical scripting tool (or visual programming environment) for
the architecture, engineering, construction, landscape, and entertainment design industries that is
built into the Mac and Windows versions of Vectorworks software. The tool was first made
available in the Vectorworks 2016 line of software products. Marionette enables designers to
create custom application algorithms that build interactive parametric objects and streamline
complex workflows, as well as build automated 2D drawing, 3D modeling, and BIM workflows
within Vectorworks software.

25
Built in the Python programming language, everything in Marionette consists of nodes which are
linked together in a flowchart arrangement. Each node contains a Python script with predefined
inputs and outputs that can be accessed and modified with a built-in editor. Nodes are placed
directly into the Vectorworks document and then connected to create complex algorithms. Since
Marionette is fully integrated into Vectorworks software, it can also be used to create entirely
self-contained parametric objects that can be inserted into new and existing designs.

Modelur
Modelur is a parametric urban design software plug-in for Trimble SketchUp, developed by
Agilicity d.o.o. (LLC). Its primary goal is to help the users create conceptual urban massing. In
contrast to common CAD applications, where the user designs buildings with usual dimensions
such as width, depth and height, Modelur offers design of built environment through key urban
parameters such as number of storeys and gross floor area of a building.
Modelur calculates key urban control parameters on the fly (e.g. floor area ratio or required
number of parking lots), delivering urban design information while the development is still
evolving. This way it helps taking well-informed decision during the earliest stages, when design
decisions have the highest impact.

Archimatix
Archimatix is a node-based parametric modeler extension for Unity 3D. It enables visual
modeling of 3D models within the Unity 3D editor.

26
REASON BEHIND THE USE OF FRACTAL GEOMETRY IN HINDU & JAIN
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE 4

The following are some probable reasons behind the use of Fractal Geometry in Hindu temple
architecture.

a) It can be argued that, practicing fractals is none other than the implication of the sense of
completeness since the concept of fractals is that of the part to whole and whole to part.

b) The fractal theory fully supports the Hindu philosophical concept of „one among all, all is
one‟. It brings the feeling of oneness (the concept of Atman).

c) It can bring a sense of strength, both structurally as well as visually.

d) Self-similar elements in the design, seek the attention of the visitors and pilgrims
repeatedly and gradually entice them to think about it and create a clear state of mind with
a holistic perception.

e) Self-similar repetition in structure generates an identity of elements as well as form.

f) Experimentation can also be a reason behind the evolution and realisation of fractal theory
in Hindu temple architecture through the ages.

g) The term, „Self-similar‟ brings a sense of modularity. Therefore, it generates the same
style of work using the same modules, which saves resources. Local materials,

27
 workmanship and time offer ease of execution across huge structures, such as temples
within the same region.

h) Making of similar kind of elements repeatedly generates a habit and practice and practice
perfects the execution.

i) From an aesthetical viewpoint, a fractal geometry brings about „order in chaos‟ and
thereby „a beauty in complexity‟.

Some fractal aspects of Hindu temple architecture are given above. Examining multiple
archetypes and geometry of recursion; this short paper can offer only a cursory suggestion of
the intricasies of the symbol system, the modes of measuring units and proportions, and the
reflection of the whole in some of the parts. In every element of these temples, there is a touch
of fractal.

Geometry and its Application

In Hindu thought, number is considered an expression of the structure of the universe and a
means of effecting the interplay between the universe and man. When numbers are given shape
and form, geometry comes into play. To be able to impart the symbolic meanings to the mind of
the observer through the eyes and brain, there was a need to establish a certain geometry which
will attract the eyes and arouse the brain. To be able to convey these meanings through form, a
strong relationship had to be developed between form and meanings in a decipherable language.
This relationship that develops between forms and their meanings within the Hindu temple is
essential to its function as a link between the “gods” and man.

The basic plan form of any temple is built upon the Vastu Purush Mandala, which is a square,
representing the earth. It also symbolises order, the completeness of endless life and the
perfectness of life and death (Michell, 1977, 1988). In the foundation of any Hindu temple,
cosmos is embodied by laying down the diagram of Vastu Purush Mandala on a selected ground.
This divine diagram reflects the image of cosmos through its fractal qualities. The Mandala can
be considered an ideogram, while the temple is the material manifestation of the concepts it
embodies. The square symbolises order, unequivocal form, the celestial sphere and the absolute.
The circle on the other hand represents movement, and therefore time. The square and circle, by
their very nature, are constant, but the rectangle is not. The square, with its potential to include
competing elements, when enclosing a circle represents the dimensions of both space and time.
As the cosmos is represented by the circle symbolically, the process of making an architectural
model of the cosmos involves the representation of a circle in a square grid in two-dimensional
construction and of an ellipsoid (the cosmic egg) in a cubical grid in three-dimensional
construction. A process of descritization of all curved forms is necessitated by this need to
represent them in a square grid, which results in the typical jaggedness of the temple plan
(Trivedi, 1993). The transformation of circle to square and square to circle is not one which can
be explained through Eucledian geometry. It needs an intricate understanding of the nature and
geometry of natural forms. The process by which natural elements gain their unique form can be
applied to the temple structures to find the underlying theme. The application of this algorithm to
the temple construction gives it the remarkable appearance.

28
The superimposition of the square and the circle is significant considering their individual
symbolic meanings (Figure 3: Square and Circle Superimposed; Symbolising the earth and the
cyclical time). Both of these when put together acquire the properties of order and movement.
Also, this superimposition depicts the celestial sphere and the Absolute, with respect to time;
where eternal time is also the smallest moment. This proves the involvement of circle with
square, with respect to the temple concept and philosophy. The most impressive aspect of the
temple representation is that it occurs both at the level of the part as well as the whole in a
recursive fashion mirroring the Vedic idea of the microcosm symbolising the macrocosm at
various levels of expression (Kak, Space and Cosmology in the Hindu Temple , 2002 )
Nevertheless, this form of geometry, i.e. Eucledian Geometry, does not suffice to generate the
process of development of the structure of the temple. It does not help to describe the form of the
Hindu Temple and its embodied depictions of dynamics, movement, tension, order and harmony.
Fractal geometry, though, has been found to be able to explain most of the forms and patterns in
a temple complex.

REFERENCE
1. Parametric in an Ancient Treatise on Architecture, Neena Singh Zutshi , M. A. Schnabel
(ed.), Back to the Future: The Next 50 Years, (51st International Conference of the
Architectural Science Association (ANZAScA)), ©2017, Architectural Science
Association (ANZAScA), pp. 261–270.
2. Symbolism in Hindu Temple Architecture and Fractal Geometry - 'Thought Behind
Form', Tanisha Dutta , Vinayak S. Adane, International Journal of Science and Research ,
(2012): 3.358- https://www.ijsr.net/archive/v3i12/U1VCMTQzMjI=.pdf

29
3. 3.The Hindu Temple is a Model of a Fractal Universe – Kirti Trivedi [1993]
Infinite Sequences in The Constructive Geometry of 10th Century Hindu Temple
Superstructures – Sambit Datta [2010]
4. Role of Fractal Geometry in Indian Hindu Temple Architecture, Dhrubajyoti Sarda , S. Y.
Kulkarni Professor,International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology
(IJERT),ISSN: 2278-0181,Vol. 4 Issue 05, May-2015
5.http://360hinduism.com/symbolism-hindu-temple-architecture-and-fractal-
geometry/

30
 CHAPTER II
THE GEOMETRY OF TEMPLE

Also featuring 2 excellent papers by the following authors:

Tanisha Dutta & Indiainayak S. Adane – Professor, Department of Architecture and Planning,
Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology (VNIT), Nagpur, India
Hindu temples: Models of a fractal universe,Kirti Trivedi ,The Visual
Computer volume 5, pages243–258(1989)Cite this article

. ‘The human mind has first to construct forms, independently, before we can find them in
things’. – Einstein

Introduction: The Hindu temple architecture was among the first ones that established a
relationship between human figure and the system of proportion which was later studied by
Leonardo da Vinci and Le Corbusieer in modular system of measurement. It is based on the
geometry of Vastupurashamandala in which the form of Purasha was made to fit the abstract idea
of square as the highest geometric form. The basic form of Vastupurashamandala is the square
which represents the earth and the circle represents the universe suggesting timelessness and
infinity . The mandalais actually a square divided into smaller squares arranged in the form of a

31
grid. Each smaller square depicts the area of the respective Gods. The most commonly used
mandalais the square subdivided into 64 and 81 squares. Thus, the
Vastupurashamandala was the basis of the ground floor plan for all Jain temples. The basic
shape of the temple plan was : the outermost ring of square of the mandala from thickness of
walls of main shrine, the central 4 squares was reserved for the main deity, the inner ring of 12
square form the walls of the garbhagrihaand the next 16 to 28 forms the pradkshina patha.
These simple divisions of square with permutation and combination became the base for the
development of more complex temple compounds of Hindu as well as and Jain temple
architecture notably and sometimes the Buddhist temple

Mathematics and architecture are related, since, as with other

arts, architects use mathematics for several reasons. Apart from the mathematics needed when
engineering buildings, architects use geometry: to define the spatial form of a building; from
the Pythagoreans of the sixth century BC onwards, to create forms considered harmonious, and
thus to lay out buildings and their surroundings according to mathematical, aesthetic and
sometimes religious principles; to decorate buildings with mathematical objects such
as tessellations; and to meet environmental goals, such as to minimise wind speeds around the
bases of tall buildings.

In ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, India, and the Islamic world, buildings including pyramids,
temples, mosques, palaces and mausoleums were laid out with specific proportions for religious
reasons. In Islamic architecture, geometric shapes and geometric tiling patterns are used to
decorate buildings, both inside and outside. Some Hindu temples have a fractal-like structure
where parts resemble the whole, conveying a message about the infinite in Hindu cosmology.
In Chinese architecture, the tulou of Fujian province are circular, communal defensive structures.
In the twenty-first century, mathematical ornamentation is again being used to cover public
buildings.

In Renaissance architecture, symmetry and proportion were deliberately emphasized by

architects such as Leon Battista Alberti, Sebastiano Serlio and Andrea Palladio, influenced
by Vitruvius's De architectura from ancient Rome and the arithmetic of the Pythagoreans from
ancient Greece. At the end of the nineteenth century, Vladimir Shukhov in Russia and Antoni
Gaudí in Barcelona pioneered the use of hyperboloid structures; in the Sagrada Família, Gaudí
also incorporated hyperbolic paraboloids, tessellations, catenary arches, catenoids, helicoids,
and ruled surfaces. In the twentieth century, styles such as modern
architecture and Deconstructivism explored different geometries to achieve desired
effects. Minimal surfaces have been exploited in tent-like roof coverings as at Denver
International Airport, while Richard Buckminster Fuller pioneered the use of the strong thin-
shell structures known as geodesic domes.

Vaastu Shastra, the ancient Indian canons of architecture and town planning, employs
symmetrical drawings called mandalas. Complex calculations are used to arrive at the
dimensions of a building and its components. The designs are intended to integrate architecture
with nature, the relative functions of various parts of the structure, and ancient beliefs utilizing
geometric patterns (yantra), symmetry and directional alignments. However, early builders may
have come upon mathematical proportions by accident. The mathematician Georges Ifrah notes

32
that simple "tricks" with string and stakes can be used to lay out geometric shapes, such as
ellipses and right angles.

The mathematics of fractals has been used to show that the reason why existing buildings have
universal appeal and are visually satisfying is because they provide the viewer with a sense of
scale at different viewing distances. For example, in the tall gopuram gatehouses
of Hindu temples such as the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi built in the seventh century, and
others such as the Kandariya Mahadev Temple at Khajuraho, the parts and the whole have the
same character, with fractal dimension in the range 1.7 to 1.8. The cluster of smaller towers
(shikhara, lit. 'mountain') about the tallest, central, tower which represents the holy Mount
Kailash, abode of Lord Shiva, depicts the endless repetition of universes in Hindu
cosmology. The religious studies scholar William J. Jackson observed of the pattern of towers
grouped among smaller towers, themselves grouped among still smaller towers, that:
The ideal form gracefully artificed suggests the infinite rising levels of existence and
consciousness, expanding sizes rising toward transcendence above, and at the same time housing
the sacred deep within.

Plan of Meenakshi Amman Temple, Madurai, from 7th century onwards. The four
gateways (numbered I-IV) are tall gopurams.

The Meenakshi Amman Temple is a large complex with multiple shrines, with the streets
of Madurai laid out concentrically around it according to the shastras. The four gateways are tall
towers (gopurams) with fractal-like repetitive structure as at Hampi. The enclosures around each
shrine are rectangular and surrounded by high stone walls.

Adinath Temple at Rankapur:

33
PLAN 1. ADINATHA TEMPLE, RANAKPUR, 15th century.
(From "The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India" vol. 1, Buddhist, Jain, Hindu, by
George Michell, 1989)
The central main shrine is called "Mula-Prasada", the interior of which is "Garbagriha"
(sanctum), and its main statue is "Mulanayaka". For a Chaturmukha (four-faced) shrine,
unlike the temples of Mt. Abu, there are no "Gudha-mandapa" (closed hall) or "Trika-
mandapas" (vestibule), but four "Ranga-mandapas" ( A, assembly hall) in front of four portals
of the main shrine. Each Ranga-mandapa is connected with a three storyed "Meghanada-
mandapa" ( B, high hall) in front.
Having four "Mahadara-prasada" (two-faced-shrine) diagonally in four directions of the main
shrine, the temple type is "Panchayatana" (five-shrined-type). In addition to this, there are two
"Bhadra-prasada" east and west sides, making the total composition much more intricate. A
line of "Deva-kulika" (small shrine) along "Bhamati" (cloister) surround the whole complex.
All these shrines hold a statue of Tirthankara or Jina (four in Chaturmukha, two in Mahadara-
prasada), there are more than 100 statues in total.

Geometry (from the Ancient Greek: γεωμετρία; geo- "earth", -metron "measurement") is,
with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It is concerned with properties of
space that are related with distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures.[1] A
mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer.Until the 19th century,

34
geometry was exclusively devoted to Euclidean geometry, which includes the notions
of point, line, plane, distance, angle, surface, and curve, as fundamental concepts.[2]
During the 19th century several discoveries enlarged dramatically the scope of geometry. One of
the oldest such discoveries is Gauss' Theorema Egregium (remarkable theorem) that asserts
roughly that the Gaussian curvature of a surface is independent from any specific embedding in
an Euclidean space. This implies that surfaces can be studied intrinsically, that is as stand alone
spaces, and has been expanded into the theory of manifolds and Riemannian geometry.
Later in the 19th century, it appeared that geometries without the parallel postulate (non-
Euclidean geometries) can be developed without introducing any contradiction. The geometry
that underlies general relativity is a famous application of non-Euclidean geometry.

Since then, the scope of geometry has been greatly expanded, and the field has been split in
many subfields that depend on the underlying methods—differential geometry, algebraic
geometry, computational geometry, algebraic topology, discrete geometry (also known
as combinatorial geometry) etc.—or on the properties of Euclidean spaces that are disregarded—
projective geometry that consider only alignment of points but not distance and
parallelism, affine geometry that omits the concept of angle and distance, finite geometry that
that omits continuity, etc.

Often developed with the aim to model the physical world, geometry has applications to almost
all sciences, and also to art, architecture, and other activities that are related
to graphics. Geometry has also applications to areas of mathematics that are apparently
unrelated. For example, methods of algebraic geometry are fundamental for Wiles's
proof of Fermat's Last Theorem, a problem that was stated in terms of elementary arithmetic, and
remainded unsolved for several centuries.

Architecture
Geometry has many applications in architecture. In fact, it has been said that geometry lies at the
core of architectural design. Applications of geometry to architecture include the use
of projective geometry to create forced perspective,[144] the use of conic sections in constructing
domes and similar objects, the use of tessellations,[91] and the use of symmetry.[91]
Architectural geometry is an area of research which combines applied geometry
and architecture, which looks at the design, analysis and manufacture processes. It lies at the core
of architectural design and strongly challenges contemporary practice, the so-called architectural
practice of the digital age.
Architectural geometry is influenced by following fields: differential geometry, topology, fractal
geometry, and cellular automata.
Topics include:
 freeform curves and surfaces creation
 developable surfaces
 discretisation
 generative design
 digital prototyping and manufacturing

35
A European and an Arab practicing geometry in the 15th century

The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt in
the 2nd millennium BC. Early geometry was a collection of empirically discovered principles
concerning lengths, angles, areas, and volumes, which were developed to meet some practical
need in surveying, construction, astronomy, and various crafts.

Indian mathematicians also made many important contributions in geometry. The Satapatha
Brahmana (3rd century BC) contains rules for ritual geometric constructions that are similar to
the Sulba Sutras. According to (Hayashi 2005, p. 363), the Śulba Sūtras contain "the earliest
extant verbal expression of the Pythagorean Theorem in the world, although it had already been
known to the Old Babylonians. They contain lists of Pythagorean triples. which are particular
cases of Diophantine equations. In the Bakhshali manuscript, there is a handful of geometric
problems (including problems about volumes of irregular solids). The Bakhshali manuscript also
"employs a decimal place value system with a dot for zero." Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya (499)
includes the computation of areas and volumes. Brahmagupta wrote his astronomical
work Brāhma Sphuṭa Siddhānta in 628. Chapter 12, containing 66 Sanskrit verses, was divided
into two sections: "basic operations" (including cube roots, fractions, ratio and proportion, and
barter) and "practical mathematics" (including mixture, mathematical series, plane figures,
stacking bricks, sawing of timber, and piling of grain). In the latter section, he stated his famous
theorem on the diagonals of a cyclic quadrilateral. Chapter 12 also included a formula for the
area of a cyclic quadrilateral (a generalization of Heron's formula), as well as a complete
description of rational triangles (i.e. triangles with rational sides and rational areas).

The following are some of the most important concepts in geometry.

36
 Symmetry

A tiling of the hyperbolic plane

The theme of symmetry in geometry is nearly as old as the science of geometry itself. Symmetric
shapes such as the circle, regular polygons and platonic solids held deep significance for many
ancient philosophers[77] and were investigated in detail before the time of Euclid.[40] Symmetric
patterns occur in nature and were artistically rendered in a multitude of forms, including the
graphics of da Vinci, M.C. Escher, and othersA different type of symmetry is the principle
of duality in projective geometry, among other fields. This meta-phenomenon can roughly be
described as follows: in any theorem, exchange point with plane, join with meet, lies
in with contains, and the result is an equally true theorem. A similar and closely related form of
duality exists between a vector space and its dual space.
Axioms

An illustration of Euclid's parallel postulate

Euclid took an abstract approach to geometry in his Elements. one of the most influential books
ever written. Euclid introduced certain axioms, or postulates, expressing primary or self-evident
properties of points, lines, and planes. He proceeded to rigorously deduce other properties by
mathematical reasoning. The characteristic feature of Euclid's approach to geometry was its
rigor, and it has come to be known as axiomatic or synthetic geometry

Points Points are considered fundamental objects in Euclidean geometry. They have been
defined in a variety of ways, including Euclid's definition as 'that which has no part'and through
the use of algebra or nested sets. In many areas of geometry, such as analytic geometry,
differential geometry, and topology, all objects are considered to be built up from points.
However, there has been some study of geometry without reference to points.
Lines

37
In analytic geometry, a line in the plane is often defined as the set of points whose coordinates
satisfy a given linear equation, but in a more abstract setting, such as incidence geometry, a line
may be an independent object, distinct from the set of points which lie on it. In differential
geometry, a geodesic is a generalization of the notion of a line to curved spaces.
Planes
A plane is a flat, two-dimensional surface that extends infinitely far. Planes are used in every
area of geometry. For instance, planes can be studied as a topological surface without reference
to distances or angles; it can be studied as an affine space, where collinearity and ratios can be
studied but not distances; it can be studied as the complex plane using techniques of complex
analysis; and so on.
Angles
angle is the inclination to each other, in a plane, of two lines which meet each other, and do not
lie straight with respect to each other. In modern terms, an angle is the figure formed by
two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle.

Acute (a), obtuse (b), and straight (c) angles. The acute and obtuse angles are also known as
oblique angles.

In Euclidean geometry, angles are used to study polygons and triangles, as well as forming
A curve is a 1-dimensional object that may be straight (like a line) or not; curves in 2-
dimensional space are called plane curves and those in 3-dimensional space are called space
curves.

In topology, a curve is defined by a function from an interval of the real numbers to another
space. In differential geometry, the same definition is used, but the defining function is required
to be differentiable. Algebraic geometry studies algebraic curves, which are defined as algebraic
varieties of dimension one.
Surfaces

38
A sphere is a surface that can be defined parametrically
(by x = r sin θ cos φ, y = r sin θ sin φ, z = r cos θ) or implicitly (by x + y + z − r = 0.)
2 2 2 2

A surface is a two-dimensional object, such as a sphere or paraboloid. In differential

geometry and topology, surfaces are described by two-dimensional 'patches' (or neighborhoods)
that are assembled by diffeomorphisms or homeomorphisms, respectively. In algebraic
geometry, surfaces are described by polynomial equations.
Manifolds
A manifold is a generalization of the concepts of curve and surface. In topology, a manifold is
a topological space where every point has a neighborhood that is homeomorphic to Euclidean
space. In differential geometry, a differentiable manifold is a space where each neighborhood
is diffeomorphic to Euclidean space.
Manifolds are used extensively in physics, including in general relativity and string theory.[61]
Length, area, and volume
Length, area, and volume describe the size or extent of an object in one dimension, two
dimension, and three dimensions respectively.
In Euclidean geometry and analytic geometry, the length of a line segment can often be
calculated by the Pythagorean theorem.
Area and volume can be defined as fundamental quantities separate from length, or they can be
described and calculated in terms of lengths in a plane or 3-dimensional space. Mathematicians
have found many explicit formulas for area and formulas for volume of various geometric
objects. In calculus, area and volume can be defined in terms of integrals, such as the Riemann
integral or the Lebesgue integral.
Metrics and measures

Visual checking of the Pythagorean theorem for the (3, 4, 5) triangle as in the Zhoubi Suanjing 500–
200 BC. The Pythagorean theorem is a consequence of the Euclidean metric.
The concept of length or distance can be generalized, leading to the idea of metrics.[66] For
instance, the Euclidean metric measures the distance between points in the Euclidean plane,
while the hyperbolic metric measures the distance in the hyperbolic plane. Other important
examples of metrics include the Lorentz metric of special relativity and the semi-Riemannian
metrics of general relativity
In a different direction, the concepts of length, area and volume are extended by measure theory,
which studies methods of assigning a size or measure to sets, where the measures follow rules
similar to those of classical area and volume.
Congruence and similarity
Congruence and similarity are concepts that describe when two shapes have similar
characteristics. In Euclidean geometry, similarity is used to describe objects that have the same

39
shape, while congruence is used to describe objects that are the same in both size and shape.
Congruence and similarity are generalized in transformation geometry, which studies the
properties of geometric objects that are preserved by different kinds of transformations.
Compass and straightedge constructions
Classical geometers paid special attention to constructing geometric objects that had been
described in some other way. Classically, the only instruments allowed in geometric
constructions are the compass and straightedge. Also, every construction had to be complete in a
finite number of steps. However, some problems turned out to be difficult or impossible to solve
by these means alone, and ingenious constructions using parabolas and other curves, as well as
mechanical devices, were found.
Dimension

The Koch snowflake, with fractal dimension=log4/log3 and topological dimension=1

Where the traditional geometry allowed dimensions 1 (a line), 2 (a plane) and 3 (our ambient
world conceived of as three-dimensional space), mathematicians and physicists have used higher
dimensions for nearly two centuries. One example of a mathematical use for higher dimensions
is the configuration space of a physical system, which has a dimension equal to the
system's degrees of freedom. For instance, the configuration of a screw can be described by five
coordinates.
many fields, some of which are described below.
Art

40
Bou Inania Madrasa, Fes, Morocco, zellige mosaic tiles forming elaborate geometric tessellations
Mathematics and art are related in a variety of ways. For instance, the theory
of perspective showed that there is more to geometry than just the metric properties of figures:
perspective is the origin of projective geometry. Artists have long used concepts of proportion in
design. Vitruvius developed a complicated theory of ideal proportions for the human
figure. These concepts have been used and adapted by artists from Michelangelo to modern
comic book artists.

The golden ratio is a particular proportion that has had a controversial role in art. Often claimed
to be the most aesthetically pleasing ratio of lengths, it is frequently stated to be incorporated
into famous works of art, though the most reliable and unambiguous examples were made
deliberately by artists aware of this legend.
Tilings, or tessellations, have been used in art throughout history. Islamic art makes frequent use
of tessellations, as did the art of Escher. Escher's work also made use of hyperbolic geometry.
Cézanne advanced the theory that all images can be built up from the sphere, the cone, and
the cylinder. This is still used in art theory today, although the exact list of shapes varies from
author to author.

COSMOS: Hindu philosophy views the cosmos to be holonomic and self-similar in nature.
According to ancient architectural tradition, Hindu temples are symbols of models of the cosmos
and their form represents the cosmos symbolically.
The procedures and methods used in the construction of Hindu temples bear a striking
resemblance to the procedures of computer graphics, including discretization, fractalization and
extensive use of recursive procedures, including self-similar iteration. The instructions given in
ancient Vastu shastras (texts on architecture) work like general programmes to generate various
types of temples.

The paper is an attempt to draw attention to the similarities between the procedures and resulting
forms in computer graphics and Hindu temple architecture and to explain the relationship that
exists between the form of the temple and the concepts of Hindu philosophy. It is proposed that
Hindu temples may be viewed as threedimensional fractal models and that the use of fractal
geometry procedures has a special symbolic meaning in the generation of the forms of Hindu
temples
Traditionally, temples have been the most prominent religious institution in India and fractals
form an integral part of those temples. A single gaze at a temple and you will find fractal-like
spires (shikharas) or a tower surrounded by smaller towers, surrounded by still smaller towers,
and so on, for eight or more levels. Each part of the facade is designed to look like a miniature
reproduction of the whole.
From: The Hindu Temple as a Model of Fractal Cosmology – Forecasting Architecture with
Recursive Instruction,Monday, 6 April 2015

41
Kandariya Mahadev Temple [Madhya Pradesh] (source unknown)

The self-similar, cascading architectural forms found in Hindu temple architecture appear to
have been pieced together by a hyper-industrious Minecrafter hooked on Hofstadter. Jagged
waves of blocky ornamentation, rhythmically repeating, create diminishing echo’s of the
temple’s form; tiny versions of itself repeating towards a proposed infinity. Baroque three-
dimensional Cellular Automata. Cantor Set masonry. Malevich’s Architectons upscaled and
iterated to the nth degree, often smothered with a teeming mass of deities and denizens, each one
competing for your retina.

42
Kandariya Mahadev Temple [Madhya Pradesh] – RM Nunes

It’s not just that these temples appear to be algorithmically generated, the ancient Vastu
Sustra texts provide procedural rules or recipes for their design, layout and build (including the
positions of ornaments). The texts transmit recursive programs, by verbal instruction, to masons
so that according to Kirti Trivedi, the Hindu Temple becomes a model of a fractal Universe. A
model which represents ‘views of the cosmos to be holonomic and self-similar in nature’. The
idea of fractal cosmology is no stranger to western academia. In 1987 the Italian physicist
Luciano Pietronero argued, in his paper, that the Universe shows ‘a definite fractal aspect over a
fairly wide range of scale’ based on correlations of galaxies and clusters, their spatial distribution
and average mass density.
‘According to Hindu philosophy the cosmos can be visualised to be contained in a microscopic
capsule, with the help of the concept of subtle element called ‘tammatras’. The whole cosmic
principle replicates itself again and again in ever smaller scales’ – Kirti Trivedi

43
 Yellamma Temple
[Karnataka] – Paul Prudence

Architecton Series – Kazimir Malevich [1923]

44
Temple Plan for Barwasagar Temple [Uttar Pradesh] from Geometry Measure in India Temple
Plans
The initial temple plan is based on a grid form known as the Vastu-Purusha Mandala. Tellingly
Trivedi remarks in his paper that the Vastu-Purusha Mandala is ‘not a blueprint for a temple, but
a ‘forecast’, a marking of the potential within which a wide range of possibilities are implied’.
The significance here, should not be underestimated. A ‘potential for possibilities’ within a
predefined rule-set predisposes architecture to be governed by a degree of emergence. While
emergence in parametric architecture arrived, recently, with computers and algorithms, India has
been enacting emergent masonry for thousands of years thanks to the open rules of the Vastus
Sustra.

Shweta Varahaswamy Temple [Karnataka] – Paul Prudence

45
Using a system of measurement called the ‘Tala’, dimensional relationships of proportions rather
than exact structural specifications are defined. Initial decisions (why not call them algorithmic
seeds?) combined with rule sets are used to define the final outcome of the building. The ‘Tala’
system is scale invariant, just like fractal mathematics, so that a building of any size can be
created, and decorated without compromising the model of self containment. The temple, as a
whole, is built by interweaving fractalization processes with repetition and superimposition. An
example of a typical recursive instruction, verbalised, is:
The layer of prahara (projection) will be above the chadya (eave of the roof). This is to be
repeated again and again on the spire over the spire. A fraction of the prahara is to be
constructed and again the spires are to be constructed. Each of the upper spires will be sprouted
out with a measurement equal to half the size of the lower spire – Ksirarnava, 7.113

Sri Meenakshi Amman Temple

[Tamil Nadu] – Paul Prudence

The Kandariya Mahadev, in Madhya Pradesh, is one of the best examples of recursive temple
architecture in India. The rising towers (Shikhara) of this structure are said to mimic the forms of
mountains which are themselves self-similar. Shikhara literally translates to the word mountain.1

46
How did Cholas lift 80 tons of Granite to a 216-foot tower (Gopuram) at the Tanjore Brihadeeswarar
Temple? RIGHT

Temples are populated with different sizes of sculptures and images of deities, animals,
mythical beings and varied symbols to create a distinctive visual and spiritual experience. Not all
Hindu temples are based on sacred geometry but many are. The temple is a fractal part of the
whole of Hinduism, and that the use of fractal geometry has a special symbolic meaning in the
forms of Hindu temples. Like the whole is reflected and celebrated in each part! The underlying
relationship between Hindu cosmology and fractal theory is manifested in Hindu temple where
fractal geometry acts as the language. This paper has analyzed the Kandariya Mahadev temple at
Khajuraho as the paradigm of Hindu temples with regard to fractal geometry and describes the
syntheses of fractal features of the temple from the Hindu cosmology and philosophy.2

IMPORTANCE Traditionally, temples have been the most prominent religious institution in
India and fractals form an integral part of those temples. A single gaze at a temple and you will
find fractal-like spires (shikharas) or a tower surrounded by smaller towers, surrounded by still
smaller towers, and so on, for eight or more levels. Each part of the facade is designed to look
like a miniature reproduction of the whole.

IMPORTANCE OF GEOMETRY IN HINDU TEMPLES In Hindu temple architecture,

geometry plays a vital and enigmatic role. Geometry of a plan starts with a line, forming an
angle,evolving a triangle, then a square and distinctively a circle and so on, ultimately deriving
complex forms. The occurrence of complexity, results into self similarity and further leads into
the occurrence of fractal geometry. Geometry is a disciplined field and the fractal follows it •
Both of them have definite paths • The role of fractal theory in basic geometry is shown

A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central
core of the temple. These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have

47
mathematical precision and geometric symbolism. One of the common principles found in Hindu
temple spires is circles and turning- squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right)
that flows from one to the other as it rises towards the sky.

GRID PLANNING The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to
Vastupurusamandala. The 64 grid is the most sacred and common Hindu temple template. The
bright saffron center, where diagonals intersect above, represents the Purusha of Hindu
philosophy.

Vastupurashamandala is the square which represents the Earth and represents the universe
suggesting timelessness and infinity The mandala is actually the square divided into smaller
squares arranged in the form of a grid. Each smaller square depicts the area of the respective
Gods. The most commonly used mandala is the square subdivided into 64 and 81 squares. A
Hindu temple design follows a geometrical design called vastu- purusha-mandala. The name is a
composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. Mandala
means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, i.e energy, power, soul.
while Vastu means the dwelling structure.The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical,
self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical
principles. Beginning with humble caves and squat flat-roofed temples, Hindu temple
architecture, then, evolved over the centuries and, despite some regional variation, arrived at a
standard arrangement which involved a huge walled complex with massive decorative gateways
giving entrance to a sacred space of lesser shrines dominated by the main temple and its
monumental series of towers followed by geometry.
Since Hindu philosophy views the cosmos to be holonomic and self-similar in nature – each
fragment of the cosmos is believed to be whole in itself – temples are designed and constructed
as models of the cosmos.
George Michell, author of ‘The Hindu Temple’ explained, “The architecture of the Hindu temple
symbolically represents the quest for moksha– ultimate spiritual liberation, the realization of
oneness by setting out to dissolve the boundaries between man and the divine.
For this purpose certain notions are associated with the very forms and materials of the
building.Paramount is the identification of the divinity with the fabric of the temple, or, from
another point of view, the identification of the form of the universe [for example the cosmic
mountain] with that of the temple. Temples are of different sizes populated by sculptures and
images of deities, animals, mythical beings and varied symbols to create a distinctive visual and
spiritual experience. Not all Hindu temples are based on sacred geometry but many are.The
temple is a fractal part of the whole of Hinduism, and that the use of fractal geometry has a
special symbolic meaning in the forms of Hindu temples. Like the whole is reflected and
celebrated in each part! Such an identification is achieved through the form and meaning of those
architectural elements that are considered fundamental to the temple.”
Hindu philosophy views the cosmos to be holonomic and self-similar in nature. According to
ancient architectural tradition, Hindu temples are symbols of models of the cosmos and their
form represents the cosmos symbolically.
The procedures and methods used in the construction of Hindu temples bear a striking
resemblance to the procedures of computer graphics, including discretization, fractalization and
extensive use of recursive procedures, including self-similar iteration. The instructions given in

48
ancient Vastu shastras (texts on architecture) work like general programmes to generate various
types of temples.
The paper is an attempt to draw attention to the similarities between the procedures and resulting
forms in computer graphics and Hindu temple architecture and to explain the relationship that
exists between the form of the temple and the concepts of Hindu philosophy. It is proposed that
Hindu temples may be viewed as threedimensional fractal models and that the use of fractal
geometry procedures has a special symbolic meaning in the generation of the forms of Hindu
temples.

Mathematical Interpretation of Fractal Dimension

The concept of "fractal dimension" is attributed to a 20th century mathematician, Benoit
Mandelbrot. His fractal theory was developed in order to try to more precisely quantify the
immense complexity of nature in relatively simple equations. His favorite example of such
complexity was the craggy coast of Britain which, when seen from far above, looks somewhat
wrinkled and convoluted. Yet as an observer gets closer and closer to the shore, the complexity
of the coastline increases; smooth lines become jagged, and more jagged and complex until the
observer is so close that he is observing the minute variation in the positions of each individual
grain of sand along the shore. Moreover, we can imagine this observer measuring the length of
the coastline with increasingly smaller rulers. As he takes account of the added complexity as he
measures with increasingly precise resolution, his approximation to the length of the coast of
Britain keeps increasing. In fact, he could very well find that the length he is looking for diverges
to infinity!
Yet it is obvious that this "infinitely long" coast of Britain only encapsulates a finite area, just as
a circle drawn on the globe can contain all of Britain. In some way, we believe that the coast of
Britain is more "substantial" than a simple circle, and perhaps more interesting than a simple 1-
dimensional line which defines a circle's circumference. Fractal dimension was developed as a
way to quantify this contradictory complexity.

49
 Exponent
Explanation Image gives the
dimension
Notice that a line segment is self-similar. It can be
separated into 4 = 41 "miniature" pieces. Each is 1/4 the
size of the original. Each looks exactly like the original 4 = 41 pieces
figure when magnified by a factor of 4 (magnification
or scaling factor).

The square can be separated in to miniature squares. If

the smaller square is magnified (scaled)4 times then it
16 = 42 pieces
is identical to the larger square. However, we need 16 =
42 pieces to make up the original square figure.

The cube can be separated into 64 = 43 pieces. Again,

these pieces need to be enlarged (scaled) by a factor to 64 = 43 pieces
4 to generate the larger square.

Therefore, N (the number of miniature pieces in the final figure) is equal to S (the scaling factor)
raised to the power D (dimension). In the previous cases it is easy to find the dimension by
simply reading the exponent. This simple concept can be generalized to measure non-integral
dimensions of many fractals. One such fractal is the Van-Koch snowflake which you generated
in class. Another common fractal is the Sierpinsky Triangle discussed below, which is created by
successively removing the middle section out of an equilateral triangle.
N = SD

This is a picture of a Sierpinsky Triangle: To

generate it, we begin with an equilateral triangle.
Draw the lines connecting the midpoints of the
three sides and remove the center triangle. Note
that our new triangle contains 3 "miniature"
triangles. Each side = 1/2 the length of a side of
the original triangle., and each "miniature"
triangle looks exactly like the original triangle
when magnified by a factor of 2 (magnification or
scaling factor).

Now take the result and repeat (iterate) as

50
shown.

Continuing this pattern results in the figure above. The fractal is the limiting case that results
when the iterations are continued out to infinity. Notice that the lower left portion of the triangle
is exactly the same as the entire triangle when magnified by a factor of two, and the lower-left
portion of that triangle is the same as it's containing triangle, and so on. The Sierpinsky Triangle
is self-similar.
But what is the dimension of the Sierpinsky Triangle? Notice the second triangle is composed of
3 miniature triangles exactly like the original. The smaller triangles could be scaled by 2 to
produce the entire triangle (S = 2). The resulting figures consists of 3 separate identical miniature
pieces. (N = 3).
What is D? We simply take the logarithm of our above equation. Recalling than N = SD,
SD = N
2D = 3
log(2D) = log(3)
D*log(2) = log(3)
D = log(3)/log(2)
D = 1.585 (not an integer!)
In fact, a trivial computation from the above equation yields
D = log N/log S.

This is the formula to use for computing the fractal dimension of any strictly self-similar fractals.
The dimension is a measure of how completely these fractals embed themselves into normal
Euclidean space.
Identifying Dimension
For the following figures, we have given N, S, and D.

1. Cantor Dust:
N=2, S=3, D=log2/log3 =0.6309

2. Box Fractal:
N=5, S=3, D=log5/log3=1.4649

51
 3. Koch Curve
N=4, S=3, D=log4/log3=1.2618

4. Another one:
N=8, S=4, D=log8/log4=1.5
Just for fun,
Find the dimension of fractals generated in each of the following ways:
(answers will be given in recitation sometime)
Initiator Generator

5.

6.

7.

8.

9. Sierpinsky Carpet

52
 10. Menger Sponge
If you're interested in a more rigorous development of fractal theory, consult "The Fractal
Geometry of Nature" by Benoit Mandelbrot. It is a seminal text in the field, and is written at an
"educated layman's" level. For an even more rigorous discussion of more recent results,
including computer applications, there are a few good good texts by Michael F. Barnsley, one of
them is entitled "Fractals Everywhere" but it's pretty dense. Both of these books will have good
bibliographies, too.
--Patrick White
All of the images above and some portion of text are borrowed from the PWS OnLine Series,
Copyright � 1995 by PWS Publishing Company. I think my explication makes the concepts
clearer, but this is based strongly on their web site.1A

Symbolism in Hindu Temple Architecture and Fractal Geometry – ‘Thought Behind Form’

Tanisha Dutta – PhD Research Scholar, Department of Architecture and Planning, Visvesvaraya
National Institute of Technology (VNIT), Nagpur, India.Vinayak S. Adane – Professor,
Department of Architecture and Planning, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology
(VNIT), Nagpur, India

Abstract: The structural order followed by nature, also adopted in the construction of Hindu
temples, was to depict the ultimate truth. This became possible by following fractal geometry.
Fractal geometry plays a major part in the transmission of the symbolic intended meanings
from the visibly manifested art and architecture of the temple, to the intellect of human beings,
for perception in the correct sense. This paper is therefore an attempt to integrate and analyse
the fields of study of, temple architecture, fractal geometry, symbolism, human perception of
architectural expression, and temple concept through cosmology and philosophy. It is
advocated that the use of fractal geometry in the construction of temples, and sculptures
adorning them, helps in imparting the temple concept and idea in its correct value.
Keywords: Temple architecture; fractal geometry; symbolism; self similarity; human perception
Introduction and background to Hindu architectural philosophy
“Hindu temples go beyond just being the visual results of a mathematical process with
interesting properties, but touch us deeper, almost on a spiritual level, like all objects of pure
beauty.” (Trivedi, 1993)

53
It is significant that nowhere in the extensive vocabulary of the Indian languages is there a word
that corresponds to the term ‘religion’. In fact, religious and non-religious matters are never
distinguished in Hinduism, as it is unimaginable that any activity, impulse or process, can be
without some divine potential (Michell, 1977, 1988). The term dharma, which is sometimes
mistakenly used for religion, actually means righteousness or propriety. This gives some insight
into the minds of the people following a dharma which teaches, not of religion, but of
righteousness.
Hinduism believes that the universe is created, destroyed, and recreated in an endless series of
repetitive cycles, where Brahma is the creator, Vishnu the sustainer and Shiva the destroyer. This
trinity combines to form Parameshwar (Purush), the Supreme Being who is the manifested form
of the whole of infinity. Hindu philosophy views the cosmos to be holonomic and self similar in
nature. According to ancient architectural tradition, Hindu temples are symbols of the model of
the cosmos and their form represents the cosmos symbolically (Trivedi, 1993). This is significant
and inevitable because of the strong relationship between the cosmos philosophy and the
philosophy behind the temple structure. Hindu thought adheres to the related view that the
macrocosm is ‘enclosed’ in the microcosm (Joye, Fractal Architecture Could Be Good For You ,
2007 ), reinforced by Trivedi (1989) when he says that the whole cosmic principle (in Hindu
philosophy) replicates itself again and again in ever smaller scales.
It is imperative to mention that there exist numerous theories regarding the concept of the
temple, and subsequently, its various parts. Some of these theories are more relevant and
accepted in some cases, whereas the others in other cases. This discrepancy does not undermine
the validity of the concepts in any way, but reinforces the idea of interpretation at various levels
and in different scenarios. With a higher objective, the variety in concepts helps each individual
to take his own path and attain satisfaction of enlightenment in his own way.
Implicit in the motion of holonomy are the properties of homogeneity, isotropy, self-similarity
and symmetries of various kinds (Trivedi, 1993). These are the values which are common to both
geometric generation of temple forms and its philosophical concept. It is significant that these
properties form the basis for the concepts of the temple structure and the geometry used, which
will form the discussion in the later part of the paper. The human being is said to contain within
itself, the entire cosmos – ‘Aham Bhramosmi’ philosophy (Trivedi, 1993), thus reinforcing the
idea of ‘part in whole’ and ‘whole in part’.
The cosmic order was the order found in the cosmos and simultaneously in the atom, and
therefore in the intermediate scales. To maintain harmony, all man-made objects and structures
were enjoined to be fashioned with the same measurements and principles with which the
cosmos is made, and so the underlying order and symmetries of the cosmos manifest themselves
in the designs and representations made by man (Trivedi, 1993). This is most relevant in the case
of Hindu temples, because of the obvious necessity to relate with the cosmic dynamism. The
notion of temple as a model of the cosmos has existed over 3000 years in texts and for more than
1000 years in actually realised monuments (Trivedi, 1993). Subhash Kak (2005) has explored the
connections that tie the details of the temple form and its iconography to fundamental Vedic
ideas related to transformation (Kak, Early Indian Architecture and Art , 2005).
If we trace the artistic forms of things, made by man, to their origin, we find a direct imitation of
nature (Lethaby, 1891, 2005 ). This does explain the common processes used for the creation of
art. It should be noted that sometimes the aesthetic appeal of fractal-like patterns is also
explained by the fact that the nervous system is governed by fractal-like processes (explained
later) (Joye, Architectural lessons from environmental psychlogy: the case of biophillic

54
architecture, 2007). There is enough evidence to prove that nature, cosmos, human body and
human mind all follow the same algorithm in geometrical progression.
Temple architecture – manifestation of the philosophy
“As the pigments are but the vehicle of painting, so is the building but the vehicle of architecture,
which is the thought behind form, embodied and realised for the purpose of its manifestation and
transmission. Architecture, then, interpenetrates building, not for satisfaction of the simple needs
of the body, but the complex ones of the intellect.” (Lethaby, 1891, 2005 )
How humans experience architecture, is an extensively talked about subject. The conclusions can
be drawn only after certain connect and relationship has been formed between the building and
the observer. This connection needs a basis or connecting thread to be formed. The scales at
which human beings can comfortably perceive things and interpret to understand, is limited. The
cosmic scale and the atomic scale – the two ends of scale – are unperceivable to the human
naked eye, and therefore contribute only conceptually to the ideas of homogeneity, isotropy, self
similarity etc. So, the eternal truth embedded within these concepts geometrically, needed to be
manifested into a scale which human eye can perceive and interpret in their own right, also being
an inherent part of their worldly experience (For example in Figure 1: Jagdambi Temple,
Khajuraho). Here, temple architecture comes to help.

Figure 1: Jagdambi Temple, Khajuraho

In the Hindu temple, the potentially divine becomes visibly manifest and therefore approachable
by man (Michell, 1977, 1988). Hindu art is dedicated to rendering the world of the gods visible;
its sacred images voice the messages of the gods (Michell, 1977, 1988). The role of the Hindu
artist is to give visible form to the values of his society, rather than to communicate a personal
interpretation of these values (Michell, 1977, 1988). These values may sometimes also be
referred to as ‘collective memory’, which is not individual understanding, or memory, but the
collective consciousness of the society. The form language is stored in collective memory and
recorded in physical materials, and is older than writing (Salingaros N. A., 2006, 2008). Each
traditional form language is distinct, yet possesses a comparably high degree of organised
complexity in terms of visual vocabulary and combinatoric possibilities (Salingaros N. A., 2006,

55
2008). This collective consciousness of the society carries memory in the form of concepts or
images and manifests itself by favouring the most stable and comforting ‘visual memes’ (self
sustaining conceptual entities that become fixed in human memory (Salingaros N. A., 2006,
2008)).
In order that certain theological ideas should be translated into art, particularly in the fashioning
of sacred images (Figure 2: Outer Fascade, Kandaria Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho), the priests
set out elaborate prescriptions which governed all the details (Michell, 1977,
1988). Brihatsamhita and Sthapatyaveda give the solution as the temple which should act as the
microcosm of the cosmos (Stierlin, 2002). These have been developed through the ages with
serious consideration to the aspects of human mental comfort and intrinsic affiliations, and the
ultimate truth to be conveyed to them. The temple has been the centre of the intellectual, social
and artistic life of the Hindu community, functioning not only as a place of worship, but also as a
nucleus around which all artistic and cultural activity is concentrated and flourishes. The
influence that this structure had on the society as a whole was immense; from suggesting worldly
behaviour and practices, to striving to achieve the ultimate goal of human life; magnifying its
responsibility of directing the individual’s gaze towards the ultimate goal.

Figure 2: Outer Fascade, Kandaria Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho

The most well known document which guides the construction of temples is the Vastushastras –
texts where instructions are in the nature of general programs from which different temple forms
may be generated. Ancient writings on Vastushastra are spread through a diverse body of texts
ranging from philosophical texts such as Upaishads, to technical manuals encoding artisanal
knowledge like the Brihat Samhita, Mansara, Mayamata and Vastusutra (Datta, 2010). Hindu
temple architecture is vast and requires an understanding of not only Hindu philosophy, but also
the nature of religious practices, rituals and temple worship in Hinduism (Trivedi, 1993). It

56
combines the subjects of philosophy, cosmology, psychology, mathematics, geometry and an in-
depth understanding of the social and cultural life of the people and the times, to be able to arrive
at a form which satisfies every individual’s intellect, imparting knowledge suitable to each.
Senses, feeling and embodiment interact with narrative in the quest for meaning. In order to
maintain such a holistic awareness, it requires a shift from an oscillating to a circular dialectic
that tracks the hermeneutic relations between the whole and its parts, and vice versa (Schorch,
2014). Architecture, described as thought behind form, is the most appropriate vehicle, for
carrying the messages addressed for human mind. This special relationship formed between the
structure and the human mind, substantiates the experience through symbolism. Therefore the
connecting basis may be developed through the use of symbolism, which touches the intellect in
more than one way.
Symbolic expression and perception
“The history of symbolism shows that everything can assume symbolic significance: natural
objects (like stones, plants, animals, men, mountains and valleys, sun and moon, wind, water,
and fire), or man-made things (like houses, boats, or cars), or even abstract forms (like numbers,
or the triangle, the square, and the circle). In fact, the whole cosmos is a potential symbol.” (Carl
Gustav Jung, Man and His Symbols, 1964)
A Hindu temple is a symbolic structure that represents certain fundamental concepts of Hindu
philosophy about the nature of cosmos, and the formal characteristics of the temple are the
outcome of this symbolic representation (Trivedi, 1993). The Rig Veda used a subtle system of
symbolism, so that in later Indian thought its meaning was always open to interpretation at
several levels (Michell, 1977, 1988). A universe is the result of time that follows the cosmic
order in which a fraction of moment is the microcosm of the biggest time unit (Md Rian, et al.,
2007). It is most important to understand that the temple form, from a point of view, identifies
itself with the form of the universe. This point, already been mentioned, will be elaborated as the
discussion proceeds. The symbolism of temple buildings sometimes seems to refer to the
structure of the world and sometimes to the religious relationship of men to the gods (Saussaye,
1891 ). This dual role is fulfilled by the intricately complex symbolism which are ‘open to
interpretation at several levels’, thus facilitating our understanding. Every religious expression
in art represents, therefore, an encounter between man and divine (Eliade, 1985).
The very dynamics of the cosmos are expressed in the tensions of the conflict between good and
evil rather than in an ultimate resolution which never takes place (Michell, 1977, 1988). This tug
of war between the good and the bad is mundane, superficial and yet desirable (Dutta, 2013).
They are part of us – our own creation – the product of our mind and body (Dutta, 2013). [Here],
the religious man is confronted with the sacred character of the cosmos; that is, he discovers that
the world has a sacred significance in its very structure (Eliade, 1985). Eliade says that sacred art
seeks to represent the invisible by means of the visible and through the mediation of artistic
expression the attributes of religious abstraction are revealed, so to speak, it is presented in
visible form. This intent is especially true [for Hinduism], where philosophical speculation has
evolved a systematic treatment of the nature and attributes of divinity. Her theory, that humans
are interested to depict and display their God’s ‘form’ as well as their ‘works’ is substantiated
through the fact that cosmos is considered to be their supreme creation, at the same time the God
Himself. To sum up, Hindu temple is therefore not only the abode of God but also the form of
God (Md Rian, 2007).

Geometry and its Application

57
In Hindu thought, number is considered an expression of the structure of the universe and a
means of effecting the interplay between the universe and man (Michell, 1977, 1988). When
numbers are given shape and form, geometry comes into play. To be able to impart the symbolic
meanings to the mind of the observer through the eyes and brain, there was a need to establish a
certain geometry which will attract the eyes and arouse the brain. To be able to convey these
meanings through form, a strong relationship had to be developed between form and meanings in
a decipherable language. This relationship that develops between forms and their meanings
within the Hindu temple is essential to its function as a link between the gods and man (Michell,
1977, 1988).
The basic plan form of any temple is built upon the Vastu Purush Mandala, which is a square,
representing the earth. It also symbolises order, the completeness of endless life and the
perfectness of life and death (Michell, 1977, 1988). In the foundation of any Hindu temple,
cosmos is embodied by laying down the diagram of Vastu Purush Mandala on a selected ground.
This divine diagram reflects the image of cosmos through its fractal qualities (Md Rian I, et. al.,
2007). The Mandala can be considered an ideogram, while the temple is the material
manifestation of the concepts it embodies (Trivedi, 1993).

Square and Circle Superimposed; Symbolising the earth and the cyclical time
The square symbolises order, unequivocal form, the celestial sphere and the absolute. The circle
on the other hand represents movement, and therefore time. The square and circle, by their very
nature, are constant, but the rectangle is not. The square, with its potential to include competing
elements, when enclosing a circle represents the dimensions of both space and time. As the
cosmos is represented by the circle symbolically, the process of making an architectural model of
the cosmos involves the representation of a circle in a square grid in two-dimensional
construction and of an ellipsoid (the cosmic egg) in a cubical grid in three-dimensional
construction. A process of descritization of all curved forms is necessitated by this need to
represent them in a square grid, which results in the typical jaggedness of the temple plan
(Trivedi, 1993). The transformation of circle to square and square to circle is not one which can
be explained through Eucledian geometry. It needs an intricate understanding of the nature and
geometry of natural forms. The process by which natural elements gain their unique form can be
applied to the temple structures to find the underlying theme. The application of this algorithm to
the temple construction gives it the remarkable appearance.
The superimposition of the square and the circle is significant considering their individual
symbolic meanings (Figure 3: Square and Circle Superimposed; Symbolising the earth and the
cyclical time). Both of these when put together acquire the properties of order and movement.
58
Also, this superimposition depicts the celestial sphere and the Absolute, with respect to time;
where eternal time is also the smallest moment. This proves the involvement of circle with
square, with respect to the temple concept and philosophy. The most impressive aspect of the
temple representation is that it occurs both at the level of the part as well as the whole in a
recursive fashion mirroring the Vedic idea of the microcosm symbolising the macrocosm at
various levels of expression (Kak, Space and Cosmology in the Hindu Temple , 2002 )
Nevertheless, this form of geometry, i.e. Eucledian Geometry, does not suffice to generate the
process of development of the structure of the temple. It does not help to describe the form of the
Hindu Temple and its embodied depictions of dynamics, movement, tension, order and harmony.
Fractal geometry, though, has been found to be able to explain most of the forms and patterns in
a temple complex.
Fractal Geometry – Application and Importance
“… the dynamic formal structure of Indian temples shows irresistible analogies with certain
metaphysical ideas recurrent in Indian thought: of the manifestation in transient, finite
multiplicity of a timeless, limitless, undifferentiated yet all pervading unity; of the identity of this
oceanic infinitude with the all-containing infinitesimal point; of finite things as fleeting
transmutations of the infinite momentarily differentiated, then sinking back into unity, in
unending cycles of growth and decay.” (Hardy, 2007)
The existence of the phenomenon of self similarity in the natural world has been observed and
known since antiquity, but its mathematical understanding and the process of arriving at it began
with Mandelbrot’s work in 1977, even though the credit should be shared by various
mathematicians and philosophers for their contributions during the twentieth century which
made this possible. The fractal dimension is a statistical quantity that gives an indication of how
completely a fractal appears to fill space, as one zooms down to finer scales (Xiaoshu Lu, 2012).
Fractal analysis is being increasingly used for analysis in various fields including medicine,
psychology, urban form and architecture. These developments include refinement in the software
usage for computing fractal dimension, which is a measure of the roughness and degree of
details. This, when applied to the field of temple architecture enhances understanding of the
structure geometrically. In particular, Anderson and Mandell (1996) argue that human evolution
in a fractal world has required “the incorporation of fractal structures as well as fractal processes,
and these in turn would be integrated into sensory systems, recognition, memory, and adaptive
behaviours” (Joye, Architectural lessons from environmental psychlogy: the case of biophillic
architecture, 2007).

Figure 4: Sun Temple, Modhera; Fractal development of form is profound

The role of fractal geometry in the construction and physical manifestation of the Hindu temple
has not been fully understood until recent developments in the field of fractal software helped in
the partial understanding of the deep relationship between them. The fractal characteristic of an
59
architectural composition presents itself in this progression of interesting detail as one
approaches, enters and thus uses a building (Bovill, 1996). This represents a progression of
observation from across the street to inside a room. The idea that temple architecture has a
progression of detail from a large to small scale is accepted. But, fractal analysis provides a
quantifiable measure of the progression of detail, also quantifying the mixture of order and
surprise in a rhythmic composition (Bovill, 1996).
In many practical applications, temporal and spatial analysis is needed to characterise and
quantify the hidden order in complex patterns; fractal geometry is an appropriate tool for
investigating such complexity over many scales for natural phenomena (Xiaoshu Lu, 2012).
Although employed in various fields in different roles, fractal geometry has been applied
particularly in architecture as a language which translates the beauty of complexity as well as the
ideas of architects (Thomas, 2002) into visible dynamics (Figure 4: Sun Temple, Modhera;
Fractal development of form is profound). It also reflects the process of universe and its energy
through the buildings (Jencks, 1995 ). Hindu temple is one of the best examples of those fractal
buildings which were constructed in the past, long before the birth of fractal theory and
manifested the religious cosmic visions (Jackson, 2004 ). In his paper, Md Rian, et. al., evidence
the deep relationship between fractal geometry and the deepest truth in Hindu temples. Trivedi
pointed out that there exists a striking resemblance of temple forms to images based on fractal
geometry. Countless temples exist all over India… which could be viewed as three dimensional
structures based on fractal geometry (Trivedi, 1993). There are various methods to evaluate the
fractal dimension, among which the box counting method is suitable for measuring the fractal
dimension of the elevation of buildings, mountains, trees or any objects which are not true
fractals (Md Rian I, et. al., 2007). This measurement of the fractal dimension helps in
quantifying the beautiful mix of order and surprise in a structure. This contributes in forming the
appropriate heuristics in the human minds, and therefore setting the stage for higher and clearer
understanding.
Discussion – Integration of above mentioned ideas

Figure 5: Sky-Soaring Shikhara, Khajuraho

60
The most remarkable aspect of the relationship of fractal geometry and Hindu temple
architecture is that, not only does the physical manifestation of a Hindu temple confirm to the
geometry of fractals, but also the theory behind fractal geometry, i.e., the fractal concept is
parallel to the concept and idea of temple and its philosophy. The parameters of replication in
multiple iterations, self similarity, dynamics and complexity at varying scales are the ones that
render Hindu temples fractal-friendly, therefore, forming the base for fractal analysis in the
Hindu temple. The literature in this regard, addresses how fractal geometry can be applied to the
underlying concept and the physical manifestation of a Hindu temple to arrive at the final form.
These studies ignore the aspect of ‘symbolism’ which is evident in a temple complex. It holds a
very important position in the overall concept as well as the symbolic representation of the
‘ultimate truth’. The Vastu Purush Mandala, geometrical basis of the Hindu Temple plan, is the
result of fractal iterations. Arnheim, in his book, ‘Art and Visual Perception’, describes
intricately the hidden fields of forces within the square where each side of the square applies
force towards the centre. Thus increasing the number of squares in a Mandala helps the diagram
to contain the (cosmic) energies more concretely where the field of forces is increased in a fractal
manner. These restored energies in the Mandala radiate outwards to the physical world eternally
from the centre. With time, the final shape of Mandala turns into a complex matrix through
various transitional stages. In these stages, plans of some earlier temples evidence that the fact of
radiating cosmic energy took the main role for amending the basic shape of Mandala.
Interestingly, it turns out in some cases that the process of amendment is nothing but the fractal
iteration of Mandala (Md Rian I, et. al., 2007). The well-controlled zigzag plan of the temple
creates the vertical visual rhythm, accentuated in the elevation through its sharp recessions and
projections, whereas the horizontal friezes on the elevation create the horizontal rhythmic growth
upward (Md Rian I, et. al., 2007). In the shikhara, the amalgamation of the form of lotus
blossom and that of mountain has been frozen into the form of multiple recursive archetypes (Md
Rian I, et. al., 2007). As discussed earlier, the circle depicts the endless cycles of time, the
wholeness and the consciousness due to its never-ending shape. Each iteration starts from the
intersection between a side of the diagonal square and the last iterated line, and stops at the
intersection between grid line and the circle. This iteration stops at the corners of the square.
Hindu cosmology, manifested in the plan of Hindu temple two dimensionally, was also
manifested in its elevation but three dimensionally and more symbolically (Md Rian I, et. al.,
2007). Looking at a well known and well researched Shiva temple of India, the Kandaria
Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho, in the light of the previous discussion, it is brought about
superficially, that these Hindu temples confirm to the idea which is a beautiful combination of
the religious faith, geometrical achievements, understanding of human comfort and aesthetics,
how human beings perceive (psychology), fractal geometry and its concept, knowledge of
cosmology and its philosophy, and most importantly, symbolism.

61
Figure 6: Laxman Temple, Khajuraho, Symbolically- Emanating Universe

In the case of Kandariya Mahadev temple, the main tower above the sanctuary is repeated at its
four sides and the same process of repetition is continued in each newly born smaller tower, and
again this process repeated in the last newly born smaller tower. At the same time smaller towers
are repeated on the body of main tower in which the whole tower attains such an arrangement
where one can easily feel the whole in a part within another part (Md Rian I, et. al., 2007). In
the Nagara shikhara, the application of a recursive procedure, applied in three dimension, makes
the high tower of the shikhara throw forth diminutive multiples of its own shape in high relief,
each one and all of them subordinated to the bulk of the total shikhara (Trivedi, 1993). Placing
of the smaller towers on the elevation is such that the peaks of each smaller tower pointing
towards the summit of main central tower, makes the impression of unity in infinity towards
cosmic axis. Another significance of such arrangement of smaller towers on the shikhara of
Kandariya Mahadev temple is the man’s perception for seeing the whole body of shikhara in its
self-similar parts from any location of view (Md Rian I, et. al., 2007).
Even the smallest details of the temple carry the concept of creation. Naked eyes go to the tiniest
details up to some level, but the story or the images of the gods; where mythology plays an
important part; makes a passage of spiritual journey for the ‘third eye’ -power of imagination- to
perceive what is further towards infinity.
In a footnote [Summerson] cites James Fergusson’s observation, in his pioneering work of 1876,
that ‘everywhere … in India, architectural decoration is made up of small models of large
buildings’ (Hardy, 2007). Hardy reinforces the idea of self similarity and depiction of the same
attribute across different scales, by mentioning that aedicules are not just ornaments, but the
basic unit from which most Indian temple architecture is composed (Hardy, 2007). A temple
design is conceived as containing numerous smaller temples or shrines, arranged hierarchically
at various scales, embedded within the whole or within one another (Hardy, 2007). As
Summerson puts it; ‘The aedicule unlocks door after door’. These examples put some light on
the implementation and manifestation of the concepts and ideals emphasized by Hindu
philosophy for the construction of the temples, so that correct impact is made on the human
mind.

62
Figure 7: Ceiling of Temple, Khajuraho, Symbolically- Emanating Universe
Scholarship has associated several meanings with Hindu temples: house of God, heavenly palace
or city of God, mountain, cosmos (Hardy, 2007). This is significant because if these connections
are lost, then the final imagery for interpretation is not formed, hence deceiving the idea of
construction. This is where fractal geometry comes in to help understand, decipher and interpret
the temple in its magnificence. Some authors hypothesize that the proposed fractal nature of the
human mind and brain can illuminate the creation of fractal artwork. Essentially, such art should
be understood as an exteriorisation of the fractal aspects of brain functioning (Goldberger, 1996
). As he puts it, “The art work externalises the maps and the internal brain-work… Conversely,
the interaction of the viewer with the art form may be taken as an act of self-recognition”. Nikos
Salingaros mentions in his paper (1998), that buildings satisfying certain rules are sub-
consciously perceived as sharing essential qualities with natural and biological forms , and as a
consequence, they appear more comfortable psychologically (Salingaros N. , 1998). From a
study of natural entities Salingaros concludes that the scaling relationship between these
elements should obey the ration of 2.7, to be aesthetically pleasing (Joye, Fractal Architecture
Could Be Good For You , 2007 ). Scaling coherence, which is the basis of fractal geometry, is a
major feature of Temple Architecture (Salingaros N. , 1998). The ratio of 2.7 walks along the
lines of fractal geometry and supports the argument. It becomes evident from the above
discussion that the various relationships established, through fractal geometry, are not manifested
with similar physical appearances, but similar aesthetic appeal. This is because the algorithm or
process used to develop the physical arrangement is similar.
Conclusion

63
The need to relate all these streams of thought and study is to be able to demonstrate that even
though the integrated whole doesn’t form a part of imparted knowledge of a person, the concept
and idea manifested, does impact the human mind in the way discussed above. This fact is due to
the philosophical connotations of the various strategies and tactics employed in its construction,
which meets not only the human eyes but the intellect, and touches it deeply.
This paper, therefore, attempts to provide a point of view for the reader and observer, by
integrating various streams of thought and presenting a new perspective. It is advocated that the
primitive, but beautifully complex, and satisfying form of these temples has been arrived at; not
through the use of complex computer algorithms, generative of structures; but by intuitive
processes, giving a fair idea of human intrinsic affiliations, satisfying intellectual needs. It is
estimated that, had fractal geometry not been used in the physical manifestation of the temple
philosophy, it would have been difficult to impart the knowledge intended by temple
construction. Every element in the temple structure, the prasada, the shikhara, the finial, the
sculpture on the exterior and interior walls, the jagged plan form and the appearance in totality,
take help of fractal geometry; within the perceivable scales; to promote their idea and concept.
The implementation of fractal geometry ensures that the underlying structure resemble the
structure found in nature and hence provides the temple with its aesthetic appeal. It has been
noticed that, not only does the physical manifestation follow the principles of fractal geometry,
but also the idea of construction, i.e., the concept of the temple and its philosophy, is akin to the
concept of fractal geometry and fractal progression. This, points towards the conception that
even though the formal theory of fractals had not been developed; like today; at the time of
temple construction, the concept existed in the minds of the priest and sthapaty. This concept is
in tune with the cosmological and philosophical theory attested by the temple structure. This
attempt has been directed, not so much, towards creation, or recreation, of a temple form, but
focus has been on the process for arriving at these forms. The use of fractal geometry in the
construction and design of temples is evident, but the question raised here is, ‘why?’. This can be
answered by analysing the cosmological and philosophical requirements the temple structure
aims to fulfil symbolically, alongside the theory of fractals. The author’s work here, centres on
the establishment of the mediatory role of fractal geometry and its theoretical application, in the
relationship of the philosophical concept and the physical manifestation of a Hindu temple. It
should be noted that this article has touched upon the concept theoretically, and suggests the
possibility of the existence of this relationship. This project can succeed with a trans-disciplinary
approach, where every subject is given importance and analysed through fractal lenses

Acknowledgements
The photographs and diagrams are courtesy the author.

64
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1.Hindu temples: Models of a fractal universe,Kirti Trivedi ,The Visual
Computer volume 5, pages243–258(1989)Cite this article
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Khajuraho,IasefMd RianJin-HoPark,HyungUk Ahn,DongkukChang-
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My BIBLIOGRAPHY & References of Kirti Trivedi’s article at F.N. 1

[1] Bovill, C. (1996). Fractal Geometry in Architecture and Design. New York: Springer
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temple superstructures. Nexus Network Journal (Special issue), 471-483.
[3] Devaney, R. L. (1995, April 2). The Sierpinski triangle. Retrieved July 17, 2014, from
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[4] Dutta, T. (2013, May). Iconography and t\Temple Architecture. (P. U. Gadkari, Ed.)
Architecture Time Space & People, 13(5), 32-39.
[5] Eliade, M. (1985). Symbolism, the Sacred, and the Arts. (D. Apostolos-Capadona, Ed.) New
York: The Continuum Publishing Company.
[6] Goldberger, A. L. (1996). Fractals and the birth of gothic: Reflections on the biologic basis of
creativity. Modular Psychiatry, 99-104.
[7] Hardy, A. (2007). The temple architecture of india . England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
[8] Jackson. (2004).
[9] Jencks, C. (1995). The Architecture of the Jumping Universe. London: Academy Editions.
[10] Joye, Y. (2007). Fractal Architecture Could Be Good For You. Nexus Network Journal 9,
311-320.
[11] Joye, Y. (2007). Architectural lessons from environmental psychlogy: the case of biophillic
architecture. Review of general psychology, 11, 305-328.
[12]Kak, S. (2002). Space and Cosmology in the Hindu Temple. Vaastu Kaushal: International
Symposium on Science and Technology in Ancient Indian Monuments, (pp. 1-17). New Delhi.
[13]Kak, S. (2005). Early Indian Architecture and Art . International Journal of Migration and
Diffusion, 6-27.
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Publications 1891, Cosimo, Inc. 2005.
[15]Md Rian, e. a. (2007). Fractal Geometry as the synthesis of Hindu Cosmology in Kandaria
Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho. Science Direct: Building and Environment, 1-15.
[16]Michell, G. (1977, 1988). The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to its Meaning and Forms.
Chicago, London: University of Chicago Press.
[17]Salingaros, N. (1998). A scientific basis for creating architectural forms. Journal of
Architectural and Planning Research, 283-292.
[18]Salingaros, N. A. (2006, 2008). A Theory of Architecture. UMBAU-VERLAG.
[19]Saussaye, D. l. (1891). Mannual of the Science of Religion.
[20]Schorch, P. (2014). Cultural feelings and the making of meaning. International journal of
Heritage studies, 20, 22-35.

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[21]Stierlin, H. (2002). Hindu India: From Khajuraho to the Temple city of Madurai. Koln:
TASCHEN.
[22]Thomas. (2002).
[23]Trivedi, K. (1993). Hindu Temple: Models of a Fractal Universe. International Seminar on
Mayonic Science and Technology, (pp. 243-258). Madras.
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[25]Xiaoshu Lu, D. C.-C. (2012). Fractal Geometry and Architecture Design: Case Study
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26. .Angkor Temple Guide. 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2010.

27. Meister, Michael (1983). "Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular
Temples". Artibus Asiae. 44 (4): 266–296.

28. George Michell (1988), The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms,
University of Chicago Press, Chapter 1 3.

29. The Hindu Temple, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, 4. 4. Adam HardyThe Temple Architecture
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Further Reading:
30. Stanley Tigerman & G. T. Crabtree – The Formal Generators of Structure
Breed – Driessens & Verstappen: Evolutional Diffusion Lattices
Yuri Avvakumov – Agitarch Structures: Reconfiguring Utopia

Fractal generation of central dome of a Hindu Temple

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 CHAPTER III
A Mathematics and Numerology in the Borobudur Temples

Mostly in Eastern religions, particularly in Indonesia the ancient Imperial cults of Borobudur
temple as Buddhism, ritually celebrate their beliefs as a congregation where prayer and religious
addresses are a communal activity. This culture is interesting to study whether building a place
of worship is built on the cultural elements or there is a correlation with formula or complicated
calculations about how the building is erected . The mathematical study for Borobudur’s
architectural design has once related to answer the question about the metric system used by
ancient Javanese to build such giant buildings with good measurement.

Borobudur was constructed during the eighth century as a guide to the Noble Path of the Buddha.
Born from silence and unfolding into the serenity of the other shore, it expresses the glory of
Indonesia's awareness and creativity, the smile of her plastic forms over the centuries as well as
her travels along the edge of thoughts that cross the endless corridors of memory. Though the
Western world rediscovered this magnificent structure almost 200 years ago, this sacred place
nonetheless remains seated in its enigmatic depth, engulfed in vaporous illusions, waiting for
someone to find the base simplicity of its Truth. This temple is a catalyst and invites adventurous
minds to find new directions by bringing into focus the vast universe of the Borobudur in order
to cultivate the way its designers found to weeding out error in its construction. The questions
posed or solutions offered herein are like water and waves: different yet identical in essence.
They stir discussion. One of the special contributions lies in its correlating the cyclical
movements of the Sun and Moon with the numerical symbolism. The magical effect of the Sun
suddenly appearing out of the volcano Merapi and empowering the Borobudur-mountain with its
radiant energy in poetic imagery is the vision of the creator of this edifice. This magic moment of
satori or enlightenment echoes the experiences of the unknown Shailendra monarch who had
commissioned the monument's construction and the inspiration that made the architect envision
this Buddhist wonder.1

As a a legacy from the greatness of the past, there have been still a lot of mysteries behind the
structures of Indonesian Borobudur Temple. Some of them are described eloquently . The
hypothetical propositions backed by science are still a few, especially when it is related to
mathematical one. Yet, Borobudur has been worldly recognized as one of biggest wonders in
human civilizations. The Borobudur was a built in the theological tradition from 760 to 825 AD
Mahayana Buddhist, located in Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia. Glance view of the
Borobudur brings us to see the complexity of architectural design implemented to the temple
with specific and unique appearance relative to other architectural and historical wonders, e.g.:
Egyptian and Mayan Pyramid, Cambodian Angkor Wat. The temple is built upon 123 x 123 m2
land and comprises 6 square platforms and 3 circular platforms on top with a dome as the highest
points. The decoration of the temple presents 2,672 detail relief panels narrating Buddhist
mythologies. There are 504 Buddha statues in Borobudur and various stupas, the Buddhism
related mound-like and bell-shaped structure. At the circular platform of the temple, there are 72
Buddha statues seated inside perforated stupa. A description related to history of reconstruction,
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site description, anthropological and archaeological perspective of the site are elaborated by
Soekmono (1976)2 as the temple is closely related to Indonesian social living, even at the modern
times (Vickers, 2005). It is also worth to note a good introduction the functional part of temples,
in general , in Indonesian culture as described in Soekmono (2005). The late traditional
kingdoms in Indonesian archipelago inherited various temples, and Borobudur is one of the
greatest.3

Space is a term used to describe dimensional aspects existing between other, significant
phenomena.The semiotics of space is a descriptive process enquiring into the
relevantsignificance of the relationships between objects and theirspatial contexts. Since
semioticsisthe disciplined study of the life of signs that ‘stand for or represent’ something, space
is generally overlooked as the background to other objects of attention.

Mathematical ideas have formed new semiotic spaces, where those without a mathematical
background can only "feel" the effects and many of their consequences in real life space. The
truth of a theorem, equations, and many mathematical relations are basically correct, depending
on what is meant by theorems, equations, and conceptual relations of mathematics
itself. Mathematics that we know today tells the long road of human thought from ancient simple
concepts and abstractions, which have relations and connectedness with each other with
concepts.
This then leads us to the intriguing question when looking at the splendor of the diverse
ethnographies in the cultural landscape of the archipelago. The splendor of Borobudur Temple
which is known as one of the largest and most complex Buddhist sites on our planet, has
extraordinary architecture, from its construction structure, to the ornamentation and decoration
carved there. And we are also increasingly intrigued, when we also understand that at the time of
the great temple was built, we do not use mathematical thinking as architects or civil engineers
today build a mega-structure similar to Borobudur.

4:6:9 Ratio: A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around
the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of the fractal
and self-similar geometry in Borobudur's design. This ratio is also found in the designs of Pawon
and Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples.There is an interesting geometric fact shown in
Borobudur, These are as related to the mythology, about the parts of the temple, including the
legs, body, and head of a human being representing the celestial body of the Buddha.. A
comparison is also found in an existing stupa, which is part of Borobudur, both large-sized
stupas (on the upper floor), and small stupas on the ground floor. Stupa size variations look
different, but it's really interesting to see that the ratio of the size of the foot: body: head remains
as obeyed in accordance with the large cross section of Borobudur.

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Figure 1. Cross-section of the Borobudur Temple: foot-body-head.

By making detailed measurements of all the stupas to the very small shapes that have a similarity
to the stupa which is an element of the temple, it is shown that as if the temple builder does not
care about the dimensions and scaling dimensions of the temple, but always "filling" the temple
building in 3 -dimensional in the form of stupas which between levels in the parts obey the ratio
...: 4: 6: 9: .... [14]. It is as if the change in size of the stages in a stupa if the geometric shape is
continued continuously from the size of the stupa that is built continues to infinity.
But the concept of "infinity" is certainly a mathematical concept that is difficult to find in
relation to everyday reality. "Unlimited" is a metaphor derived from various conceptual
structures that are interrelated in the mathematical treasures]. The concept of "infinity" is a
concept that is often found in geometry when we talk about aspects with extraordinary
symmetry, namely in geometric shapes with structures that have similarities in themselves. Wake
structure that has a dimension that is not an integer (1, 2, 3, ...) but fractions ( fraction ), which
wake geometric, known as the "fractal" ( fractal ).
The similarity test on yourself at Borobudur Temple was also carried out. Detailed measurements
ranging from large landscapes stupa temple to form the smallest performed, followed by
calculation of the counting-box ( Box- counting) to wake up with a 3-dimensional Minkowski
Dimension-Bouligand method. Borobudur was calculated to have a fractal dimension D ~ 2.3252

69
. As a geometric shape with dimensions 2 <D <3, Borobudur Temple is shown to have a 3-
dimensional "fragmented" shape. Borobudur Temple provides 2-dimensional "experience"
despite its 3-dimensional shape. Borobudur cannot be equated as a cone, even though it is a
cone. Borobudur is a giant stupa in which there are other stupas that compose it. Like batik art
crafts , similar patterns of self-fractal geometry were detected in the Borobudur Temple.
The order and patterns that emerge in the Borobudur Temple, however, are a mathematical
method. It's just that the method of mathematics is not as common as is known by modern
society. Borobudur was built by stacking one stone with another stone. The geometric method of
Borobudur Temple is different. It does not begin with standard geometrical patterns. It starts with
stupas of various sizes, and with certain rules, stones are stacked with certain "algorithms" so
that, as a whole, Borobudur itself has the form of a giant stupa . This same mathematical method
is also found in pigmentation patterns in animals, such as the shellfish shell pigmentation
pattern. Nature also seems to have geometry , and this similar pattern was also adapted by the
people with primitive geometry that built the Borobudur Temple. An geometric method that fills
emptiness with patterns and shapes that ultimately form patterns and shapes that are similar to
the patterns and shapes of the constituents themselves .No standard meter is used other than the
size ratio between one part and the other. Stacking stones with certain rules to create great works
such as Borobudur. A unique mathematical method, which even tempts physicist Stephen
Wolfram to call it a new "science" way: Stacking stones with certain rules to create great works
such as Borobudur. A unique mathematical method, which even tempts physicist Stephen
Wolfram to call it a new "science" way: Stacking stones with certain rules to create great works
such as Borobudur. A unique mathematical method, which even tempts physicist Stephen
Wolfram to call it a new "science" way:the new kind of science .

If these are the mathematical traces of the inhabitants of the archipelago in the past, we as a
generation that inherited the Borobudur Temple have a call to dig further. Explores metaphors
and how our conceptual relations abstraction of life in nature and socially. There is as much
collective intelligence as Borobudur is along the vast archipelago of our archipelago. Starting
from agricultural techniques such as subak in Bali, the procedure for the transformation of
natolu in the Batak tribe, state and bureaucratic patterns , to the creation of art crafts that can
inspire our modern civilization today and the future .

We live in an era filled with social and ecological crises. It is possible that further excavation of
traditional life management that has been proven to be able to maintain the harmony of life as
printed on the splendor of Borobudur Temple can be an inspirational footing .We also live in the
information age, where creativity plays a very important role in it. It could be that further
excavation of this unique way of crafting can inspire modern aesthetic works that can add value
to our modern civilization , now and in the future.

Fractal Geometry: term ‘Fractal’ actually comes from the Latin word ‘Fractus’ which means
‘broken’. Fractal means, the recursive geometrical forms, bearing self-similarity on different
scales. According to the Fractal foundation – “A fractal is a neverending pattern. Fractals are
infinitely complex patterns that are self-similar across different scales. They are created by
repeating a simple process repeatedly in an ongoing feedback loop. Driven by recursion, fractals
are images of dynamic systems – the pictures of Chaos. Geometrically, they exist in between our
familiar dimensions. Fractal patterns are extremely familiar, since nature is full of fractals. For

70
instance: trees, rivers, coastlines, mountains, clouds, seashells, hurricanes, etc. Abstract fractals –
such as the Mandelbrot Set – can be generated by a computer calculating a simple equation over
and over.”

The self-similar recursive geometry is known as Fractal. Hindu Philosophy describes the cosmos
as holonomic and self-similar in nature. In the connection of this context,fractal theory is being
followed in Indian Hindu Temple Architecture much before the discovery of Fractal Theory.
From the site plan level to the minute detailing level, the basic structure of Hindu temples with
supportive structures in Hindu temple architecture, geometry always plays a vital and enigmatic
role. The geometry of a plan started with a line,forming an angle, evolving a triangle, then a
square and distinctly a circle and so on, ultimately deriving complex forms. As per the previous
discussion, the occurrence of complexity, results into self-similarity and further it leads to the
occurrence of fractal geometry. Geometry is a disciplined field and the fractals follow it. Both of
them have definite paths of action.Ancient Indian mathematicians were very skilful in geometry.
They used the knowledge of geometry in other disciplines also. They derived many of the
comprehensive conclusions with the help of geometry. The Indian old scripts are the evidences
of those practices. The concept of progression can also be applied in the geometry. When this
progression held in a proper manner or following a rule, it becomes a process, which has several
names like iteration, repetition etc.

However, at the end of the process, the outcome turns into a beautiful illusion. The Indians
understood this beautiful illusion by practice. They were creative minds. They proved their
efficiency not only in applied science but also in arts and crafts. They worshipped the nature and
they were very eager to reveal the mystery of creation. Somehow they got the hints of creation;
the principles of self-similarity, iteration, repetition. They observed that, in the mountains, in the
trees, in ground covers, in water; everything follows those principles.

How to build using fractal Dimensions 4: There are no evidence that ancient Indonesian society
had a metric standard for the precisions and geometry on which they built the civilian
constructions. Yet, ruins of buildings and artifacts expressing complex mega-constructions are
there, spreading throughout the archipelago. Computationally elaborated study, we can see that
the Borobudur, the biggest Buddhist temple and heritage from ancient Indonesian civilization,
use some sort of ratio conjectured to be used by the architect of the temple in overcoming the
lacking standard of measurement. In the latter, the algorithmically built temple has fractal
geometry with dimension ± 2.3252. The self-similarity of the building is shown to be emerged
from the way of building stupa, Buddhist’s relic as the basic shape from which the Borobudur
was built. Apparently, the shape of the stupa, with the hypothesized ratio applied, is obvious in a
lot of sizes, from a small 3-dimensional ornaments to the shape of the temple itself. Fractal
dimension is calculated by using the cube counting method and found that the dimension is,
which is laid between the two-dimensional plane and three dimensional space. The applied
fractal geometry and self-similarity of the building is emerged as the building process implement
the metric rules, since there is no universal metric standard known in ancient traditional Javanese
culture thus the architecture is not based on final master plan. The hypothetical algorithmic
architecture might be applied computationally in order to see some experimental generations of
similar building. The paper ends with some conjectures for further challenge and insights related
to fractal geometry in Javanese traditional cultural heritages.5 Observing the complexity of

71
architectures from ancient social life, like temples, that are found a lot in Indonesian archipelago,
is often bringing question on how such simple civilization could erect them regarding to the
known technical simplicity they had. This question is sometimes followed by appearing
mysteries related to detail within them as our modern eyes scrutinize each of them. The simple
method emerging complex patterns as shown in cellular automata is hypothesized to be able
answering the question. The paper reports the utilization of three-dimensional forms emerged by
the two-dimensional totalistic cellular automata with some modifications related to the
delimitation of the growing sites horizontally.
The emerging 3-dimensional forms are compared with some ancient temples in Indonesia. The
more detailed observation of the emerged 3-dimensional shape gives more interesting result,
related to the ratio 4:6:9 discovered in multi-scaled measurements of Borobudur Temple
previously, which is emerged from more elementary and simple rules of particular cellular
automata. Furthermore, our discussions conclude some characteristics of the utilized cellular
automata used in the observation. This observation confirms the explanatory power of cellular
automata to ancient architectures. This is a supplementary to the widely recognized exploratory
power of cellular automata as inspiration to the modern and contemporary architectural designs.
REFERENCES
1.Borobudur, Mark Long (Author), Voute Caesar (Author), Fitra Jaya
Burnama (Photographer) DK Printworld, 2008
2.Chandi Borobudur: A monument of mankind,Soekmono, The Unesco Press (1976)
3. Ethnic vs Math: The Secret inside Borobudur Temple, Wanda Nugroho Yanuarto,
Indonesia,2017
Borobudur was Built Algorithmically Hokky Situngkir , Dept. Computational Sociology,
Bandung Fe Institute Center for Complexity, Surya University, Indonesia
https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1508/1508.03649.pdf
4. Some architectural design principles of temples in Java : a study through the buildings
projection on the reliefs of Borobudur Temple,Parmono Atmadi,Yogyakarta : Gadjah Mada
University Press, 1988.
5.Exploring Ancient Architectural Designs with Cellular Automata Hokky Situngkir
[hs@compsoc.bandungfe.net] Dept. Computational Sociology Bandung Fe Institute BFI
Working Paper Series WP-9-2015.See also Adapting cellular automata to support the
architectural design process, Christiane Herr, Automation in Construction, January 2007
6..Role of Fractal Geometry in Indian Hindu Temple Architecture, Dhrubajyoti Sardar, S. Y.
Kulkarni, International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT), 2015
7.Reading Borobudur, Presented at the Indonesian Mathematics Student Association
(IKAHIMATIKA) Association " Nothing without Math ," Jakarta, November 3, 2012.
https://qact.wordpress.com/2012/11/05/matematikaborobudur/

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\

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 CHAPTER IV
Tessellation Patterns - From Mathematics toart Geometry
and symmetry in Indian Architecture

This is a beautiful circular engraved brass container holding a mirror in the lid and an
exquisite, detailed painted miniature of Tirthankar Mahavir Swami Ji. Jain travellers used
to carry this with them to do prayers while travelling.

Architecture is the process and product of planning, designing and constructing buildings.
Though there is much be said for those breaking the rules, followers of deconstruction and
fluidity of lines (think Antoni Gaudi), there is an equally strong case for when it beautifully
marries together the concepts of symmetry and geometry. This is even more striking when the
building is creating by cutting rocks of a hill or as far back as the 8th or 9th centuries. Click on
for such breathtaking examples of IndianA masonry where the play of lines, math and even
cosmology have resulted in the creation of icons.

Prelude: The Jainas have been amongst the foremost in contributing to the field of art and
architecture since early days. The images of Tirthankara Risabhadeva and the figures of standing

74
or sealed nude Yogins found inscribed on some terracotta seats, relics of the prehistoric Indus
Valley Civilization, discovered at Mohenjodaro, as well as nude Harrappan red stone statue are
almost equally old. The latter is remarkably akin to the polished stone torso of a Jana image from
Lohanipur (Patna), which is ascribed to the Mauryan times (4th c. B.C.) King Kharavel of
Kalinga, as the Hathigumpha inscriptions speaks, reinstalled the Jain image which had been
taken away by Nanda to Magadha in (4th c. B.C.) During the Satavahana period (60 B.C. to 225
A.D.) Mathura and Saurastra were the main centers. The earliest Mathura sculpture represented
by Kankalitila where from Ayagaptta, Stupa, images, and other Jain cultural material are
recovered. Gandhara art and Mathura art belong to Kusana period (First B.C. to 2nd A.D.) in
which Jainism flourished to Mathura and the Ardhaphalaka sect, Yapaniya Sangha and Nagara
art came into existence.

Gupta period (4th to 7th C.A.D.) is said to be the golden period of ancient Indian Culture.
Harigupta, Siddhasena, Harisena, Ravikirti, Pujyapada, Patrakesari, Udyotanasuri and other
Jainacaryas have been in existence during the period. Karnataka, Mathura, Hastinapur, Saurastra,
Avanti, Ahicchatra, Bhinnamala, Kausambi, Devagumpha, Vidisa, Sravasti, Varanasi, Vaisali,
Pataliputra, Rajagraha, Campa etc. were the main Jain centers of art and architecture. After the
Gupta period, Kakkula, Vatsaraja, and Mahendrapala were the Jain kings in the Pratihara
dynasty. King Mona, Navasahasanka and Bhoja were followers of Jainism. Dhanapala,
Amitagati, Manikyanandi, Prabhacandra, Asadhara, Dhananjaya etc. had contributed to the
literary field during the same period. Chittod was the capital of Paramaras where Kalakacarya
and Haribhadra devoted their lives for he development of Jain art and architecture. During
Candela dynasty, Khajuraho, Devagadh, Mahoba, Madanapur, Canderi, Ahar, Papora, and
Gwaliar became famous for their Jain art. Some important inscriptions, Toranas, images and
other sculptural material are found in Tripuri.

As mentioned earlier, Bihar has been a prominent state since very early days with regard to Jain
culture. It is the Parinirvanabhumi of so many Tirthankaras and is enriched through Jain statues,
relics, sculpture etc. at Radiograph, Melinda, Parsvanatha hill, Simbhabhumi, Barabar hill, Patna,
Pavapuri etc. The earliest Jain images are recovered in Bengal from Surohar and Mandoil of
Mathura style. The images of Jain Tirthankaras found in Udisa at Udaigiri-Khandagiri, and some
other places such as Keonjhar, Mayurabhanja, Jaipur, Cuttack are very beautiful from artistic
point or view.

Gujarat and Rajasthan have been strongholds of Jainism since an early time. Satrunjaya,
Girinar, are Siddhaksetras of Jainism. Rastrakutas and Calukyas, Pratiharas, Paramaras, Cauhan
and other dynasties patronized Jainism and its art and architecture. Hemacandracarya was a court
poet of Jayasimha and Kumarapala. Vastupala and Tejapala who were ministers of Baghelas of
Solanki branch built a large number of Jain temples at Girinar, Abu, Satrunjaya, etc. They are
also found in large number at Ranakapur, Udaipur, Sirohi, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Jaipur, Alwar and
so many places. The existence of Jainism in Punjab and Sindh can traced out long before the
Christian era, from the sites of Mohanjodaro, Harappa, Taksasila, Simhapur, Sindhudesh, Lahore
etc.
The inscriptional history of Jainism in Maharashtra starts with the Parle inscription of first c.
A.D. that commences with “Namo Arihantanam”. Keljher, Pavanar, Nagpur, Bhandara, Remtek,
Akola, Karanja, Achalpur, Latur, Bhadravati etc. are main Jain ancient sites with archaeological

75
remains. Sirpur is famous for its artistic decoration. Malakhed was found inhabitant when
Padaliptacarya visited in about 1st c. A.D., Jain caves are found at Ellora, Nasik, Dharasiva,
(Osmanabad) etc. Pratishthanpur, Belgaon, Kolhapur, Ehol, Alaktakanagara, Kunthalgiri,
Ardhapur, Kandhar Karanataka (Karad), Mahimagiri, Vatapi, Meghuni etc. have been main
centers of Jainism where huge and magnificent Jain temples idols and inscriptions are found.
Mrgesavarvarman’s in inscription (450-478 A.D.) states that a huge donation was made to
Digambaras, Svetambaras, Kurcakas and Yapaniyas. Belagaon and Kolhapur were also ruled
over by Silaharas of Konkana who built their huge Jain temples like Adataraditya, Satyavakya,
Candraprabha, Ratta, etc. Vatapi, Ehol, Meguli were also Jain centers of this period when
Pulakesi First, Kirtivarman, and Ravikirti constructed Jain temples.

Andhra Pradesa has been a stronghold center of Jainism. Acarya Kundakunda (1st c. A.D.), the
spiritual leader of the time hails from Kondakunda situated on the boarder of Andhrapradesha.
King Vishnuvardhan of Calukyas, Akalavarsa, Amoghavarsa, and Krashnaraja of Rashtrakutas,
Bhima, Ganga Vijayaditya, Durgaraj etc. of Vengis, Tailapa, Vikramaditya of Badami Calukyas,
some kings of Velanatichoda period patronized Jainism by way of constructing temples, Vasadis
and Vidyapeethas. Some of them, afterwards, were occupied by Virasaivaitas and Lingayatas,
who have been great destructors of Jain monuments and the community as well. 176. Jainism in
Karnataka goes back at least to Bhadrabahu and Candragupta Maurya who migrated to South
India via Ujjain with twelve thousand disciples due to severe calamity and famine into he North.
Simhanandin, the Jainacarya, established Gangavadi dynasty. Jainism was its state religion for
about seven hundred years during which hundreds of Jain monuments were erected by the kings.
Pujyapada, Prabhacandra, Jinasena, Gunanandi, Patrakesari, Puspadanta, Vidyanada,
Anantavirya, Joindu etc. get the patronage of the dynasty. Of the kings the name of Racamalla
Satyavakya may be specially mentioned under whose reign Camundaraya, his great minister
erected the colossal statue of Gomatesvara Bahubali, the unparallel statue in the world. After
Rashtrakutas Jainism got set back. One Vasava murdered his master Vijjala, the Kalacuri Jain
king and perished Jainism and its adherents. He established an independent sect named
Lingayata and persecuted the Jainas. From Jain archaeological standpoint, the main sites are
Mangal, Nandidurga, panditarahalli, Candrasala vasadi, Aarapur, Arkettar, Sarangipattam,
Halebid, Kelasaur, Aihole, Marol, Honwad, Honnur, Kalholi, Mulguna, Lakkundi, Nagire,
Billigi are the main places where the Jain monuments are richly available.

Jainism entered in Tamilnadu most probably from Kalinga in about 4th c. B.C. Visakhacarya
proceeds to Cola and Pandya countries with the entire Munisangha. It can be supported by the
caverns containing beds carved out in the rock found in hills and mountains around the
Pudukottai, Madura and Tinnevelly and rock-cut sculptures and inscriptions in the hills of the
north Arcot district which indicate the existence of Jainism in Tamil Nadu in 3rd c. B.C. Kanci
was one of the important seat of learning in South India. It was the capital of Pallvas who were
mostly Jainas in early centuries. The inscriptions of Jinakanchi refers to some prominent
Jainacaryas of the city like Kundakunda, Samantabhadra, Jinacandra, Pujyapada, Akalanka,
Anantavirya, Bhavanand, mallisena etc. The North and South Arcot region is very rich from Jain
archaeological standpoint. Pancapandava, Trirumalai, Vallimalai, Vidal, Villipuram, Chinglaput
may be specially mentioned. Sittanavasal, Narttamalai, Tenimalai, Bommamalai, Malamala,
Samanar Kudagu, etc. have been the Jain centers since last two thousand years. Most of these
places have paintings, and sculptures of Sittanavasala tradition, which may be compared with

76
Ajanta and Sigirya. Some of the rock-cut temples like Samanar Kudagu have been converted into
Visnu temples.

Madura was the capital of Pandyas who took their favorable attitude towards Jainism. Its
neighboring hills Annaimalai, Nagamalai, Alagarmalai, Muttupatti, Eruvadi, etc. are very rich
from Jain sculptural and painting standpoint. It is a land of origin of Samgama literature.
Tirukurala, Tolkappiyam, Naladiyara, Cintamani, Silakppadikaram, Nilakesi, Manimekhalai,
Kurala etc. are the Jain epics of early period. Pujyapada, Vajranandi, Aryanandi, Patrakesari etc.
were the prominent Jainacaryas of the period. Afterwards Jainism was patronized by the
Kadamba kings. In Tinnevelly region the Kalugumallai, Tiruchcharanattumalai, Nagarajaswami
temple belonged to Jainas but they are under the control of Vedicas.
Thus the survey of Jainism in South India gives and apparent picture of its position that it was
there popular during the period of Tirthankara Mahavira or even earlier to him. The popularity
augmented gradually and Digambara sect became the prominent one. During about 11th c. A.D.,
Vaisnavism, Alawara and Lingayatas came into existence and stood against Jainism that caused a
serious blow to its propagation. The devotees of Sambandara, Tirunavukkarasata, Appara,
Mukkanti, Tirumalasai, Tirumangai Vira-Saivas committed heavy atrocities on Jain society,
temples, sculptures and Vasadis. Their massacres took place and the Jain centers were converted
into Saiva or Vaisnava temples. Some places like Pillaiyarapatti and Kunnakkundi, Arittayatti,
Nartamallai, and Kulugamalai, Tiruccirapalli, Virasikhamani, Kudumiyamalai, Dalavaura,
Siyamangalam and Mamamdura can be cited in this respect.

All this can be evaluated as follows.

Jain images, Ayagapttas, Stambhas, Toranas, Vedicas etc. were excavatd from Kankalitila in
Mathura belonging to Kusana period. The Stupa made of bricks is called Devanirmita Stupa. The
symbols are not traceable on these images, the Sarvatobhadra Pratimas. The names of Kaniska,
Ruviska and Vasudeva are inscribed on these images. The unique Jain image of Sarasvati may
also be mentioned in this context. The Chausa bronzes, in some Jain images in Lucknow and
Patana museums, the Jain remains at Vaibhara hill Rajagiri and the bronzes of the Akota hoard
are also belonging to this period. Some auspicious symbols like Phana, Srivats, a Purnaganata,
Svastika, Vardhmanaka, Matsya, Nandyavarta etc. are also inscribed on one of the Parsva
images. The image of Jivantasvami may also be referred to the period. Then the crystallized
forms of the iconography were transferred to rocks on hills like Vaibhara hill, Udaigiri hills in
Sanchi and Udaigiri, Kalagumalai in South. Afterwards, the iconography became fixed.
In other words it can be said that the Jain iconography was developed during the Gupta period
in 4th century A.D. Decoration on Padpitha, Dharmacakera, Paramesthis, Gandharva Yugala,
Navagrahs, Triratnas, Bhamandala, and Astapratiharys were included as the symbols of Jain
images. However, all the symbols could not be decided in the early Gupta period. The images of
the period can be viewed in Mathura museum, Vesanagar, Budhicanderi, Deogarha, Rajagiri,
Kumarahara, Vaisali and other places. Some more images of the Gupta period are found in
Udaigiri, Vesanagara, Nacana (Patana) etc. with somewhat more decorated forms. Some of the
bronzes of the Akota hoara, particularly the image of Jivantasvami in Kayotsarga pose bearing a
crown, Bhujabandha, Kundala, Kangana, and the image of Ambika decorated with ornaments
and Yaksa-Yaksis are the representative images of the period. Sasanadevatas, Drum-player, a
pair of elephants etc. were also included in the symbols.

77
In late Gupta period these symbols were more developed and in about 8th-9th c. A.D. all the
symbols, Yaksa-Yaksis, Sasnadevidevatas, were fixed. Afterwards, Ksetrapalas, Dikpalas,
Navgrahas, and Vidyadharas were also placed around the Jana images. Tantrism entered into
Jain iconography in about tenth century A.D. and as a result, the Yaksa-Yaksis etc. got their due
place on the pedestal or around the Jain images with more decorative sculptural surroundings.
Sandy stone is widely used in about twelfth century along with black and white marble. The
bronze images are also popularly available of the period. In the fourteenth century the
development of Jain iconography stagnated and the decline started. This can be understood
through perspective of iconographical peculiarities of Tirthankaras and their associates.
Temple art is of three types, Nagara, Vesara and Dravid. In Niagara style, the Garvagraha is
quadrangular and its summit (Sikhara) is circular with Kalasa. It is used in Punjab, Himalaya,
Rajasthan, Madhyapradesa, Udisa and Bengal. The Sikhara becomes flat in Vesar style, which is
found in Madhyabharat, and the temple gets the form of pillar in Dravidian style. The earliest
Jain temple is found at Lohanipur (Patna) of Maurya period. Then the temple art is available
from the seventh century onwards. Painting has also been one of the best methods for expressing
the ideas.

The definition of tessellation and what does it take to create one- When a geometric shape is
repeated over and over again, covering a plane of tiles without any gaps or overlaps, it results in
a tessellation - a mosaic pattern of a mesmerizing visual effect. Although it derives from a clear
set of rules based on mathematical shapes and calculations - a fact which might give out the
impression that there is no space for creativity - tessellations have been widely accepted in a
great number of cultures, and are employed in many spheres of life such as design and art.Also
known as tiling, the process of creating a tessellation can be based on a regular, semiregular
geometric or non-geometric shape or tile, which are then all lined up next to each other as basic
elements checkered to assemble larger complex construction. In fact, the very word
“tessellation” comes from Latin tessellātus, meaning “of small square stones” made of stone,
clay or glass, and from Greek τέσσερα - tessera, meaning “four”, both alluding to the fact that the
first tilings were made from square tiles, as the easiest shapes from which to create a pattern.

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

A Brief History of Tessellations and how Jain art is ignored

Because of their characteristics and decorative aesthetics, tessellations were used in art and
architecture alike, providing coverings for walls, pavements and ceilings of many facilities.
Origin of tessellation can be traced back to 4,000 years BC, when the Sumerians used clay tiles
to compose decoration features in their homes and temples. From there, tessellation found its
place in the art of many civilizations, from the Egyptians, Persians, Romans and Greeks to the
Byzantines, Arabs, the Japanese, Chinese and the Moors. Of course, the nature and design of
tiling varied, as they evolved and adapted to match each of these cultures and traditions. During
the Middle Ages through the 19th century, a group of intellectuals began observing tessellation
present in nature in order to explain its geometric structures, which resulted in numerous studies
based on mathematics. Today, we can talk about tessellation art of the great M.C. Escher and a
number of contemporary artists who are using the concepts of tiling to create artworks in a
variety of media.

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A type of wall decoration used in the Uruk (VI–IV) and Jemdet Nasr periods of southern
Mesopotamia// Example of Tawriq tessellation, a leaf-type pattern of Zillij, in Alhambra,
Spain/ An example of a semi regular tessellation

Nagpur Jain temple 2020 pics by authors

Tessellation In Jain Art and Architecture

Perhaps the most interesting examples of tessellation technique can be found in Jain art and
architecture, in particular to the niceties of decorations surrounding the doors, windows,
entrances and doors themselves as well as the grid surrounding them. Coming to the Jain temples
that are SHEESHMAHALS- KANCH KA MANDIRA or palaces of mirrors . One such Kanch
Ka Mandir (Hindi: क ाँ च मंदिर), literally Temple of Glass, is a famous Jain temple in Indore, built
by Sir Seth Hukumchand Jain. The construction began sometime around 1903.
There are other temples in India known as Kanch Ka Mandir. Most of them are Jain temples.
These include
 Kanch Ka Mandir at KanpurKanch Ka Mandir at Champanery

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 Kanch Ka Mandir at Mahaveerji
 Kanch Ka Mandir at Chamatkarji
 Kanch Ka Mandir at Shivpuri
 Kanch Ka Mandir at Vrindavan
Kanch ka Mandir: Sir Seth Seth Hukumchand Jain was a prominent trader and one of India's
industrial pioneer. He built a mansion at Itwaria Bazar called Shish Mahal and adjacent to it
the Kanch Ka Mandir, both elegantly built using a white stone. Externally, the temple is built as
a medieval mansion complete with a canopied balcony and a shikhara.
The interior of Kanch Ka Mandir is entirely covered by glass panels and mosaics; including the
floor, columns, walls and the ceilings. Seth Hukumchand hired craftsmen from Jaipur and some
even from Iran to work on the temple. The ornamentation follow the old and medieval Jain style,
with the major innovation being the use of multicolored glass and mirrors.
In the main Garbhagriha, the idols of the Tirthankaras are flanked by mirrors on both sides, thus
their images are seen infinite times.
 Stories from Jain tradition
 Jain concepts like ashta-karma, sapta-vyasan etc.
 Samosharan of Lord Jina and Nadishwar dvipa
 Depiction of major Jain tirthas
 Historic events - consecration of the temple with portraits of the family members of Seth
Hukumchand.

Jain Temple Katni, inspired by Kach Ka Mandir, Indore

Photography of the interior is generally prohibited.Temple serves as a central institution

for Indore Jains, some processions start or terminate at the Kach Ka Mandir
These designs are often called “zillij” traces of zillij tessellation art can still be found
in Morocco and Algeria, on the walls and floors of homes, mosques, public water fountains,
tombs etc.The Jain Mirrors are almost identical designwise though so far apart.

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The Mathematics of Tessellation
Tessellation patterns have been widely used in art and architecture since ancient times, but what
lies under it is mathematics. Tessellation theory is extensive and complex, but we will explain
some basics in order to bring you closer to what is behind these beautiful works of art. When it
comes to tessellation in mathematics, also known as tiling, it is necessary to explain several
technical terms that geometry operates with. A fundamental region is a shape that is repeated in
order to form a tessellation. It is also called the tile. An edge is an intersection between two
bordering tiles that is often a straight line. A vertex is the point of intersection of three or more
bordering tiles. A polygon is a plane figure with at least three straight sides and angles, and
typically five or more. With some of the basic terminology explained, let’s delve into the math
world of tessellations.

Lattice Hexagons, via improveyourmathfluency.com

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Koottamundu Glass Temple is another famous Jain temple in Kalpetta. The Glass Temple sits on
the hilly areas of Vellarimala. This Glass temple is built to honour the great Jain Saint,
Parshawanatha Swami. Koottamundu Glass Temple is embellished with thousands of glass
mirrors; hence, it is called a glass temple. The amazing tessellation is that the glass mirrors in
the temple are placed in such a way that they reflect the idols positioned on the main hall of the
temple. This place is an astounding example of workmanship and dexterity. The Kottamundu
Glass Temple is situated around 20 km away from the town
Read more at: https://www.nativeplanet.com/kalpetta/attractions/koottamundu-glass-
temple/#overview

Tessellation Patterns : The Basic Classification

An example of spiral monohedral tiling,

One shape of a tile in a tessellation is called a prototile. In terms of the number of prototiles used,
the tiling that has only one prototile is called monohedral tiling. This type of tiling is composed
of a single shape, meaning that all tiles used are congruent to one another. At first, you might
think that this type of tiling is simple and rather boring, but it is definitely not so. A particularly

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interesting type of monohedral tiling is the spiral monohedral tiling that was first discovered by
Heinz Voderberg in 1936. The tiling can also be dihedral. In this case, every tile is congruent to
one or the other of two distinct prototiles, meaning that the tiling is composed of two different
shapes. Similarly, there are trihedral, tetrahedral or n-hedral tilings that signify the involvement
of three, four or 'n' prototiles.
Based on the types of polygons, tessellations are classified as regular, semi-regular and non-
regular or irregular. A highly symmetric one, a regular tessellation is made up of regular
polygons that are all of the same shape and all meeting vertex to vertex. A regular polygon is one
where all the sides and angles are equivalent. There are only three regular tessellations and they
are made of a network of equilateral triangles, squares and hexagons. The sum of the angles of
polygons in a regular tessellation forms 360 degrees around each vortex. A semi-regular
tessellation is made of two or more types of regular polygons. These regular polygons are
arranged in a way that every vertex point is identical, meaning that each vertex is surrounded by
the same polygons arranged in the same cyclic order. There are eight semi-regular tessellations
which comprise different combinations of equilateral triangles, squares, hexagons, octagons and
dodecagons. Non-regular tessellation is the one in which there are no restrictions regarding the
shapes used or their arrangement around vertices. It is believed there is an infinite number of
irregular tessellations.

Left: An example of regular tessellation / Center: An example of semi-regular tessellation,

via donsteward.blogspot.com / Right: An example of irregular tessellation, via pix-hd.com

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Hukumchand Jain temple uilt in 1903, it has attracted visitors from all over the world who
marvel at the architectural genius of the establishment. The variety of glasses used are elaborate,
intricate and extravagant. They are coloured, providing a mosaic of sorts all across the walls, the
floors and the roofs. All of the glass and mirrors used here were imported from various countries
of the world, to emphasize the elaborate nature of the structure.

The Symmetry and Wallpaper Groups

When observing a completed tessellation, you could notice that the original tile, or a motif,
repeats in a pattern. One mathematical idea that can be emphasized through tessellations
is symmetry. Yet, a line symmetry that could be found when two halves of a certain figure are
congruent should not be confused with the type of symmetries that could be found in the plane of
a tessellation. In terms of an infinite plane, these symmetries are referred to as plane
symmetries or geometric transformations. There are three types of symmetry in a plane that

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move the pattern in a way that it still matches the original one exactly: the translational one, the
rotational one and a glide reflection. A translational symmetry is a result of moving a figure a
certain distance in a certain direction. These tessellation patterns could also be rotated around a
certain point with a certain angle of rotation and that is called a rotational symmetry. A glide
reflection involves the reflection of a pattern across a mirror line and its translation. It is the only
type that involves two steps. These three types of symmetry are called isometric, meaning that
tiles don't change size. But, there are also patterns consisted of tiles gradually getting smaller or
larger in an expanding circle. Many mathematicians wouldn't call these tessellations since the
tiles are not of the same size and could not entirely fill a plane in the centermost point.
Tessellations can be made with different combinations of transformations. There are actually 17
possible ways that a pattern can be used to tile a flat surface. These are called wallpaper
groups and it is a mathematical classification based on the symmetries in the two-dimensional
pattern. The proof about the number of possible tessellation patterns was first carried out by
Evgrad Federov in 1891 and it was derived independently by the mathematician George Pólya in
1924. Pólya’s paper inspired Escher who, even though not understanding the abstract concept of
the groups discussed, understood these 17 symmetry groups and later on produced 43 drawings
based on them. It is believed that the Alhambra palace in Granada contained examples of all 17
groups.

Glide reflection symmetry, via tessellations.org RIGHT Deco Glazed tile PARASWANATH Jain Temple

The Periodic and Aperiodic Tiling

Tessellations may be further classified according to how unit cells containing one or more tiles
are arranged. If the unit cells are arranged such that a regular repeating pattern is produced, the
tessellation is termed periodic. Periodic tessellations repeat the tile or a motif in two separate
directions forever and they form patterns with symmetry given by one of the seventeen wallpaper
groups. If the arrangement produces an irregular or random pattern, the tessellation is then
termed aperiodic. These tessellations have no translation symmetry and the pattern cannot be
repeated periodically only covering a portion of the plane. Some of the best-known examples of
aperiodic tessellation patterns are Penrose tilings that employ two different quadrilaterals
or Pinwheel tilings where tiles appear in infinitely many orientations. Even though aperiodic
tessellations look random, they do have rules that generate them such as the substitution rule or a
Fibonacci word. Another type of aperiodic tessellations are Wang tiles consisted of squares
coloured on each edge and placed in a way that abutting edges of adjacent tiles have the same
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colour. Sometimes called Wang dominoes, these tessellation patterns can tile a plane, but only
aperiodically.
When considering the use of colour in tessellation technique, it needs to be specified whether
colours are part of the tiling or just part of its illustration added randomly. This is important in
terms of understanding whether tiles of the same shape but different colours are considered
identical or not. This is an issue that consequently affects the symmetry of the tiling.

Left: Penrose Tiling, via theconversation.com / Right: Pinwheel Tiling,

via math.stackexchange.com BELOW Hand painted tiles in the Jain Temple, Bikaner, Rajasthan

Tessellations in Higher Dimensions?

We have so far covered tessellations on a two-dimensional plane, but can tessellation patterns
be three-dimensional? Certain polyhedra, or solids in three dimensions with flat polygonal faces,

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straight edges and sharp corners, can be piled in a regular crystal pattern to fill a three-
dimensional space. These more-dimensional tessellations are called honeycombs. There is a
significant potential to integrate periodic and aperiodic tessellation designs in architecture. With
the advancement of computer programming, it is possible to generate higher-dimensional
tessellations that could be useful in various architectural applications.
Tessellations In Non-Euclidean Geometries

So far, we have been considering only tessellations within the Euclidean geometry.
Euclidean space encompasses the two-dimensional Euclidean plane, the three-dimensional space
of Euclidean geometry and certain other spaces. These spaces are distinguished from two other
types of spaces that belong to non-Euclidean geometry - hyperbolic and spherical. The essential
difference between Euclidean geometry and these two other ones is the nature of parallel lines.
While in Euclidean geometry, given a point and a line, there is exactly one line through the point
that is in the same plane as the given line and never intersects it, in hyperbolic geometry there are
at least two distinct lines that pass through the point and are parallel to the given line and in
spherical geometry there are no such lines at all. So is it possible to tessellate in non-Euclidean
geometries? It is possible in the hyperbolic geometry. While in a Euclidean plane there are three
regular tessellations, the number of regular tessellations in a hyperbolical plane is infinite. When
it comes to semi-regular tessellations, there are also much more combinations that in Euclidean
plane. Tessellations are also possible in the three-dimensional hyperbolic space.
BELOW- Hyperbolic tessellation, via plus.google.com / Right: Hyperbolic tessellation, via
cgl.uwaterloo.ca

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Tessellation Patterns in Puzzles and Recreational Mathematics
Apart from the world of art and architecture, tessellation designs could be found in many types
of tiling puzzles, from traditional jigsaw puzzles and tangram to more modern puzzles based on
mathematics. Combining art and math, the majority of tessellation puzzles can be assembled in
several different ways, making them open-ended and encouraging creativity.
Tessellation in Art

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The connection between science, mathematics and art is an inevitable thing we need to mention
if we wish to comment about various examples of tessellations in art, crafts, and architecture.
Mathematicians, scientists, and artists govern their practices to help us better understand the
world around us and reflect upon questions that direct our existence. The division between the
intuition and hard, cold logic that most of us tend to think about if we think about art and science
is often blurred and many artists have focused their artistic production following certain
scientific and mathematical rules. The golden ratio in art is just one of various tools artists used
to produce images that reflect the mysteries of the natural world or to produce the most pleasing
image for the eye, and none of us can overlook the repetition, geometrical shapes, symmetry in
some of the most celebrated works of art history or contemporary pieces today.
The most renowned tessellation artist in history, presently still very much adored by
mathematicians and the rest, whose production focused on the questions concerning the nature
of visual perception, infinity, and patterns is M.C. Escher. His use of tessellations in art pieces,
the practice of using regular patterns that divide the plane, without his knowledge in mathematics
and its principles beyond secondary school, fascinates still today.

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Ceiling of Hindu Temple”Jagdish Temple “in Jaipur, Rajasthan India

M. C. Escher and Tessellation Art

The 20th-century artist Maurits Cornelis Escher created some of the most memorable woodcuts,
lithographs, mezzotints, and drawings inspired by the fictional investigation into the formal
possibilities of perspective and the tiling of a plane using one or more geometrical shapes. His
most famous quotes “ We adore chaos because we love to produce order “ and “ I believe that
producing pictures, as I do, is almost solely a question of wanting so very much to do it well ”
explain the passion he felt for balance, harmony, and perfection. His enormous production
received recognition almost immediately by scientists and mathematicians, and the global art
fame reached him when he was considered a pioneer of the psychedelic and trippy art of the
hippy counterculture of the 1960’s. Yet, Escher felt that his art belongs to no movement, not
even to Op Art or Illusion Art that almost all of us think about when we hear the artist’s name.
The defining moment that pushed the artist towards the creation of the art we most associate with
his name was his trip to Granada, Spain and his visit to the Alhambra Palace. There, M. C.
Escher carefully copied some of the geometrical tilings that covered the façade of the palace and
from that moment, his production became less observational and more formally inventive. The
exploration of patterns and the regular division of planes was the richest inspiration that the artist
ever faced.

His most celebrated pieces following the principles of tessellation explored the basic patterns,
but the artist elaborated further, distorting the shapes and rendered them into animals, birds, and
other figures. His elaborate interlocking designs relayed heavily on his love for the natural world
that helped him to construct hexagonal grids moving far beyond the human world and into more
of a phantasmagoric world of strange creatures that resemble lizards, insects, fish, and birds.
Arranging his shapes across a flat plane in such a way that the spaces between them make other
recognizable shapes is evident in most of Escher’s tessellations out of which the most notable
ones are black and white images. In many of these images, the distinction between foreground
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and background is obliterated and the viewer can choose to see one or other set of shapes as
foreground at will. The distortions which the artist produced obeyed the three, four, or six-fold
symmetry of the underlying pattern and the effects were both startling and beautiful and in
keeping with the tessellation rules.

Left: Koloman Moser - Pattern Design / Right: Koloman Moser - Butterfly Pattern. Images via
definepattern.tumblr.com

Tessellations In Nature, Artworks and Architecture

Although the exactly repeating tilings are more than convenient for art and design at large, they
are harder to find in nature. One of the most famous examples of tessellations sure is honeycomb
and its hexagonal wax cells, as well as a few species of flowers, such as Fritillary. In landscape, a
tessellated pavement can be found on the Tasman Peninsula of Tasmania, and it represents a rare
sedimentary rock formation where the rock has fractured into rectangular blocks. Apart from
these few well-known natural patterns, a much more frequent sight are the man-made structures
and also artworks, inspired by the simplicity in complexity of tessellations. Today, we can talk
about famous architectural landmarks that employ exquisite patterns; think the Pyramid of The
Louvre, London’s Swiss Re Building and the ceiling of the British Museum,
Melbourne’s Federation Square and the details on the façades of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul and
the Taj Mahal in Agra. But as we mentioned earlier, tessellations became a great source of
inspiration for the Islamic architecture of the Moors, and some of the most remarkable patterned
structures can still be visited across North Africa and beyond. When it comes to art, it all begins
with the intrinsic works of MC Escher and a number of other artists who have embraced the art
of tiling in order to deliver visually stunning pieces.

The Alhambra
Constructed by the Muslim Moors in the 14th century, the Alhambra stands tall as one of the
most glorious fortressed-turned-palaces carrying the tessellation patterns. Located on a hill close
to the Darra River in Granada, Spain, this “red” complex was originally designed as a military
base, which was then turned into the home of King Mohammed ibn Yusuf ben Nasr. Today, it is
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listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site and its colored tiles in symmetrical and even
geometrical patterns are still as mesmerizing as ever, as they are mixed with a rich arabesque
setting. Famously, the tessellations of Alhambra inspired the young MC Escher, who copied
these geometric patterns into his notebooks and later tweaked some of them into designs that
resembled animals or people.

The tessellations of The Patio de los Leones inside Alhambra-

The Moroccan Court at The Met

I olden days Kings and rich merchants invited an entire team of marvellous craftsmen, curators,
historians and designers from all over the country to build a structure that both recalls history
and evokes the future, thus oozing with tradition and modernity alike. In the manner of the
greatest masters of their craft, these man delicately created superb tessellations using a variety of
materials, and covered surfaces like the floor, the ceiling, the columns and the walls with
impressive precision.
To give an example from abroad -The Arab Hall at the Leighton House Museum
In 1877, Lord Leighton began the construction of the Arab Hall inside his Leighton House
Museum in London.

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The Arab Hall at the Leighton House Museum

Parashnath Jain Temple-The Temple of a Million Mirrors

The Temple of a Million Mirrors or the Kanchwala Jain Temple in Maniktalla area of Kolkata is
a must in the tourist route of the Calcutta City in West Bengal state of India.The temple is
exquisite.Beautiful.Everywhere there is beauty through mirrors and coloured mirrors.The Jains
worship the Teerthankaras-24 in all and some believe that there are 25.

It is a Jain temple built long back by Seth Budreedas.The Jains are belonging to different sects-
Digambar,Shwetambar,Terapanthi,Beespanthi,Shringari.The idols in Digambar Jain temples
have closed eyes and there are no offerings of flowers.The temples of Shwetambars/Shringaris
idols with open eyes and flowers are also offered.This temple has idols with open eyes and

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flowers are also offered by the Jain devotees.There is an Akhand Jyothi-the lamp burns have

continuously for ever.

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From Sitalnath Temple also in Kolkata

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 CHAPTERV
Fractals & Lotus-Design Elements of Borobodur

Deservedly so, when one visits Europe one can marvel at the building they built in the 1600s and
1700s. What impressive feats they accomplished. But then Borobudur was built in the 800s.Its
engineering-
its base is 123 m x 123 m. Its superstructure is 3 tiered with a head, body, feet ratio of 9,6,4.
Creating a level base that measures 123m x 123m to be very tough, I mean, the italians cannot
even create a level base for the Pisa tower .If you ask a civil engineer now how he/sahe is going
to create a level base that measures 123m x 123m, he will need a laser rangefinder, possibly one
that can adjust for the earth's curvature.

Based on inscriptions found on some of the stones of the monument, archaeologists agree that
construction of Borobudur was probably begun around 760 AD and completed by about 830, the
Golden Age of the Sailendra dynasty, under the reign of King Samaratunga. Sailendras dynasty
kings were of foreign origin, either from South India or from Indo-China, and ruled Sumatra and
Java from the 8th through the 13th centuries. Under their rule, the islands were major centers of
Buddhist scholarship. The Javanese had been carving stone statues and inscriptions since about
400 AD, but between 700 and 900 AD, many of the Island's greatest shrines were erected.

REASON BEHIND THE USE OF FRACTAL GEOMETRY IN HINDU & JAIN

TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE 4

The following are some probable reasons behind the use of Fractal Geometry in Hindu temple
architecture.

j) It can be argued that, practicing fractals is none other than the implication of the sense of
completeness since the concept of fractals is that of the part to whole and whole to part.

k) The fractal theory fully supports the Hindu philosophical concept of „one among all, all is
one‟. It brings the feeling of oneness (the concept of Atman).

l) It can bring a sense of strength, both structurally as well as visually.

m) Self-similar elements in the design, seek the attention of the visitors and pilgrims
repeatedly and gradually entice them to think about it and create a clear state of mind with
a holistic perception.

n) Self-similar repetition in structure generates an identity of elements as well as form.

o) Experimentation can also be a reason behind the evolution and realisation of fractal theory

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 in Hindu temple architecture through the ages.

p) The term, „Self-similar‟ brings a sense of modularity. Therefore, it generates the same
style of work using the same modules, which saves resources. Local materials,
workmanship and time offer ease of execution across huge structures, such as temples
within the same region.

q) Making of similar kind of elements repeatedly generates a habit and practice and practice
perfects the execution.

r) From an aesthetical viewpoint, a fractal geometry brings about „order in chaos‟ and
thereby a beauty in complexity‟.

Some fractal aspects of Hindu temple architecture are given above. Examining multiple
archetypes and geometry of recursion; this short paper can offer only a cursory suggestion of
the intricasies of the symbol system, the modes of measuring units and proportions, and the
reflection of the whole in some of the parts. In every element of these temples, there is a touch
of fractal.

Javanese society of that time must have been healthy and wealthy enough to support an
endeavor such as the building of Borobudur. It would have required plentiful manpower to haul
the stone – as much as 45,700 cubic yards taken from nearby streams and rivers, all fitted
perfectly together without mortar. Skilled craftsmen would have been needed to carve the
images, which were completed after the stones were in place, and abundant agricultural
resources to provide food.

By the middle of the 9th century, Borobudur was completed with a large monastery at the
southwest foot of the hill. "Today it takes a trained eye to see Borobudur from a distance," says
Asian art historian, Jan Fontein. "But we know that, in ancient times,this stone was covered with
a kind of white plaster – called "plaster as hard as diamond" or "vajalaypa" – which may have
been a base for colors and just as the pilgrim who went to Chartres saw the cathedral rise up
from miles away, so the pilgrim who came to Borobudur may have seen the monument in
ancient times, hours before he reached it."
Records from the 9th and 10th centuries show that Borobudur was a center of pilgrimage for
about 150 years during a short but intense period of Buddhism. Chinese coins and ceramics
found at Borobudur from the 11th to the 15th centuries suggest that pilgrims continued to visit
Borobudur during that time.1

Incredible Hindu temples were made with incredible thought about positioning, with size and
geometry taken into consideration. All optimised using numerics. Today it looks like we've lost a
chapter in human history as to how Vedic structures were created with such elegance. According
to ancient architectural tradition, Hindu temples are symbols of the model of the cosmos and
their form represents the cosmos symbolically. The human being is said to contain within itself,
the entire cosmos – ‘Aham Bhramosmi’ philosophy. The term comes from the
Sanskrit, aham, meaning “I” and brahma, meaning “divine,” or “sacred”. While Brahms is the
Hindu creator god, Asmi translates to “I am.” Aham Brahmasmi is a term that is used in Hindu

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and yoga philosophy to describe the unity of the Atman (individual self or soul) with Brahman
(the Absolute)., thus reinforcing the idea of ‘part in whole’ and ‘whole in part’. Aham
Brahmasmi is one of the main Mahavakyas- the short statements known as the "Great
Utterances" from the Upanishads.2

Traditionally, temples have been the most prominent religious institution in India and fractals
form an integral part of those temples. A single gaze at a temple and you will find fractal-like
spires (shikharas) or a tower surrounded by smaller towers, surrounded by still smaller towers,
and so on, for eight or more levels. Each part of the facade is designed to look like a miniature
reproduction of the whole

Vishnu temple in Varanasi. This single-pointed wholeness composed of many self-similar

peaks at various points in the structure displays a striking fractal quality

Since Hindu philosophy views the cosmos to be holonomic and self-similar in nature – each
fragment of the cosmos is believed to be whole in itself – temples are designed and constructed
as models of the cosmos.The architecture of the Hindu temple symbolically represents the quest
for moksha– ultimate spiritual liberation, the realization of oneness by setting out to dissolve the
boundaries between man and the divine. or this purpose certain notions are associated with the
very forms and materials of the building.
Paramount is the identification of the divinity with the fabric of the temple, or, from another
point of view, the identification of the form of the universe [for example the cosmic mountain]
with that of the temple.Such an identification is achieved through the form and meaning of those
architectural elements that are considered fundamental to the temple.

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Temples are of different sizes populated by sculptures and images of deities, animals, mythical
beings and varied symbols to create a distinctive visual and spiritual experience. Not all Hindu
temples are based on sacred geometry but many are.
The temple is a fractal part of the whole of Hinduism, and that the use of fractal geometry has a
special symbolic meaning in the forms of Hindu temples. Like the whole is reflected and
celebrated in each part!

It’s not just that these temples appear to be algorithmically generated, the ancient Vastu
Sustra texts provide procedural rules or recipes for their design, layout and build (including the
positions of ornaments). The texts transmit recursive programs, by verbal instruction, to masons
so that the Hindu Temple becomes a model of a fractal Universe. A model which represents
‘views of the cosmos to be holonomic and self-similar in nature’. The idea of fractal
cosmology is no stranger to western academia. In 1987 the Italian physicist Luciano Pietronero
argued, in his paper, that the Universe shows ‘a definite fractal aspect over a fairly wide range of
scale’ based on correlations of galaxies and clusters, their spatial distribution and average mass
density.

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Indian temples are like 3-dimensional structure based on fractal geometry

‘According to Hindu philosophy the cosmos can be visualised to be contained in a microscopic

capsule, with the help of the concept of subtle element called ‘tammatras’. The whole cosmic
principle replicates itself again and again in ever smaller scales’ – Kirti Trivedi.3

Symmetries of the cosmos manifest themselves in the designs and representations made by man.
This is most relevant in the case of Hindu temples, because of the obvious necessity to relate

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with the cosmic dynamism. The notion of temple as a model of the cosmos has existed over 3000
years in texts and for more than 1000 years in actually realised monuments has explored the
connections that tie the details of the temple form and its iconography to fundamental Vedic
ideas related to transformation.4
Kak
If we trace the artistic forms of things, made by man, to their origin, we find a direct imitation of
nature. This does explain the common processes used for the creation of art. It should be noted
that sometimes the aesthetic appeal of fractal-like patterns is also explained by the fact that the
nervous system is governed by fractal-like processes. There is enough evidence to prove that
nature, cosmos, human body and human mind all follow the same algorithm in geometrical
progression.

2. Temple architecture – manifestation of the philosophy

“As the pigments are but the vehicle of painting, so is the building but the vehicle of architecture,
which is the thought behind form, embodied and realised for the purpose of its manifestation and
transmission. Architecture, then, interpenetrates building, not for satisfaction of the simple needs
of the body, but the complex ones of the intellect.” (Lethaby, 1891, 2005 ) 4

How humans experience architecture, is an extensively talked about subject. The conclusions
can be drawn only after certain connect and relationship has been formed between the building
and the observer. This connection needs a basis or connecting thread to be formed. The scales at
which human beings can comfortably perceive things and interpret to understand, is limited. The
cosmic scale and the atomic scale – the two ends of scale – are unperceivable to the human
naked eye, and therefore contribute only conceptually to the ideas of homogeneity, isotropy, self
similarity etc. So, the eternal truth embedded within these concepts geometrically, needed to be
manifested into a scale which human eye can perceive and interpret in their own right, also being
an inherent part of their worldly experience.
Many scientists have found that fractal geometry is a powerful tool for uncovering secrets from a
wide variety of systems and solving important problems in applied science. The list of known
physical fractal systems is long and growing rapidly.

Fractals is a new branch of mathematics and art. Perhaps this is the reason why most people
recognize fractals only as pretty pictures useful as backgrounds on the computer screen or
original postcard patterns. But what are they really? Most physical systems of nature and many
human artifacts are not regular geometric shapes of the standard geometry derived from Euclid.
Fractal geometry offers almost unlimited waysof describing, measuring and predicting these
natural phenomena. But is it possible to define the whole world using mathematical equations?

The image of lotus flower is very important to Buddha. This flower symbolizes modesty,
simplicity, and compassion. The image of lotus flower on the Borobudur Temple can be captured
by using bird eye angle perspective, using aerial photography just like the forms made from
silhouette lines of the temple. Meanwhile the circle at Arupadhatu with its stupas symbolizes the
hump of lotus flower which is associated with encircled stupas on the Arupadhatu level. This
aerial photography show a simplified geometrical shape of the hump of lotus flowe. The imagery
of Borobudur Temple as a lotus flower with leaves, hump and veins of leaves remind the idea
that interprets Borobudur Temple and its landscape as a lotus flower on the pond. This image

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confirms the possibility of Borobudur Temple which was built in the middle of water
environment.5

Many people are fascinated by the beautiful images termed fractals. Extending beyond the
typical perception of mathematics as a body of complicated, boring formulas, fractal geometry
mixes art with mathematics to demonstrate that equations are more than just a collection of
numbers. What makes fractals even more interesting is that they are the best existing
mathematical descriptions
of many natural forms, such as coastlines, mountains or parts of living organisms. Although
fractal geometry is closely connected with computer techniques, some people had worked on
fractals long before the invention of computers. Those people were British cartographers, who
encountered the problem in measuring the length of Britain coast. The coastline measured on a
large scale map was approximately half the length of coastline measured on a detailed map. The
closer they looked, the more detailed and longer the coastline became. They did not realize that
they had discovered one of the main properties of fractals.

Fractals’ properties
Two of the most important properties of fractals are self-similarity and non-integer dimension.
What does self-similarity mean? If you look carefully at a fern leaf, you will notice that every
little leaf - part of the bigger one - has the same shape as the whole fern leaf. You can say that
the fern leaf is self-similar. The same is with fractals: you can magnify them many times and
after every step you will see the same shape, which is characteristic of that particular fractal.In
the Hindu temple, the potentially divine becomes visibly manifest and therefore approachable by
man. Temple construction manuals of the ancient world Brihatsamhita and Sthapatyaveda give
the solution as the temple which should act as the microcosm of the cosmos .

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Though Borobodur is no Hindu temple, the construction and technology is definitely inspired,to
say the least, by Hindu Temple Architecture. Even the artisans and the Architect may have been
brought from India to undertake this gigantic task. Hindu temple architecture is vast and requires
an understanding of not only Hindu philosophy, but also the nature of religious practices, rituals
and temple worship in Hinduism combining subjects of philosophy, cosmology, psychology,
mathematics, geometry and in-depth understanding of the social and cultural life of the people
and the times.
Architecture, described as thought behind form, is the most appropriate vehicle, for he messages
addressed for human mind. This special relationship formed between the structure and the human
mind, substantiates the experience through symbolism. Therefore the connecting basis may be
developed through the use of symbolism, which touches the intellect in more than one way.

Figure: Outer fractal Fascade, Kandaria Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho

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3. Symbolic expression and perception
“The history of symbolism shows that everything can assume symbolic significance: natural
objects (like stones, plants, animals, men, mountains and valleys, sun and moon, wind, water,
and fire), or man-made things (like houses, boats, or cars), or even abstract forms (like numbers,
or the triangle, the square, and the circle). In fact, the whole cosmos is a potential symbol.” (Carl
Gustav Jung, Man and His Symbols, 1964)
The Borobodur monument is a symbolic structure that represents certain fundamental concepts
of Buddhist philosophy about the nature of cosmos, The very dynamics of the cosmos are
expressed in the tensions of the conflict between good and evil rather than in an ultimate
resolution which never takes place
Geometry and its Application
In Hindu thought, number is considered an expression of the structure of the universe and a
means of effecting the interplay between the universe and man . When numbers are given shape
and form, geometry comes into play. The existence of the phenomenon of self similarity in the
natural world has been observed and known since antiquity, but its mathematical understanding
and the process of arriving at it began with Mandelbrot’s work in 19776
The geometrical basis of the Hindu Temple plan -Vastu Purush Mandala, is the result of fractal
iterations. The hidden fields of forces within the square where each side of the square applies
force towards the centre. Thus increasing the number of squares in a Mandala helps the diagram
to contain the (cosmic) energies more concretely where the field of forces is increased in a fractal
manner. These restored energies in the Mandala radiate outwards to the physical world eternally
from the centre. With time, the final shape of Mandala turns into a complex matrix through
various transitional stages.

The well-controlled zigzag plan of the temple creates the vertical visual rhythm, accentuated in
the elevation through its sharp recessions and projections, whereas the horizontal friezes on the
elevation create the horizontal rhythmic growth upward (Md Rian I, et. al., 2007). In
the shikhara, the amalgamation of the form of lotus the circle depicts the endless cycles, of time
the wholeness and the consciousness due to its never-ending shape. Each iteration starts from the
intersection between a side of the diagonal square and the last iterated line, and stops at the
intersection between grid line and the circle. This iteration stops at the corners of the square.
Hindu cosmology, manifested in the plan of Hindu temple two dimensionally, was also
manifested in its elevation but three dimensionally and more symbolically. Looking at a well
known and well researched Shiva temple of India, the Kandaria Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho, in
the light of the previous discussion, it is brought about superficially, that these Hindu temples
confirm to the idea which is a beautiful combination of the religious faith, geometrical
achievements, understanding of human comfort and aesthetics, how human beings perceive
(psychology), fractal geometry and its concept, knowledge of cosmology and its philosophy, and
most importantly, symbolism.

Fractal geometry comes in to help understand, decipher and interpret the temple in its
magnificence. Buildings satisfying certain rules are sub-consciously perceived as sharing
essential qualities with natural and biological forms , and as a consequence, they appear more
comfortable psychologically . From a study of natural entities Salingaros concludes that the
scaling relationship between these elements should obey the ration of 2.7, to be aesthetically
pleasing . Scaling coherence, which is the basis of fractal geometry, is a major feature of Temple

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Architecture . The ratio of 2.7 walks along the lines of fractal geometry and supports the
argument. It becomes evident that the various relationships established, through fractal
geometry, are not manifested with similar physical appearances, but similar aesthetic appeal.
This is because the algorithm or process used to develop the physical arrangement is similar.

The need to relate all these streams of thought and study is to be able to demonstrate that even
though the integrated whole doesn’t form a part of imparted knowledge of a person, the concept
and idea manifested, does impact the human mind in the way discussed above. This fact is due to
the philosophical connotations of the various strategies and tactics employed in its construction,
which meets not only the human eyes but the intellect, and touches it deeply.
Samit Datta advocated that the primitive, but beautifully complex, and satisfying form of these
temples has been arrived at; not through the use of complex computer algorithms, generative of
structures; but by intuitive processes, giving a fair idea of human intrinsic affiliations, satisfying
intellectual needs. It is estimated that, had fractal geometry not been used in the physical
manifestation of the temple philosophy, it would have been difficult to impart the knowledge
intended by temple construction.
Every element in the temple structure, the prasada, the shikhara, the finial, the sculpture on the
exterior and interior walls, the jagged plan form and the appearance in totality, take help of
fractal geometry; within the perceivable scales; to promote their idea and concept. The
implementation of fractal geometry ensures that the underlying structure resemble the structure
found in nature and hence provides the temple with its aesthetic appeal. It has been noticed that,
not only does the physical manifestation follow the principles of fractal geometry, but also the
idea of construction, i.e., the concept of the temple and its philosophy, is akin to the concept
ofractal geometry and fractal progression. This, points towards the conception that even though
the formal theory of fractals had not been developed; like today; at the time of temple
construction, the concept existed in the minds of the priest and sthapaty. This concept is in tune
with the cosmological and philosophical theory attested by the temple structure. This attempt has
been directed, not so much, towards creation, or recreation, of a temple form, but focus has been
on the process for arriving at these forms.

An analysis of the cosmological and philosophical requirements of the temple structure aims to
fulfil symbolically, alongside the theory of fractals. Fractals play a mediatory role in the
theoretical application, of the relationship of the philosophical concept and the physical
manifestation of a Hindu temple. 7
From its early origins to the tenth century, the Hindu temple embodied a progressive elaboration
of a simple formal schema based on a cuboidal sanctum and a solid form of distinctive curvature.
Pointed out Prof. S.Datta. The architectural form of the temple was the subject of wide
experimentation, based on canonical sacred texts, within the regional schools of temple building
in the Indian subcontinent. This paper investigates the practice of this knowledge in the
constructive geometry of temple superstructures, with attention focused on the canonical rules
for deriving the planar profile of a temple using a mandala (proportional grid) and the curvature
of the sikhara (superstructure) using a rekha sutra (curve measure).

Using a computational reconstruction he develops a mathematical formulation of the

superstructure form and a detailed three-dimensional reconstruction of a tenth-century
superstructure, Through these reconstructions, a more complete explanation is provided of the

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architectural thinking underlying superstructure form and temple ornamentation. This inquiry
raises a broader question that merits further exploration and dialogue. Considering the
philosophical and mathematical concepts revealed by this method of reconstruction, were ancient
Hindu temple builders grappling with a method for encoding a notion of infinity through their
use of geometric sequences? 8

In another paper the visual complexity in the temple forms of Pallava Architecture is mainly created byrepetition of
architectural elements in the Vimana-likeSala and Kuta in an orderly way in diminishingscale . In the south indian temple
architecture (Dravidian Style) the superstructure of the vimana or its several storeys are set with small temple shapes, Similar to
the originalshape. The smaller shapes are aligned in a definite pattern at each horizontal level, the repetition ofthese shapes at each
band forming a kind of garland at each level. The repetition of identical shapeseither in the vertical or in the horizontal or vertically
as well as horizontally, is another frequentlyused procedure to add visual complexity to the temple form. The
same pattern of design can be observed in the Borobodur edifice.9

Unlike other temples, built on a flat surface, Borobudur sits on a bedrock hill, 265 m (869 ft)
above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor of the dried-out paleolake. Lotus flowers appear
in almost every Buddhist work of art, often serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas.
The architecture of Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in
Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in many Mahayana Buddhism (a school of
Buddhism widely spread in southeast and east Asia regions) texts. Three circular platforms on
the top have been thought to represent a lotus leaf.[In every part of the world the landscape has
its own distinctive appearance, shaped both by the forces of nature and the design of mankind.
To the natural scene - mountains, hills, plains, barren deserts or lush forests - human beings
contribute architectural features of many kinds: mud huts, magnificent pyramids, soaring church
spires or the modern clusters of skyscrapers. Since its beginnings in India, Buddhism has spread
over an area extending from the deserts of Central Asia in the west to the islands of Japan in the
east, and from the icy regions of Tibet in the north to the sun-drenched tropical island of Sri
Lanka in the south. The natural features of all these regions are very different, and so are their
architectural features. But wherever you travel throughout this vast area, there is one type of
architectural monument which is everywhere; whether on bleak mountain tops, in pleasant
valleys, in the midst of vast plains, or even by the seashore. This ubiquitous Buddhist monument
is the stupa. There is an interesting legend behind the origin of the stupa.
The ancient text 'Maha-parinibbana Sutta' tells us that it was the Buddha himself who outlined
the basic design of the stupa. The story begins at Buddha's deathbed. When he realized that death
was imminent, Buddha gave instructions about the disposition of his body. He said that his body
should be cremated, and the relics divided up and enclosed in four different monuments. These
monuments were to be erected at the following places, marking important milestones in the
Buddha's spiritual journey: 1). Lumbini: The place of Buddha's birth. 2). Bodhgaya: Where the
Buddha attained enlightenment under the bodhi tree. 3). Sarnath: Where he gave his first
teaching. 4). Kushinagar: Place of Buddha's death (parinirvana) His intrigued disciples naturally
asked what form this monument should take. In reply the Buddha did not say anything, but gave
a practical demonstration. He took his outer yellow robe folded it in two and two until it formed
a rough cube. Then he took his begging-bowl, which of course was round, turned it upside down,
and put it on top of the robes. 'Make the stupa like this,' he said. Indeed till today, whatever its
geographical location, the basic form of the stupa retains this elemental character.

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Fundamentally, a stupa is essentially made up of the following five constituents: a). A square
base b). A hemispherical dome c). A conical spire d). A crescent moon e). A circular disc Each
of these components is rich in metaphoric content and is identified with one of the five cosmic
elements said to make up the entire manifested existence. These are earth, water, fire, air and
space. Square Base: This symbolizes the element earth. The phenomenal world spreads out in the
four directions and the square with its four sides is an appropriate metaphor for the same. These
four directions define the earth and bind it in order. Hence the square is the perfect symbol to
denote the terrestrial world. Often a stupa would have four gates, one for each direction, and
various deities protecting the specific directions would stand guard over them. The
Hemispherical Dome: The main mass of the classical form of the stupa consists of a solid,
hemispherical dome.
Early Buddhist texts refer to this as the garbha, meaning 'womb' or 'container.' With this
reference the stupa as a whole is called the 'dhatu-garbha.' Dhatu is Sanskrit for element. Herein
lies the derivation of the word 'dagoba,' which is the short form of dhatugarbha and which is the
most usual designation of the stupa in Sri Lanka. Thus this section of a stupa is an allusion to the
primordial, creative waters. Indeed in all the major cosmologies, life arose from the archetypal
waters, a female symbol of formless potentiality. The dome by virtue of representing the womb
from which issues all manifested existence signifies this creative matrix. In a beautiful ritual of
devotion, the hemisphere of the stupa is identified with the golden cosmic egg of Yogic thought
called 'Hiranyagarbha.' Hiranya is Sanskrit for golden and garbha, as mentioned above, means
womb. According to Vedic cosmology, this golden womb was the nucleus from which all
creation evolved. As a matter of fact it was often the practice to carve small recesses in the
curved wall of the stupa to hold rows of oil lamps, so that the whole mound may be illuminated
at night. The effect was to render the abstract concept of the golden womb or egg into a visible
reality. The dome is a symbol of both the womb and the tomb.
According to Buddhist thought, before we are invested with a material body our souls are free
and fully alive in the spiritual world. Our physical conception in the womb follows our death in
the spiritual realm. The womb is thus the symbol of the tomb. This is the metaphysical
counterpart of the historical view that the stupa evolved out of the ancient funerary mound. In
this context the stupa is often referred to as the 'chaitya,' a word which is derived from the
Sanskrit word for funeral pyre 'chita.' The Conical Spire: This signifies the element of fire. Fire,
of course, always rises upwards. When we kindle a fire it never burns downwards but always
goes straight up. So fire symbolizes energy ascending upwards. It represents wisdom which
burns away all ignorance. The Crescent Moon: This denotes the element of air. Air has the
capacity to expand. The female of the species shares this property with air. This is exemplified in
the expansion of a pregnant woman. Indeed the crescent moon is an ancient symbol denoting
femininity since the waxing and waning of the moon is said to mirror a woman's menstrual cycle.
The Circle: The perfect shape of the circle expresses wholeness and totality. It represents the
principle which has no end or beginning. It thus signifies the element of space. Finally crowning
the apex of the stupa is a jewel like shape. This surmounts all the five elements and hence
expresses a higher state of reality than that characterized by these elements. This protruding
jewel is found not only on top of stupas but also crowns the heads of Buddha-images of all
countries and all periods. This is the ushnisha which sometimes looks like a flame springing
from Buddha's head, and sometimes like a lotus bud growing there. This protuberance signifies
the Highest Reality, namely the Enlightenment of the Great Buddha himself. Hence in a sense,
the journey to the stupa's top is a process of spiritual ascension, where the jewel lying at the end

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of the quest is Nirvana itself. The identification of the highest point in the stupa with the highest
point in Buddha's image leads us to ponder as to whether a more deeper correspondence can be
established between the stupa and Buddha's physical body. According to Yogic thought, the five
elements are correlated with the five psychic centers within the human body. This correlation is
as follows:
1). The earth (prithvi) is the lowest psychic center. This is located between the feet and the
knees.
2). Water (apas) lies between the knees and the anus.
3). Fire (agni) lies between the anus and the heart.
4). Air (vayu) lies between the heart and the middle of the eyebrows.
5). Space (akasha) lies between the middle of the eyebrows to the top of the head.

Sahasrara chakra:Finally above the head is the final seat of enlightenment. This is identified
with the Sahasrara chakra, which is said to be the seat of pure consciousness or ultimate bliss.
This is the Buddha' s ushnisha. According to the principles of yoga, our composite selves are
made of two superimposing constituents. These are the physical self, known as the gross body,
and the other is the higher self, which is the microcosm of the universe, known as the subtle
body. The subtle and the gross bodies are both analogues of each other. We have seen above how
the subtle body is presented in the stupa. The Buddha's physical form too finds an echo in the
stupa. In such a visualization, the base is Buddha's legs, the dome is his torso, and to represent
the head a second cubical structure is added between the dome and the spire. This cube known as
the harmika is exactly at the place where Buddha's eyes should be. This can be seen in the typical
stupas of Nepal where, on each side of the harmika, a pair of eyes is painted. Conclusion There is
an amusing story told about an old man who had led a rather negative and unhelpful life, marked
by constant conflicts over petty matters. Nevertheless, he wanted to become a monk for good
luck. The head monks, however hard they tried, were having difficulty ordaining him, since
tradition decreed that a prospective candidate for priesthood need to have performed at least one
good deed. Mobilizing all their clairvoyant powers and searching even his former lives, they
could find no good deed. Not wanting to give up, the compassionate monks then took him to see
the Buddha himself. Now the Buddha's power of clairvoyance was far more powerful than even
the most saintliest of his followers. Looking back the man's many, many lifetimes the Buddha
finally said, 'Ah! It's all right, you can ordain him - I've found something good in his past.' 'What
is it?' they enquired. The Buddha replied, 'Long ago, he was reborn as an ant, and he came with
his clan to the great stupa of Bodhnath (Nepal), where some people had gathered to pay homage
to the monument. At the moment when the head of the family began his pious
circumambulations, our man here was crawling across his boot, trying to get more crumbs. He
was able to hang on to the boot while the pilgrim made it three times around the stupa! This was
a meritorious deed, good enough to gain a monkhood for him.' In the traditional view, a building
needs to satisfy both the physical and metaphysical needs of man. As an expression of artistic
intent, it will elaborate upon the manner in which phenomenal world relates to the spiritual one.
Architecture being by nature three-dimensional is eminently suitable to act as a metaphor, since
any construct is bound to be rooted in the phenomenal world, and then must begin the ascent to
the Higher levels. The stupa by virtue of being the monument of Buddha's choice is deemed
especially sacred as exemplified in the above story. The spiritual merit of this monument is
enhanced no less by it being a reflection of the Cosmic Man, visualized in the ideals of Yoga,
who resides in each of us.

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Early stupas
Before Buddhism, great teachers were buried in mounds. Some were cremated, but sometimes
they were buried in a seated, meditative position. The mound of earth covered them up. Thus, the
domed shape of the stupa came to represent a person seated in meditation much as the Buddha
was when he achieved Enlightenment and knowledge of the Four Noble Truths. The base of the
stupa represents his crossed legs as he sat in a meditative pose (called padmasana or the lotus
position). The middle portion is the Buddha’s body and the top of the mound, where a pole rises
from the apex surrounded by a small fence, represents his head. Before images of the human
Buddha were created, reliefs often depicted practitioners demonstrating devotion to a stupa.
The ashes of the Buddha were buried in stupas built at locations associated with important events
in the Buddha’s life including Lumbini (where he was born), Bodh Gaya (where he achieved
Enlightenment), Deer Park at Sarnath (where he preached his first sermon sharing the Four
Noble Truths (also called the dharma or the law), and Kushingara (where he died). The choice of
these sites and others were based on both real and legendary events.The stupa (“stupa” is
Sanskrit for heap) is an important form of Buddhist architecture, though it predates Buddhism. It
is generally considered to be a sepulchral monument—a place of burial or a receptacle for
religious objects. At its simplest, a stupa is a dirt burial mound faced with stone. In Buddhism,
the earliest stupas contained portions of the Buddha’s ashes, and as a result, the stupa began to be
associated with the body of the Buddha. Adding the Buddha’s ashes to the mound of dirt
activated it with the energy of the Buddha himself.
"Stupa of Heaped Lotuses" or "Birth of the Sugata Stupa"refers to the birth of Gautama
Buddha when it is said he took seven steps in each of the four directions" (East, South, West and
North). In each direction lotuses sprang, symbolizing the brahmavihāras: love, compassion, joy
and equanimity. The four steps of the basis of this stupa is circular, and it is decorated with lotus-
petal designs. Occasionally, seven heaped lotus steps are constructed. These refer to the seven
first steps of the Buddha.
This stupa is not just a souvenir for decoration. It has been also designed for ritual purpose: there
is empty space inside to be filled with mantras and other substances.
We tend to think of a mandala (मण्डल) as a graphic pattern, though the Sanskrit derivation of the
word is from the ‘cycles’ or ‘circles’ (ie ‘sections’ or ‘books’) of the Rig Veda. The Vedas were
hymns recited on ritual occasions. Mandala patterns were developed to symbolise the rituals and
the ideas underying the rituals. Buddhists took on the idea from Hindus and used mandala
patterns in the design of stupas (chortens), tankas and many other things. Used in this way, a
mandala symbolises the geography of the cosmos. Early mandala patterns had a lotus flower
with open petals and the Buddha at its centre. Circles and squares were added and a mandala
came to represent the four material elements of the universe (earth, water, fire, wind) with Mount
sumeru as the world axis. Energy moves in a cosmic dance from the centre to the periphery, and
then back to the centre, encompassing inanimate and living things.
Buddhist Chinese and Japanese gardens are also mandalas. The word ‘Pagoda’ derives from
‘stupa’ and these gardens symbolise the cosmos, with the temple as a house for a Buddha. In
later Chinese gardens temples evolved into garden pavilions for the delight of their owners.
Structure of Chorten
The shape of the Stupa represents Buddha with a crown who is seated in a posture of meditation
on a lion throne. The top of the spire, with the well-known ‘twin-symbol’ uniting the sun and
moon, is the crown, the square at the spire’s base is his head, the vase shape symbolizes his

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body, the steps (four) of the lower terrace are his legs while the square foundation base is his
throne.
Types of Chortens
In Tibetan Buddhism, there are eight different kinds of chortens, each signifying a major event in
the life of Buddha Shakyamuni.
1. Lotus Blossom Stupa
The Lotus Blossom Stupa, also known as Stupa of Heaped Lotuses, represents the birth of
Buddha. It is said that at the time of his birth, he took seven steps in all four directions signifying
love, joy, compassion, and equality. This chorten generally has four circular steps at the base and
is decorated with designs of lotus petals.
2. Enlightenment Stupa
Also termed as Stupa of the Conquest of Mara, this stupa signifies the time when Buddha under
the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya attained enlightenment. It is said that the demon Mara tried to tempt
and attack him, but Buddha come out the conqueror.
3. Stupa of Many Doors or Gates
Buddha then preached his teachings to his followers near Sarnath. The doors on this monument
signify the opening of the doors to Dharma and point to the teachings: Four Noble Truths, Noble
Eightfold Path, Twelve Links in the Chain of Dependent Origination, and Six Perfections.
4. Stupa Of Descent From The God Realm
When Bhudda’s mother was reincarnated in another realm, he went there to teach her Dharma.
This chorten consists of a ladder on each side and commemorates the return of Bhudda back to
earth.
5. Stupa of Great Miracles or Stupa of Conquest of the Tirthikas
When Buddha was 50 years old, he performed various miracles to prove his spirituality and even
overpowered several demons.
6. Stupa of Reconciliation
This octagonal chorten honours Buddha’s efforts in solving a conflict among his monastic
followers. It was built in the kingdom of Magadha where the conflict resolution took place.
7. Stupa of Complete Victory
This chorten has only three circular steps which are undecorated. It honors Buddha’s extension
of his life by three months when his followers pleaded him to stay.
8. Stupa of Nirvana
The Nirvana chorten represents Buddha’s death and him achieving a state of true peace. This
monument is undecorated and appears to be bell-shaped.
The ninth-century world-heritage Buddhist monument of Borobudur (Java, Indonesia) stands
above the floor of a dried-out palaeolake, but it remains uncertain as to whether it was ever
constructed on a lake shore. Here we reveal through new chronological and palaeoenvironmental
data on the extant sediment record of the area that Borobudur intentionally stood by an existing
lake. For the first time, evidence of this conjunction validates quite literally the debated
cosmological interpretation of the edifice as an aquatic lotus symbol upon which Buddha is
seated. The fluctuating life history of the lake spanned at least 20 000 years.

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Fractals in Indian Architecture
Indian and Southeast Asian temples and monuments exhibit a fractal structure: a tower surrounded by
smaller towers, surrounded by still smaller towers, and so on, for eight or more levels. Quoting William
Jackson,
"The ideal form gracefully artificed suggests the infinite rising levels of existence and
consciousness, expanding sizes rising toward transcendence above, and at the same time
housing the sacred deep within."
In these cases the proliferation of towers represents various aspects of the Hindu pantheon. Click on
each picture to enlarge in a new window.

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Jackson goes on to assert that the whole religious vision of Hinduism has a fractal character:

"This universe is like a ripe fruit appearing from the activity of the cit [consciousness].
There is a branch of a tree bearing innumerable such fruit. There is a tree having
thousands of such branches. There is a forest with thousands of such trees. There is a
mountainous territory having thousands of such forests. There is a territory containing
thousands of such territories. There is a solar system containing thousands of such
territories. There is a universe containing thousands of such solar systems. And there are
many such universes contained within what is like an atom within an atom. This is what
is known as cit or the subtle sun which illumines everything in the world. All the things
of the world take their rise in it. Amidst all this incessant activity, the cit is ever in
undisturbed repose."

So perhaps the fractal aspects of Hindu architecture reflects the fractal nature of Hindu
cosmology.

REFERENCE

1.Symbolism in Hindu Temple Architecture and Fractal Geometry – ‘Thought Behind Form’

113
Tanisha Dutta – PhD Research Scholar, Department of Architecture and Planning, Visvesvaraya
National Institute of Technology (VNIT), Nagpur, India
Vinayak S. Adane – Professor, Department of Architecture and Planning, Visvesvaraya National
Institute of Technology (VNIT), Nagpur, India
1. The Fractal Structure of Hindu Temples,byBhavika
https://fractalenlightenment.com/14556/fractals/the-fractal-structure-of-
hindu-temples
2. Aesthetics of Asian Art and Design,Kirti Trivedi, Bloomsbury Academic, 2018
3. Architecture, Mysticism and Myth,W. R. Lethaby,Cosimo, Inc., 2005

4. Cultural Messages of the Borobudur Temple’s Symbols Seen from Aerial Photography
Media, 2013, Ade Dani Setiawan ,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286166143_Cultural_Message
s_of_the_Borobudur_Temple's_Symbols_Seen_from_Aerial_Photography_Me
dia
5. Mandelbrot, B. B., Fractals: Form, Chance, and Dimension. San Francisco. W. H. Freeman
and Company. 1977.
6. Symbolism in Hindu Temple Architecture and Fractal Geometry - 'Thought Behind Form'
Tanisha Dutta1 , Vinayak S. Adane, International Journal of Science and Research
(IJSR)2012
7. Infinite Sequences in the Constructive Geometry Of Tenth-Century Hindu Temple
Superstructures, Sambit Datta School of Architecture and Building Deakin University 1,
Gheringhap Street Geelong VIC 3219 AUSTRALIA
8. T h e V i s u a l C o m p l e x i t y i n t h e T e m p l e f o r m s o f
P a l l a v a
A r c h i t e c t u r , Jaikumar Ranganathan Dr.G.SubbaiyanPh D Research Scholar
https://www.academia.edu/37140454/The_Visual_Complexity_in_the_Temple_forms_of_Pallava_Archi
tecture

9. Borobudur monument (Java, Indonesia) stood by a natural lake: chronostratigraphic

evidence and historical implications,H. Murwanto, Y. Gunnell, S. Suharsono,
2004 Researchgate, https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1191/0959683604hl721rr

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 CHAPTER VI
Archaeoastronomy and the temples

Archaeoastronomy (also spelled archeoastronomy) is the interdisciplinary[1] or

multidisciplinary study of how people in the past "have understood the phenomena in the sky,
how they used these phenomena and what role the sky played in their cultures".[3] Clive
Ruggles argues it is misleading to consider archaeoastronomy to be the study of
ancient astronomy, as modern astronomy is a scientific discipline, while archaeoastronomy
considers symbolically rich cultural interpretations of phenomena in the sky by other cultures. It
is often twinned with ethnoastronomy, the anthropological study of skywatching in

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contemporary societies. Archaeoastronomy is also closely associated with historical astronomy,
the use of historical records of heavenly events to answer astronomical problems and the history
of astronomy, which uses written records to evaluate past astronomical practice.

The sunset at the equinox seen from the prehistoric site of Pizzo Vento at Fondachelli Fantina, Sicily
Archaeoastronomy uses a variety of methods to uncover evidence of past practices including
archaeology, anthropology, astronomy, statistics and probability, and history. Because these
methods are diverse and use data from such different sources, integrating them into a coherent
argument has been a long-term difficulty for archaeoastronomers. Archaeoastronomy fills
complementary niches in landscape archaeology and cognitive archaeology. Material evidence
and its connection to the sky can reveal how a wider landscape can be integrated into beliefs
about the cycles of nature, such as Mayan astronomy and its relationship with
agriculture.[7] Other examples which have brought together ideas of cognition and landscape
include studies of the cosmic order embedded in the roads of settlements.
Archaeoastronomy can be applied to all cultures and all time periods. The meanings of the sky
vary from culture to culture; nevertheless there are scientific methods which can be applied
across cultures when examining ancient beliefs.[10] It is perhaps the need to balance the social
and scientific aspects of archaeoastronomy which led Clive Ruggles to describe it as "a field with
academic work of high quality at one end but uncontrolled speculation bordering on lunacy at the
other"
Location and design of the ancient temples of Bhubaneswar have been guided by
astronomical insight . Apart from temples , an inland river dock has been identified in
accordance with the location of distinct , bright stars & constellations . Individual monuments
have corresponding stars & as groups correspond with constellations both in shape & location .
Layout plan is radial and is traceable also as a giant star. The star-temple correlation is centered
around the star Betelgeuse and Parasurameswar temple . A nine pointed star is also traceable
with constellation Orion as the hub . Orion is reproduced on ground in its entirety . A polygonal
method , along with a mathematical route for dating of archaeology in light of Astronomy is
presented . ARCHAEOASTRONOMY AT BHUBANESWAR : A POLYGONAL & MATHAMATICAL
MODEL – Deepk Bhttacharya, TARAKA, 2006
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/216148243_ARCHAEOASTRONOMY _AT_BHUBANESW
AR_A_POLYGONAL_MATHAMATICAL_MODEL_--_TARAKA

Introduction: Borobudur was probably built between the 8th and 9th centuries, and after awhile
disappeared from the existence, deep beneath the layers of ash because of volcanic eruption and
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then abandoned by the people around a middle age. There is a study that suggests Borobudur was
abandoned following the fourteenth century decline of Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in Java.
The Borobudur should wait until the 19th centuries when Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, which
during that period of time appointed as the British ruler in Java, and on 1814 informed by the
native about an abandoned temple somewhere in the jungle, so for the first time, the world
acknowledge about its existence. And since that time, there were numerous restoration project to
preserve the Borobudur, up until this time.
Mysteries of the Temple Complex: There is still mystery surrounding the Borobudur, what is
the exact purpose of Borobudur? If that is for religious purpose, yes, it is, indeed. One theory is
the Borobudur is related to Buddhism cosmology, a Mandala, and the building represents the
“three worlds’ of Buddhism cosmology, started as the ‘world of desire’ (Kāmadhātu) on the base
level, then the ‘world of form’ (Rupadhatu), the the ‘world without form’ (Arupadhatu) on top.
But, is there something else?
As with other ancient civilizations, the forms often have metaphorical symbols, like the square
shape and all the attributes in the Rupadhatu, changed into the plain circular platforms in
Arupadhatu, speak about the phylosophycal of changing the world in Buddhism, as a pilgrim
journeys from below, through a system of stairways and corridors with about 1500s narrative
relief panels on the wall and the balustrades, finally reach the top level, in the world without, and
we found no figurative panels at all, instead we will find Stupas there. But, do the forms &
alignment of the Stupas tell something that related to the sky? That is the very question that we
want to answer from our expeditions.
Archaeoastronomy (also spelled archeoastronomy) is the interdisciplinary or
multidisciplinary study of how people in the past "have understood the phenomena in the sky,
how they used these phenomena and what role the sky played in their cultures". It considers
symbolically rich cultural interpretations of phenomena in the sky by other cultures. It is often
coupled with ethnoastronomy, the anthropological study of skywatching in contemporary
societies. Archaeoastronomy is also closely associated with historical astronomy, the use of
historical records of heavenly events to answer astronomical problems and the history of
astronomy, which uses written records to evaluate past astronomical practice.
Since the 19th century, numerous scholars have sought to use archaeoastronomical
calculations to demonstrate the antiquity of Ancient Indian Vedic culture, computing the dates of
astronomical observations ambiguously described in ancient poetry to as early as 4000 BC.
Archaeoastronomy is sometimes related to the fringe discipline of Archaeocryptography, when
its followers attempt to find underlying mathematical orders beneath the proportions, size, and
placement of archaeoastronomical sites such as Stonehenge and the Pyramid of Kukulcán at
Chichen Itza.
Archaeoastronomy uses a variety of methods to uncover evidence of past practices including
archaeology, anthropology, astronomy, statistics and probability, and history. Because these
methods are diverse and use data from such different sources, integrating them into a coherent
argument has been a long-term difficulty for archaeoastronomers. Archaeoastronomy fills
complementary niches in landscape archaeology and cognitive archaeology. Material evidence
and its connection to the sky can reveal how a wider landscape can be integrated into beliefs
about the cycles of nature, such as Mayan astronomy and its relationship with agriculture Other
examples which have brought together ideas of cognition and landscape include studies of the
cosmic order embedded in the roads of settlements. It can be applied to all cultures and all time

117
periods. The meanings of the sky vary from culture to culture; nevertheless there are scientific
methods which can be applied across cultures when examining ancient beliefs.
Alignments
A common source of data for archaeoastronomy is the study of alignments. This is based on the
assumption that the axis of alignment of an archaeological site is meaningfully oriented towards
an astronomical target. Brown archaeoastronomers may justify this assumption through reading
historical or ethnographic sources, while green archaeoastronomers tend to prove that alignments
are unlikely to be selected by chance, usually by demonstrating common patterns of alignment at
multiple sites.
An alignment is calculated by measuring the azimuth, the angle from north, of the structure and
the altitude of the horizon it faces. The azimuth is usually measured using a theodolite or
a compass. A compass is easier to use, though the deviation of the Earth's magnetic field from
true north, known as its magnetic declination must be taken into account. Compasses are also
unreliable in areas prone to magnetic interference, such as sites being supported by scaffolding.
Additionally a compass can only measure the azimuth to a precision of a half a degree.
A theodolite can be considerably more accurate if used correctly, but it is also considerably more
difficult to use correctly. There is no inherent way to align a theodolite with North and so the
scale has to be calibrated using astronomical observation, usually the position of the Sun.
Because the position of celestial bodies changes with the time of day due to the Earth's rotation,
the time of these calibration observations must be accurately known, or else there will be a
systematic error in the measurements. Horizon altitudes can be measured with a theodolite or
a clinometer.

Solar positioning
While the stars are fixed to their declinations the Sun is not. The rising point of the Sun varies
throughout the year. It swings between two limits marked by the solstices a bit like a pendulum,
slowing as it reaches the extremes, but passing rapidly through the midpoint. If an
archaeoastronomer can calculate from the azimuth and horizon height that a site was built to
view a declination of +23.5° then he or she need not wait until 21 June to confirm the site does
indeed face the summer solstice.
Central Java in particular it is well endowed with Hindu and Buddhist candi, and we can assume
that most (if not all) of these had astronomical associations. have already written about the
orientation of the eastern gateway at Borobudur

Temple alignments using Astronomy: The ancestors of the Indonesian people since ancient
times used the constellation in the sky as a time marker for example, the people of Central Java
observed the constellation of Orion until it rose to a certain height to determine the beginning of
the farming period. Astronomy is not an invisible knowledge for our ancestors, they observe the
motion of the stars, the sun and the moon as markers of time.Borobudur could have been an
astronomical monument that recorded all the movements of the sky in that era. To prove it, the
hypothesis starts from the shape of the temple which is quite unique. When observed from the
sky, the shape is symmetrical. Floors 1 to 7 are equilateral while floors 8 to 10 are circular with
the center of a main stupa with a total height of 20 meters and a diameter of 17 meters. This main
stupa has a unique position, at the center of the circle of small stupas. From this symmetrical
shape of the temple (like a clock) finally it is hypothesized that the main stupa of the temple has
a function as a time marker.

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The first time marker used by humans is gomon or the sundial. The system is very simple, only a
stick that is placed vertically on the ground. By observing the length of the wand's shadow each
time it can be drawn a wand shadow pattern. Well, this stick shadow pattern is used by ancient
humans to mark the time.

Main Stupa of BOrobudur Temple. Credit: Irma Hariawang

To test the truth of the hypothesis, the research team made observations at Borobudur
Temple. Observed the main stupa shadow pattern when the sun is at the Vernal Equinox point
(the point of intersection of the celestial equatorial plane and the ecliptic plane) which is 19 to 20
March. This time is considered special because on that day the sun will rise and set in the east
and west true (east true & west true). Armed with these observational data, a shadow model of
the main stupa is made every day of the year and corrected for measurement and observation
errors. The result is the shadow of the main stupa making a distinctive pattern that falls on
certain small stupa around it. Examples of practical applications such as this, if we see the
shadow of the main stupa falling on Stupa 1 on level 8 then it is time to plant (for example).

The shadow of the main stupa in one year. giant clock mechanism.

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This discovery certainly must be adjusted to many factors, for example the tectonic shock factor
which makes the position of the temple stupa shifted so that the fall of the shadow is no longer
accurate. In addition, the mechanism of time marker that is used by the community in the
Borobudur development era is not yet known, so we do not yet know for certain the stupas which
are considered important and which are used as signs. 1

Relief of the Moon, 7 small circles as stars and sun on the walls of the temple. Like the picture of a constellation. Credit: irma
Hariawang

Temple Alignments and Calendrical Links to Sun path: Amelia Carolina Sparavigna also
considered the nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular, topped by a central dome.
The temple is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. The central dome is
surrounded by 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated stupa” One can see the 72
stupas on the top platform of the temple. The number 72 is equal to the even number of the days
passing from the zenithal passage in October to the December solstice, and from the December
solstice to the zenithal passage on the end of February or first of March.

In fact, she stressed the possibility that the number of the ancillary temples or stupas in the
temples of Sewu, Prambana and Borobudur, had a calendrical link to the path of the sun. There is
another link concerning the mudras of the statues of Buddha. At first glance, all the Buddha
statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between them in the mudras, or the
position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East, South, West and Zenith,
which represent the five cardinal compass points according to Mahayana.

The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West, of which the
Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra. Buddha statues at
the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the same mudra: Zenith.
Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own symbolism".

During the restoration in the early 20th century, it was discovered that three Buddhist temples in
the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are positioned along a straight line pointing to
another link to the zenith passage of the sun - an alignment of three temples, Borobodur and the
satellites Mendut and Pawon temples, along the sunset azimuth on the days of zenithal sun.The

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three temples at Borobodur belong to the Mahayana Buddhism. 2The details of the cults practised
are unsure, but a relationship certainly existed between the temples and the proclaimed divine
nature of the kings who ordered their construction. In this connection, a possible, symbolic
relationship between the three monuments was investigated in details by Moens (1951). In this
controversial but anyhow scholarly work, the idea is that the temples were connected by a
“magical birth” ritual, in which the monarch’s consecration occurred both as the Buddha and as
King. Moens proposed a ritual based on an analogy with the sun path in the sky in one day, and
thus endowed with three main “stations”: east, zenith, and west. To these steps corresponded for
the west, the beginning of the western staircase at Borobudur; for the east, Mendut; and for the
zenith, Pawon. Although this interpretation is well known, it has never been referred explicitly to
the specific days of the zenith passages, a connection which instead looks natural: if the “solar
path” ritual had to be referenced into in the architecture of the temples, and if the zenith
culmination of the sun was, as it seems, a fundamental ingredient of the ritual, then we would
expect the procession to go in the direction from sunrise to sunset, and the processional path to
be oriented in such a way as to indicate the zenith sunset, as it actually occurs.

Finding comparison belonging to the same cultural context would also be of help, but one the
problems is that Borobodur architectural conception is almost unique. Besides the already
mentioned Bayon, as far as the present author is aware the unique, vaguely reasonable
comparison is the so-called 108 stupas monument, located on a hillside directly on the western
bank of the Yellow River at Qingtongxia, Ningxia, China. The monument is slightly later than
Borobodur, as it was constructed during the Western Xia dynasty (1038–1227 AD), as part of a
greater Buddhist temple complex. It is composed by 108 stupas of sun-dried mud bricks,
arranged in rows disposed in a triangular formation which narrows with height, from 19 stupas
on the first row to the uppermost single one. A front view of this monument is actually quite
reminiscent of one side of Borobodur. As far as the present author is aware, the orientation of the
108 stupas monument has never been studied. The azimuth is 120° which, with an horizon height
close to zero, gives a impressive declination -24° that is, very close to the winter solstice sunrise.
The monument is therefore, with hardly any doubt, astronomically oriented although not to the
same solar phenomenon of the Borobodur axis; of course however, at the latitude of Ningxia
about 37° north, zenith passages do not occur. Archaeoastronomy of the “Sun path” at
Borobudur

G. Magli has proposed that the line indicated the azimuth of the sunset on the days of zenithal
sun (let us note that, for the line of the three temples, an alignment along sunrise was proposed
too in [15]). It is easy to test the alignment proposed by Magli using software such as
SunCalc.org for instance. Using date 12 October, we can see the alignment. Actually,
SunCalc.org and the Photographer's Ephemeris give this day for the zenith passage. Figure 2:
The alignment of the three temples along the sunset on a day of zenith passage of the sun,
obtained by means of SunCalc.org. For what concerns the architecture of Borobudur, let me add
to the references also the very interesting article [1 on the algorithm used for building the
temple.3

Borobudur has geographics coordinate 110 12 10.34 E 7 36 30.49 S. The main structure of
Borobudur can be devided into three components: foot, body, and head. Borobudurs head part
consist of a main stupa at the center and three terraces which is (more or less) circular in shape.

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Top terrace contain 16 little stupas, with radius = 24 m. Middle terrace contain 24 little stupas,
with radius = 37 m. This terrace is 1.5 m lower than top terrace. Bottom terrace contain 32 little
stupas, with radius = 53 m. This terrace is (also) 1.5 m lower than middle terrace. The stupas of
each terrace distributed evenly at the edge of each terrace. The main stupa with three terraces
called Arupadhatu. We suspect this Arupadhatu configuration is serve a purpose as a
chronometer, with the main stupa as the gnomon. In this work we reconstruct Borobudur as if
how it was suppose to looks like at the time it as built. We include cakra, part of main stupa that
is now detached from main stupa for some technical reasons. Cakra adds 7.5 m to the height of
main stupa, making it 20.44 m in total, relative to top terrace. Javanese culture recognize a
system to track time for everyday use, known as pranotomongso. Pranotomongso use bencet (a
kind of sundial) to measure time. With this in mind, we try to incorporate pranotomongso as a
time tracking system to Borobudur as a chronometer. The Main Stupa of Borobudur and
Pranotomongso Calendar System 505 2.
the Shalivahana Shaka calendar. used in Java and Bali among Indonesian Hindus. Nyepi, the
"Day of Silence", is a celebration of the Saka new year in Bali. Nepal's Nepal Sambat evolved
from the Saka calendar. Prior to colonization, the Philippines used to apply the Saka calendar as
well as suggested by the Laguna Copperplate Inscription.
The term may also ambiguously refer to the Hindu calendar; the Shalivahana era is also
commonly used by other calendars.The historic Shalivahana era calendar is still widely used. It
has years that are solar.
Structure: The calendar months follow the signs of the tropical zodiac rather than the sidereal
zodiac normally used with the Hindu calendar.

Name Start date Tropical Tropical zodiac

# Length
(Sanskrit) (Gregorian) zodiac (Sanskrit)
1 Chaitra 30/31 March 22/21 Aries Meṣa
2 Vaishākha 31 April 21 Taurus Vṛṣabha
3 Jyēshtha 31 May 22 Gemini Mithuna
4 Āshādha 31 June 22 Cancer Karkata
5 Shrāvana 31 July 23 Leo simha
6 Bhaadra 31 August 23 Virgo Kanyā
7 Āshwin 30 September 23 Libra Tulā
8 Kārtika 30 October 23 Scorpio Vṛścika
9 Agrahayana 30 November 22 Sagitarius Dhanur
10 Pausha 30 December 22 Capricorn Makara
11 Māgha 30 January 21 Aquarius Kumbha
12 Phalguna 30 February 20 Pisces Mīna
Chaitra has 30 days and starts on March 22, except in leap years, when it has 31 days and starts
on March 21. The months in the first half of the year all have 31 days, to take into account the
slower movement of the sun across the ecliptic at this time.The names of the months are derived
from older, Hindu lunisolar calendars, so variations in spelling exist, and there is a possible
source of confusion as to what calendar a date belongs to.

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Years are counted in the Saka era, which starts its year 0 in the year 78 of the Common Era. To
determine leap years, add 78 to the Saka year – if the result is a leap year in the Gregorian
calendar, then the Saka year is a leap year as well. Its structure is just like the Persian calendar.
A model was made of the ideal Borobudur, based on the position, size and orientation of actual
Borobudur. In the model, correction for precession was incorporated. This puts Borobudur at
circa 800 CE, around the time it was built. A pattern of shadow of main stupa (+cakra) relative to
little stupas position in each terrace (series of pictures to the right) was studied in the search for
interesting pattern of the falling shadow, that could be used as a marker of time for them who use
Borobudur as a chronometer .

Series of shadow of main stupa for 12 mongsos. Edge of the shadows with dark color is signified
the shadow of beginning of that mongso. 3. Discussion In Figure 1, we present regular pattern of
the shadow cast by main stupa during each mongso. During the beginning of each mongso, the
shadow falls (more or less) exactly on specific stupa(s), marked by filled red circle. From the
repeating pattern we suspect that those stupas may play important role as time marker for the
ancient people. To verify this, we have to figure out a mathematical pattern behind it. For this
work, we just identified a specific stupas suspected as marker on specific time (mongso). There
is an indication that ancient mathematical of sanskrit might hold the clue on astronomical
calculation by ancient people. We will elaborate the mathematical sanskrit as the means to define
the pattern and the specific astronomical purpose (if any) of Borobudur.
Algorithmic way that was incorporated in constructing Borobudur’s architecture is a strong
possibility for some issues related to the lack of standard metric system attached to ancient
Javanese society and the closeness of Javanese culture with the fractal geometry that also found
in traditional fabric, batik. Thus, we can say that while the inspiration of the building of
Borobudur temple is religious issue, i.e.: Buddhism, the architecture is more likely strongly
connected to the ancient Javanese culture. Borobudur temple was built as building a single and
small stupa, but the way to making it was incorporated the technique of self-similarity. However,
the emerged construction is eventually a kind of algorithmic fractal mega-architecture. The
complexity of Borobudur is emerged from simple rules of building stupa as the fractal geometry
applies.

The calculated fractal dimension of Borobudur is 2.325, a number that shows the realm of the
structure that is in between the two dimensional form and the three dimensional conic (or bell)
shaped construction. This shows how self-similarity does exist and it is a theoretical challenge
for interdisciplinary works among geometry, statistical analysis, computer sciences,
anthropology, archaeology as well as mechanics to reveal deeper insights related to the
dimension calculated. While in the previous works (Situngkir, 2008) the discussions have
brought us to the interesting facts related to tradition fabric that also emanated applied fractal
geometry, more observation and analysis related to the fractal aspects in cultural heritage might
be appealing.

The self-similarity of Indonesian Borobudur Temple is observed through the dimensionality of

stupa that is hypothetically closely related to whole architectural body. Fractal dimension is
calculated by using the cube counting method and found that the dimension is 2.325, which is
laid between the two-dimensional plane and three dimensional space. The applied fractal
geometry and self-similarity of the building is emerged as the building process implement the

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metric rules, since there is no universal metric standard known in ancient traditional Javanese
culture thus the architecture is not based on final master plan. The paper also proposes how the
hypothetical algorithmic architecture might be applied computationally in order to see some
experimental generations of similar building. The paper ends with some conjectures for further
challenge and insights related to fractal geometry in Javanese traditional cultural heritages.
Fractal structure of Borobudur was built by Modern Mathematical Sciences( See next
Chapter)
New mathematical calculations were used to built Borobudur Temples as far back as in the years
750 and 842. Fractals are geometric shapes that have elements similar to the overall shape. Often
a fractal has a certain pattern that repeats with a recursive and iterative.Confirming the
hypothesis is the work of Hokky Situngkir, researcher and president of Bandung Fe Institute.
According to him, Borobudur was built space that has a similarity with the elements themselves.
In the Borobudur, for example, there are many forms of geometry stupa. “Candi Borobudur stupa
itself is a giant in which consists of stupas of other smaller ones. Keep up to infinity,” he
explains.

In addition, Hokky explains, it is also verified by measurements Parmono Atmadi from UGM,
which sees order Borobudur buildings that meet the elements of 9:6:4 ratio.
Ratios, for example, is present at high proportions of three parts of the temple, which is part
Arupadhatu (formless world) – the main stupa and stupas that form a circle, the Rupadhatu (the
form) – the part that covers stupas are located on the runway square shaped, and the Kamadhatu
(lust of the world) – the legs. The actual stupa itself is a form of three-dimensional ellipsoid that
satisfy the ratio 9:6:4. “This order we meet in all parts of Borobudur, either horizontally or
vertically,” Borobudur meet the dimensional fractal dimensionality between 2 and 3.4
The Broken Relief
All in all, the Borobudur is not only about the monument that already stands for generations, not
only as a testimony of the ancient; but the Borobudur is like the any other pathways of humanity,
always demand for continuity. Imho, Borobudur and astronomy meet in a point, where humanity
on the way for the endeavor to go beyond, to explore and challenge the unknown, and for the
betterment for humanity.

To quote Professor Soekmono, the Indonesian archaeologist who directed the Borobudur
Restoration Project, in his own words:
“Borobudur has resumed its old historical role as a place of learning, dedication and training.
We might even conclude that the builders of the monument hoped and planned for such
continuity. An excellent training program, either for the pilgrim-devotee or for the field
technician, is always based on a wish, a fervent wish, that the trainee will achieve what is
projected. For the ardent Buddhist it is the Highest Wisdom that leads to the Ultimate salvation,
and for the technician the highest degree of expertise that leads to the appropriate fulfillment of
his duty. In both cases, Candi Borobudur is the embodiment of such a deeply felt wish. It is a
prayer in stone.”

The Main Stupa of Borobudur as Gnomon and Its Relation With Pranotomongso
Calendar System

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 Ferry M. Simatupang1, Irma I. Hariawang1, Emanuel Sungging Mumpuni1,2
1Department of Astronomy, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Institut Teknologi
Bandung, Jl. Ganesha 10, Bandung 40135, Indonesia
2National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN), Center of Space Science, Jl. Dr.
Djundjunan 133, Bandung 40173, Indonesia

VE R N AL E Q U INO X O N B O R O B U D U R – T H E E X PE DI T IO N

The Waluku (Orion) Above the Borobudur iN red

Borobudur, the name is well known as the Buddhist monument in Indonesian. It is one of world
heritage that during the decade of restoraration (between 1973-1983) involved twenty-eight
countries, and in 1991 included into the World Heritage by the UNESCO. So many aspects had
been studied from this monument, from the spiritual, philosophycal, architectural, and so on, but
what about the astronomy? One may argue that Borobudur has nothing to do with astronomy, but
as long as no strong arguments to support the lemma, it might be that the opposite can be true;
regardless, the relation should be testable.
Recently, during the Vernal Equinox, i was joining the Borobudur expedition with some fellows
from astronomy department, ITB. Because of Borobudur is in the central Java, so it took 9 hours
land traveled from Bandung, in West Java, well, it was an exciting expedition for us. The main
purpose of this expedition is on Irma Hariawang‘s thesis on archeo-astronomy, to figure out the
relations between Borobudur and astronomy. And the astronomy-related activities are measuring
the Sun on its path in the sky during the VE. For the detail on astronomy, i think it would be
prefereable, if we have to wait for Irma’s full report in due time. Instead, i just want to share little
things that i have learned during the visit.

A Visit to The Sacred Sanctuary

Borobudur was probably built between the 8th and 9th centuries, and after awhile disappeared
from the existence, deep beneath the layers of ash because of volcanic eruption and then
abandoned by the people around a middle age. There is a study that suggests Borobudur was
abandoned following the fourteenth century decline of Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in Java.
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The Borobudur should wait until the 19th centuries when Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, which
during that period of time appointed as the British ruler in Java, and on 1814 informed by the
native about an abandoned temple somewhere in the jungle, so for the first time, the world
acknowledge about its existence. And since that time, there were numerous restoration project to
preserve the Borobudur, up until this time.
There is still mystery surrounding the Borobudur, what is the exact purpose of Borobudur? If that
is for religious purpose, yes, it is, indeed. One theory is the Borobudur is related to Buddhism
cosmology, a Mandala, and the building represents the “three worlds’ of Buddhism cosmology,
started as the ‘world of desire’ (Kāmadhātu) on the base level, then the ‘world of form’
(Rupadhatu), the the ‘world without form’ (Arupadhatu) on top. But, is there something else?
As with other ancient civilizations, the forms often have metaphorical symbols, like the square
shape and all the attributes in the Rupadhatu, changed into the plain circular platforms in
Arupadhatu, speak about the phylosophycal of changing the world in Buddhism, as a pilgrim
journeys from below, through a system of stairways and corridors with about 1500s narrative
relief panels on the wall and the balustrades, finally reach the top level, in the world without, and
we found no figurative panels at all, instead we will find Stupas there. But, do the forms &
alignment of the Stupas tell something that related to the sky? That is the very question that we
want to answer from our expeditions.

The
Misty Temple. The rising sun

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Waiting for the Sun

The Stones that Tell a Tale

The Borobudur already stands against the test of time, for thousand years, and since the
restoration, the people want the Borobudur to endure for another thousand years; assembled by
the stones, carved & devised to the complex shape of the temple, and the stones already face the
challenge of the nature, the changing pattern of climate, buried beneath the ashes, covered by the
growing jungle, but the Borobudur still endures. With the help of human understanding on
scinece & technology, we can preserve the complex from eroding nature, but the more imminent
threat came also came from human race. How can the Borobudur endure for another thousand
years, if it has to be degraded by the vandalism?

Abstract. The role of main Stupa of Borobudur as the time marker had been hyphotesized. To
verify that, we model the main stupa of Borobudur as gnomon, calculated by the its shadow path
made by the Sun, and verified the model by observing the shadow path during two Vernal
Equinox in 2009 and 2010[2]. In this work we continue the calculation by elaborating the
Pranotomongso Calendar System, javanese calendar system based on solar movement[3], and

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reconstruct the model of the main stupa as gnomon (bencet in Javanese language)[4] by
numerical simulation.

1. Introduction
Borobudur is a well-known Buddhist temple, located near Magelang (Central
Java, Indonesia). Its geographics coordinate is 110 12 10.34 E 7 36 30.49 S. The
main structure of Borobudur can be devided into three components: foot, body,
and head. Borobudurs head part consist of a main stupa at the center and three
terraces which is (more or less) circular in shape. Top terrace contain 16 little
stupas, with radius = 24 m. Middle terrace contain 24 little stupas, with radius =
37 m. This terrace is 1.5 m lower than top terrace. Bottom terrace contain 32 little
stupas, with radius = 53 m. This terrace is (also) 1.5 m lower than middle terrace.
The stupas of each terrace distributed evenly at the edge of each terrace. The
main stupa with three terraces called Arupadhatu. We suspect this Arupadhatu
configuration is serve a purpose as a chronometer, with the main stupa as the
gnomon.
In this work we reconstruct Borobudur as if how it was suppose to looks like at
the time it as built. We include cakra, part of main stupa that is now detached
from main stupa for some technical reasons. Cakra adds 7.5 m to the height of
main stupa, making it 20.44 m in total, relative to top terrace.

Javanese culture recognize a system to track time for everyday use, known as
pranotomongso. Pranotomongso use bencet (a kind of sundial) to measure time.
With this in mind, we try to incorporate pranotomongso as a time tracking system
to Borobudur as a chronometer.

2. Method
We make a model of (our) ideal Borobudur, based on the position, size and
orientation of actual Borobudur based on our previous work (Hariawang et al.,
2010). In the model, we incorporate correction for precession (Hariawang, 2010).
Our model is Borobudur (as we suspect) circa 800 CE, around the time it was built.
We study pattern of shadow of main stupa (+cakra) relative to little stupas position
in each terrace (series of pictures to the right). We try to find any interesting
pattern of the falling shadow, that can be used as a marker of time for them who
use Borobudur as a chronometer (if our guess is right).

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Figure 1. Series of shadow of main stupa for 12 mongsos. Edge of the shadows with
dark color is signified the shadow of beginning of that mongso.

3. Discussion
In Figure 1, we present regular pattern of the shadow cast by main stupa during
each mongso. During the beginning of each mongso, the shadow falls (more or less)
exactly on specific stupa(s), marked by filled red circle. From the repeating pattern
we suspect that those stupas may play important role as time marker for the
ancient people. To verify this, we have to figure out a mathematical pattern behind
it. For this work, we just identified a specific stupas suspected as marker on
specific time (mongso). There is an indication that ancient mathematical of
sanskrit[6] might hold the clue on astronomical calculation by ancient people. We
will elaborate the mathematical sanskrit as the means to define the pattern and the
specific astronomical purpose (if any) of Borobudur.

4. Acknowledgement
FMS would like to acknowledge the Leids Kerkhoven Bosscha Fond (LKBF) for the
travel grant to attend the meeting. IAU & APRIMs 2011 committee for the
supporting grant.

References
[1] Hariawang, I. I., 2010, Archaeoastronomical Aspects of Borobudur, Final Project Report,
Astronomy Dept., ITB
[2] Hariawang, I. I., Simatupang, F. M., Radiman, I., Mumpuni, E. S., 2010, Proceedings of the
Seventh International Conference on Oriental Astronomy
[3] Ammarell, G., 1987, Proceedings of an IAU
Colloquium, p. 241 [4] Aveni, A. F., 1981, Science, 213,
4504, p. 161
[5] Daldjoeni, and Hidayat, B., 1989. Contributions from the Bosscha Observatory
(Proceedings of an IAU Colloquium No.91). Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.,
p.249
[6] Gomperts, A., 2006, 13th World Sanskrit Conference, Section 8 - Scientific Literature

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 CHAPTER VII
TEMPLE TRIAD in India and Cambodia

A triad, meaning a "group of three".

Straight-line arrangement of Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples : To explain the additions
or extensions at Barabudur and Mendut by successive Shailendra rulers, possibly without
exception, which have come to light during restoration activities at those temples, one needs to
understand that religious merit of the royal zealot did increase to a great extent from the building
of a stupa. Indeed for every spectator the sacred construction work would be an incentive to join
the creed while it would help the initiate in his meditations aiming at the attainment of the Bodhi.
Furthermore, the “accumulation of religious merit” which the monarch earned through the
construction of a magnificent temple would also benefit his realm — “the thriving State of the
Shailendras” as it is designated in the inscriptions of the period. This topographical relationship

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looks hardly casual, as probably a processional way ran along the line in ancient times (the path
is still partly mimicked by the modern road from Borobodur to Pawon up to the river Pogo).

Borobudur Temple (Biggest Buddha’s temple in the world)

Borobudur, is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist Temple in Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia.
The monument consists of nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular, topped by a
central dome. The temple is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. The
central dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated stupa. It is the
world’s largest Buddhist temple, as well as one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world.
Built in the 9th century during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty, the temple was designed in
Javanese Buddhist architecture, which blends the Indonesian indigenous cult of ancestor worship
and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The temple also demonstrates the influences of
Gupta art that reflects India’s influence on the region, yet there are enough indigenous scenes
and elements incorporated to make Borobudur uniquely Indonesian. The monument is both a
shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The journey for pilgrims begins
at the base of the monument and follows a path around the monument and ascends to the top
through three levels symbolic of Buddhist cosmology: Kāmadhātu (the world of desire),
Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world of formlessness). The monument
guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative
relief panels on the walls and the balustrades. Borobudur has the largest and most complete
ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the world.
Chandi MENDUT and Chandi PAVON supplement the temple complex. They were built
during the reign of King Indra (782–812 AD) of the Shailendra dynasty. The whole temple
complex symbolizes the way of a spiritual seeker from the mundane life to the Divine life, to the
state of Buddha. In old times a big road led from Borobudur eastern entrance to Chandi Mendut,
passing through Chandi Pavon. Along the entire road there were walls with numerous towers,
niches, and sculptures.
 Chandi Mendut,
 Chandi Pawon,
 the famous Borobudur temple complex.

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 Pawon Temple
Pawon temple (known locally as Candi Pawon) is a Buddhist temple located between two other
Buddhist temples, approximately 1,150 metres away from Mendut and 1,750 metres away from
Borobudur.
, Pawon is connected with the other two temples, all of which were built during the Sailendra
dynasty (8th–9th centuries). Examines the detail and style of its carving this temple is slightly
older than Borobudur.
The three temples were located on a straight line, suggesting there was a symbolic meaning that
binds these temples.
“Between Mendut and Borobudur stands Pawon temple, a jewel of Javanese temple architecture.
Most probably, this temple served to purify the mind prior to ascending Borobudur.”1

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 The original name of this Buddhist shrine is uncertain. Pawon literally means “kitchen” in
Javanese language, which is derived from the root word awu or dust. The connection to the word
“dust” also suggests that this temple was probably built as a tomb or mortuary temple for a king.
Pawon from the word Per-awu-an (place that contains dust), a temple that houses the dust of
cremated king. However who was the personage that entombed here is still unknown. Local
people name this temple as “Bajranalan” based on the name of the village. Bajranalan is derived
from the sanskrit word Vajra (thunder or also a Buddhist ceremonial tool) and Anala (fire,
flame). Due to its small size, Pavon resembles a memorial monument. When the temple was
found, it was in a very poor condition. Themes of decorative reliefs in Pavon include the
“heavenly tree”, vessels with gifts, bearded dwarfs spilling necklaces, rings and jewels from
boxes. Such themes are explained by the fact that Chandi Pavon is dedicated to the deity of
wealth Kubera, who was usually depicted at entrances to temples.
Inner premises of the temple are trimmed with dark volcanic stone. Although no statues have
been preserved in Chandi Pavon, it is possible to ascertain by outer wall reliefs that the temple
once was dedicated to Kubera – the generous lord of luck and wealth. There are also extant
images of Kalpataru – the mythical tree of desires in Hindu and Buddhist traditions. The desires
ingrained in righteous thoughts and true faith will be fulfilled.
In the contemporary era during the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe
Vesak annual ritual by walking from Mendut passing through Pawon and ends at Borobudur.
Mendut Temple
Mendut temple is a ninth-century Buddhist temple, located in Mendut village, Mungkid sub-
district, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. The temple is located about three
kilometres east from Borobudur. Mendut, Borobudur and Pawon, all of which are Buddhist
temples, are located in one straight line. There is a mutual religious relationship between the
three temples, although the exact ritual process is unknown.
Borobodur was once the center of religious rituals of Mahayana Buddhism, which was
corroborated by the existence of other temples with Mahayana Buddhism around it. Studies
conducted on the location of Borobudur and the other temples surrounding it shows that the
three temples are positioned along a single straight line, which was organized during the
construction of Mendut Temple. It is also shown that the imaginary line connecting the three
temples is linked to Mount Merapi.Studies on the temples surrounding Borobudur show a
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similarity with regard to the period of construction, which is the era of Mataram Kuno (Ancient
Mataram), as well as their religious affiliation, that is, Mahayana Buddhism, which excludes
Banon Temple as it is filled with statues of Hindu Gods . These studies led to an interpretation
that Borobudur Temple is highly associated with Pawon and Mendut Temples located in the east.
The association between Borobudur and the two surrounding temples also identifies that the
three temples were the centers for religious rituals in the past. Geographically, Ngawen Temple
is located in the east of Borobudur Temple. However, no study has been conducted revealing the
association between Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and Ngawen Temples in the past. To further
observe the association between the four temples, this study will focus on their location, religion,
ornaments, and statues. The author believes that this research would provide a new interpretation
of Borobudur and the surrounding Buddhist temples as monuments for sacred procession in the
past and as a world heritage in the future.Field observation of the four temples, namely
Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and Ngawen was conducted.
The temple possesses several meanings related to the belief of Mahayana Buddhism. Moreover,
in the past, Borobudur had served as the center of other sacred buildings surrounding it . Within
a distance of 5 km around the temple, there are three other temples affiliated with Mahayana
Buddhism, among which are Pawon Temple (1,150 m from Borobudur) and Mendut (2,900 m).
Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are located in the west of Elo River, and Ngawen is, in
fact, located in the east side of the river,which is, in turn, 4 km away from Borobudur .According
to previous studies, Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are positioned on a straight line
and they form a triadic of sacred buildings affiliated to Mahayana Buddhism. However the
imaginary axis connecting the three temples is not a straight line, and it is interpreted that they
were the centers of religious rituals and processions in the past. Furthermore, it is suggested that
the three temples were closely associated with Mount Merapi. Nevertheless, further examination
of the map shows an addition temple called Ngawen Temple, from which a parallel imaginary
axis can also be drawn, connecting it to the other three temples. Thus, on the basis of this fact, it
can be interpreted that, in the past, the procession of the religious rituals might begin in Ngawen
Temple and end in Borobudur.
The layout of Chandi Mendut is traditional. It is a temple with a deity figure placed on a
pedestal, intended for ritual processions. The walls contain thematic reliefs with scenes from
Buddhist parables. The reliefs contain well-preserved images of Bodhisattvas. Inside Chandi
Mendut itself there are three statues: Gautama Buddha in the middle, Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara
on the left, and a non-identified Bodhisattva on the right (there is an assumption that it is a statue
of Vajrapani).

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The most unusual thing is that Shakyamuni Buddha is sitting in a “European” or “royal” pose
with his both feet put on the lotus pedestal and his knees widely parted, without any traces of
clothes. Bodhisattvas are sitting in traditional poses with one foot under their body and the other
foot lowered.In traditional Buddhist iconography the image of the body part relating to genitals
is always hidden by either a pose (asana) or pleats on the clothes (when Buddha is standing or
lying). Hence, for adherents of canonical Buddhism the aforesaid depiction of Buddha is
probably somewhat shocking.

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Religious associations of Borobudur Temple with other nearby temples: Two major schools,
namely Mahayana and Hinayana (Theravada), are found in Buddhism.Mahayana Buddhism is
described as the “great vehicle”, in which a holy man stays on the Earth, rather than going to
heaven, in order to be able to help. Moreover, in Mahayana Buddhism, it is believed that a
savior visits the Earth in the future, whereas Hinayana Buddhism or Theravada is described as a
“small vehicle”, in which the Buddha is merely the Buddha himself, without the presence of
Bodhisattva. Discussions on structures built during the Hindu–Buddhist era are highly associated
with religious context. Revealing the religious background of a structure requires an observation
of the components of the building. According to Soekmono (2005), temples in Indonesia can be
classified in two major groups, namely Hindu and Buddhist temples. One of the main features of
Buddhist temples is the existence of the stupas. A stupa is a bell-shaped structure of the shrine,
which is a unique feature of Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, to explore more about the religious
affiliation of a specific structure, we need to focus on the statues, reliefs, sketches, and other
ornaments of structures.
The most important argument for the coherence of Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon in my view is
the fact — which Van Erp discovered by chance — that the three of them had been lain out
along one straight line: 15Pawon on the right shore of the Progo River, 1750 m East of
Barabudur, and Mendut 1150 m further East, on the left shore of the Elo River, just upstream
from its junction with the Progo.16
Van Erp considered this fact and, as it were, the logically deducible.

a. for the west, the beginning of the western staircase at Barabudur;

b. for the Suryaloka, the bhavagra ― the top level of the Akanistha Heaven;
c. for the east, Candi Mendut; and
d. for the zenith, Candi Pawon.
TRIAD

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Borobudur stands in the geographical center of the island of Java, fifteen miles from Yogyakarta,
on a plateau that is the caldera of an ancient volcano ringed by the Menoreh mountains. Two sets
of twin volcanoes – Merapi and Merbabu to the northeast, Sumbing and Sindoro to the northwest
– stand sentinel across the plains. Merapi, the "fire mountain," is active. A legend is told of a
heavenly architect who built Borobudur in a single day and laid a curse on anyone who dared
ascend his holy shrine. According to Asian art historian, Jan Fontein: "There is a mountain south
of Borobudur that when viewed from the monument looks very much like the profile of a man;
the nose, lips and chin are clearly delineated. The story goes that the ridge depicts Gunadharma,
the architect of Borobudur, who is believed to keep watch over his creation through the ages."

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There were only two fleeting references to Borobudur in historical reports of the 18th century.
The first recorded visitor to Borobudur was a rebel who fled to the mountain called Bara-Budur
in 1709 after leading an attempt to usurp the throne from the Sultan of Matara. The Sultan sent
troops who surrounded the mountain, captured him and sent him to be executed.

The next documented visitor to the monument was the heir apparent of Yogyakarta, a defiant
young prince who had a reputation for rebellious and depraved behavior. In 1758, he set out to
visit the "mountain of a thousand statues" against the advice of a prophecy that royalty who
climbed the mountain would die. When he did not return to court, the king sent his men to bring
back the wayward son. He was found vomiting blood and soon after died.

But records revealed no consensus on the meaning of the name "Borobudur." Two alternatives
were proposed based on Javanese manuscripts from 842 AD: "the mountain of the accumulation
of virtue on the ten stages of the Bodhisattva," or "the mountain which is terraced in successive
stages." Sir Thomas Raffles, the British governor of Indonesia responsible for the excavation of
Borobudur in 1814, thought that "boro" might mean "great" and "budur" might correspond to the
more modern Javanese word "buda," interpreted as "The Great Buddha." One Javanese expert
indicated that "boro" is related to the word for "monastery," and "budur" is a place name. This
would suggest that Borobudur means "Monastery of Budur."Fortunately, because of the native
tolerance of religious diversity, many of the monuments of Java were simply abandoned rather
than destroyed or defaced, and a cloud of mystery and superstition descended on Borobudur.

The first study on Borobudur was conducted during the Dutch East Indies era by Van Erp and N.
J. Kroom,2 which coincided with the temple’s restoration project. Based on the similarities with
regard to the architectural style and ornamentation of the three temples it indicated an association
between Borobudur Temple and two other temples located nearby, namely Pawon Temple and
Mendut Temple. They seem to have been built in the same period, that is, the Sailendra dynasty
era. The next study was conducted by J. L. Moens in the 1950s 3 connected the three temples
with Banon Temple, a Hindu temple located near Pawon Temple. Furthermore, it shows that
Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples were all ritual centers of Mahayana Buddhism,
whereas Banon Temple was a place for the followers of Siwa-Siddhanta. Another study
conducted by IGN Anom imaginarily connected Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut
Temples,showing that the three temples were built along a straight line

Association of the positioning of Borobudur Temple with the four nearby temples
Borobudur Temple is located in the west of Elo River. The temple possesses several meanings
related to the belief of Mahayana Buddhism. Moreover, in the past, Borobudur had served as the
center of other sacred buildings surrounding it.. Within a distance of 5 km around the temple,
there are three other temples affiliated with Mahayana Buddhism, among which are Pawon
Temple (1,150 m from Borobudur) and Mendut (2,900 m) . Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut
Temples are located in the west of Elo River, and Ngawen is, in fact, located in the east side of
the river, which is, in turn, 4 km away from Borobudur . According to previous studies,
Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are positioned on a straight line and they form a triadic
(a group of three) of sacred buildings affiliated to Mahayana Buddhism.

However, according to Totok Roesmanto , the imaginary axis connecting the three temples is not
a straight line, and it is interpreted that they were the centers of religious rituals and processions
138
in the past. Furthermore, it is suggested that the three temples were closely associated with
Mount Merapi. Nevertheless, further examination of the map shows an addition temple called
Ngawen Temple, from which a parallel imaginary axis can also be drawn, connecting it to the
other three temples.Thus, on the basis of this fact, it can be interpreted that, in the past, the
procession of the religious rituals might begin in Ngawen Temple and end in Borobudur.

Discussions on structures built during the Hindu–Buddhist era are highly associated with
religious context. Revealing the religious background of a structure requires an observation of
the components of the building. Temples in Indonesia can be classified in two major groups,
namely Hindu and Buddhist temples. One of the mainfeatures of Buddhist temples is the
existence of the stupas. A stupa is a bell-shaped structure of the shrine, which is a unique feature
of Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, to explore more about the religious affiliation of a specific
structure, we need to focus on the statues, reliefs, sketches, and other ornaments of structures.
Bodobodur and Merapi Volcano: Borobudur was mysteriously abandoned by the 1500s, when
the center of Javan life shifted to the East and Islam arrived on the island in the 13th and 14th
centuries. Perhaps Mount Merapi had erupted, choking the rice lands with layers of volcanic ash.
Whatever the cause, the population moved to East Java in a mass exodus, and Borobudur was
left behind, its meaning lost in time. Some scholars believe that famine caused by an eruption of
Mount Merapi forced the inhabitants of Central Java to leave their lands behind in search of a
new place to live. When people once again inhabited this area, the glory of Borobudur was
buried by ash from Mount Merapi.
Mountain peaks, according to Buddhist thought, are the place where contact with divine truth
may take place. There are 129 volcanoes in Indonesia and smoke can be seen emerging from
the mountaintop at least 300 days a year. Mount Merapi, which stands at about 9,551 feet
(2,911 meters) tall, lies in one of the world's most densely populated areas and dominates the
landscape immediately north of the major city of Yogyakarta, on the island of Java.It is a
stratovolcano being the youngest and southernmost of a volcanic chain extending north and
northwest, to the Mount Ungaran volcano. The name Merapi could be loosely translated as
"Mountain of Fire" from the Javanese combined words "Meru," meaning "mountain," and
"api," meaning "fire."Tectonically, Merapi is situated at the subduction zone where the Indo-
Australian Plate is sliding beneath the Eurasian Plate. It is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire – a
section of fault lines and volcanoes stretching from the western coast of South America, Alaska
through Japan and Southeast Asia.

Merapi has been active for about 10,000 years. The volcano's biggest and most devastating
eruptions occurred in 1006 and 1930. The eruption of 1006 was so bad that many believe the
existing Hindu kingdom in the area was destroyed, as it spread ash over all of central Java.
During the 1930 eruption more than 1,300 people were killed."The material has to travel 30
miles [48 km] to get to the surface; there has to be enough propellant force to push them all that
way and out.Merapi is the poster child for unstable lava domes," Wunderman said. "The dome
on Merapi rests on a steep, unstable environment, and it is easy for pieces to break off and do
damage; for example, hot gases can be released and form a superheated, high speed cloud that
rolls down the mountain. The volcano is considered sacred by some local people who believe a
supernatural kingdom exists atop Merapi, according to Indhanesia.com, an informational website
about Indonesia. Every year a priest climbs to the top to make an offering.
Creation

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Merapi is very important to Javanese, especially those living around its crater. As such, there are
many myths and beliefs attached to Merapi. Although most nearby villages have their own myths
about the creation of Mount Merapi, they have numerous commonalities. It is believed that when
the gods had just created the Earth, Java was unbalanced because of the placement of Mount
Jamurdipo on the west end of the island. In order to assure balance, the gods (generally
represented by Batara Guru) ordered the mountain to be moved to the centre of Java. However,
two armourers, Empu Rama and Empu Permadi, were already forging a sacred keris at the site
where Mount Jamurdipo was to be moved. The gods warned them that they would be moving a
mountain there, and that they should leave; Empu Rama and Empu Permadi ignored that
warning. In anger, the gods buried Empu Rama and Empu Permadi under Mount Jamurdipo;
their spirits later became the rulers of all mystical beings in the area. In memory of them, Mount
Jamurdipo was later renamed Mount Merapi, which means "fire of Rama and Permadi."
Spirit Kraton of Merapi
The Javanese believe that the Earth is not only populated by human beings, but also by spirits
(makhluk halus). Villages near Merapi believe that one of the palaces (in Javanese kraton) used
by the rulers of the spirit kingdom lies inside Merapi, ruled by Empu Rama and Empu Permadi.
This palace is said to be a spiritual counterpart to the Yogyakarta Sultanate, complete with roads,
soldiers, princes, vehicles, and domesticated animals. Besides the rulers, the palace is said to also
be populated by the spirits of ancestors who died as righteous people. The spirits of these
ancestors are said to live in the palace as royal servants (abdi dalem), occasionally visiting their
descendants in dreams to give prophecies or warnings.

Spirits of Merapi
To keep the volcano quiet and to appease the spirits of the mountain, the Javanese regularly
bring offerings on the anniversary of the sultan of Yogyakarta's coronation. For Yogyakarta
Sultanate, Merapi holds a significant cosmological symbolism, because it forms a sacred north-
south axis line between Merapi peak and Southern Ocean (Indian Ocean). The sacred axis is
signified by Merapi peak in the north, the Tugu Yogyakarta monument near Yogyakarta main
train station, the axis runs along Malioboro street to Northern Alun-alun (square)
across Keraton Yogyakarta (sultan palace), Southern Alun-alun, all the way to Bantul and finally
reach Samas and Parangkusumo beach on the estuary of Opak river and Southern Ocean. This
sacred axis connected the hyangs or spirits of mountain revered since ancient times—often
identified as "Mbah Petruk" by Javanese people—The Sultan of Yogyakarta as the leader of the
Javanese kingdom, and Nyi Roro Kidul as the queen of the Southern Ocean, the female ocean
deity revered by Javanese people and also mythical consort of Javanese kings.

Abandonment Borobodur lies 28 KM away from the mountain. No one knows what happened to
the culture that built the monument. Perhaps Merapi had erupted, choking the rice lands with
layers of volcanic ash. Whatever the cause, the population moved to East Java in a mass exodus,
and Borobudur was left behind, its meaning lost in time. Borobudur lay hidden for centuries
under layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth. The facts behind its abandonment remain a
mystery. It is not known when active use of the monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it ceased.
Sometime between 928 and 1006, King Mpu Sindok moved the capital of the Medang
Kingdom to the region of East Java after a series of volcanic eruptions; it is not certain whether
this influenced the abandonment, but several sources mention this as the most likely period of
abandonment. The monument is mentioned vaguely as late as c. 1365, in Mpu

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Prapanca's Nagarakretagama, written during the Majapahit era and mentioning "the vihara in
Budur".Soekmono (1976) also mentions the popular belief that the temples were disbanded when
the population converted to Islam in the 15th century.

The monument was not forgotten completely, though folk stories gradually shifted from its past
glory into more superstitious beliefs associated with bad luck and misery. Two old Javanese
chronicles (babad) from the 18th century mention cases of bad luck associated with the
monument. According to the Babad Tanah Jawi (or the History of Java), the monument was a
fatal factor for Mas Dana, a rebel who revolted against Pakubuwono I, the king of Mataram in
1709. It was mentioned that the "Redi Borobudur" hill was besieged and the insurgents were
defeated and sentenced to death by the king. In the Babad Mataram (or the History of the
Mataram Kingdom)4 , the monument was associated with the misfortune of Prince
Monconagoro, the crown prince of the Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1757. In spite of a taboo against
visiting the monument, "he took what is written as the knight who was captured in a cage (a
statue in one of the perforated stupas)". Upon returning to his palace, he fell ill and died one day
later.

During the Britiash administration from 1811 to 1816, Lieutenant Governor-General Thomas
Stamford Raffles was appointed governor who took great interest in the history of Java. On an
inspection tour to Semarang in 1814, he was informed about a big monument deep in a jungle
near the village of Bumisegoro. He was not able to see the site himself, but sent Hermann
Cornelius , a Dutch engineer who, among other antiquity explorations had uncovered
the Sewu complex in 1806–07, to investigate. In two months, Cornelius and his 200 men cut
down trees, burned down vegetation and dug away the earth to reveal the monument. Due to the
danger of collapse, he could not unearth all galleries. He reported his findings to Raffles,
including various drawings. Although Raffles mentioned the discovery and hard work by
Cornelius and his men in only a few sentences, he has been credited with the monument's
rediscovery, as the one who had brought it to the world's attention.

Christiaan Lodewijk Hartmann, the Resident of the Kedu region, continued Cornelius's work,
and in 1835, the whole complex was finally unearthed. His interest in Borobudur was more
personal than official. Hartmann did not write any reports of his activities, in particular, the
alleged story that he discovered the large statue of Buddha in the main stupa. In 1842, Hartmann
investigated the main dome, although what he discovered is unknown and the main stupa
remains empty.
The Dutch East Indies government then commissioned Frans Carel Wilsen, a Dutch engineering
official, who studied the monument and drew hundreds of relief sketches. Jan Frederik Gerrit
Brumund was also appointed to make a detailed study of the monument, which was completed in
1859. The government intended to publish an article based on Brumund's study supplemented by
Wilsen's drawings, but Brumund refused to cooperate. The government then commissioned
another scholar, Conradus Leemans, who compiled a monograph based on Brumund's and
Wilsen's sources. In 1873, the first monograph of the detailed study of Borobudur was published,
followed by its French translation a year later. The first photograph of the monument was taken
in 1872 by the Dutch-Flemish engraver Isidore van Kinsbergen.
Appreciation of the site developed slowly, and it served for some time largely as a source of
souvenirs and income for "souvenir hunters" and thieves. In 1882, the chief inspector of cultural

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artifacts recommended that Borobudur be entirely disassembled with the relocation of reliefs into
museums due to the unstable condition of the monument. As a result, the government appointed
Willem Pieter Groeneveldt, curator of the archaeological collection of the Batavian Society of
Arts and Sciences,[38] to undertake a thorough investigation of the site and to assess the actual
condition of the complex; his report found that these fears were unjustified and recommended it
be left intact.

Borobudur was considered as the source of souvenirs, and parts of its sculptures were looted,
some even with colonial-government consent. It is said that in 1896 King
Chulalongkorn of Siam visited Java and requested and was allowed to take home eight cartloads
of sculptures taken from Borobudur. These include thirty pieces taken from a number of relief
panels, five buddha images, two lions, one gargoyle, several kala motifs from the stairs and
gateways, and a guardian statue (dvarapala). Several of these artifacts, most notably the lions,
dvarapala, kala, makara and giant waterspouts are now on display in the Java Art room in The
National Museum in Bangkok.

Restoration
Borobudur attracted attention in 1885, when the Dutch engineer Jan Willem IJzerman Chairman
of the Archaeological Society in Yogyakarta, made a discovery about the hidden foot.
Photographs that reveal reliefs on the hidden foot were made in 1890–1891. The discovery led
the Dutch East Indies government to take steps to safeguard the monument. In 1900, the
government set up a commission consisting of three officials to assess the monument: Jan
Lourens Andries Brandes, an art historian, Theodoor van Erp [nl], a Dutch army engineer officer,
and Benjamin Willem van de Kamer, a construction engineer from the Department of Public
Works.
In 1902, the commission submitted a threefold plan of proposal to the government. First, the
immediate dangers should be avoided by resetting the corners, removing stones that endangered
the adjacent parts, strengthening the first balustrades and restoring several niches, archways,
stupas and the main dome. Second, after fencing off the courtyards, proper maintenance should
be provided and drainage should be improved by restoring floors and spouts. Third, all loose
stones should be removed, the monument cleared up to the first balustrades, disfigured stones
removed and the main dome restored. The total cost was estimated at that time around
48,800 Dutch guilders.
The restoration then was carried out between 1907 and 1911, using the principles
of anastylosis and led by Theodor van Erp. The first seven months of restoration were occupied
with excavating the grounds around the monument to find missing Buddha heads and panel
stones. Van Erp dismantled and rebuilt the upper three circular platforms and stupas. Along the
way, Van Erp discovered more things he could do to improve the monument; he submitted
another proposal, which was approved with the additional cost of 34,600 guilders. At first
glance, Borobudur had been restored to its old glory. Van Erp went further by carefully
reconstructing the chattra (three-tiered parasol) pinnacle on top of the main stupa. However, he
later dismantled the chattra, citing that there were not enough original stones used in
reconstructing the pinnacle, which means that the original design of Borobudur's pinnacle is
actually unknown. The dismantled chattra now is stored in Karmawibhangga Museum, a few
hundred meters north from Borobudur.

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Due to the limited budget, the restoration had been primarily focused on cleaning the sculptures,
and Van Erp did not solve the drainage problem. Within fifteen years, the gallery walls were
sagging, and the reliefs showed signs of new cracks and deterioration. Van Erp used concrete
from which alkali salts and calcium hydroxide leached and were transported into the rest of the
construction. This caused some problems, so that a further thorough renovation was urgently
needed.

...nature takes a toll

But during the 19th century, as Borobudur's past became more clear, its future grew much
less certain. The climate of Java is particularly ruthless to man-made structures. In the words of
Professor Soekmono, former head of the Archeological Service of Indonesia: "For over a
thousand years, the rigours of the tropical climate have probed the latent weaknesses of the
edifice. Sudden changes of heat and cold between day and night, where temperatures may vary
by 40 degrees Fahrenheit in twenty-four hours, cause stones to crack. But the worst havoc has
been caused by the heavy rains, over eighty inches a year on average, with torrential downpours
of up to half an inch in five minutes. They overwhelmed the inadequate drainage system,
percolating down into the central core where they washed away the earth and weakened the
foundations."

"Moisture on the stones had also corroded many of the beautifully carved reliefs and favored the
growth of disfiguring patches of mosses and lichens. The terrace walls sagged and tilted at crazy
angles and the floors sloped inwards. Had the lower terrace walls collapsed, the whole colossal
structure would have come tumbling down in a great slithering avalanche of earth and masonry."

Nature itself was destroying the monument, literally tearing Borobudur apart. Despite repeated
efforts at restoration throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, major decay and structural
disintegration plainly threatened Borobudur with inevitable and irreparable collapse. Several
interesting suggestions for protection of the monument were made during that time. One of the
preservationists suggested that Borobudur be covered by a giant umbrella to keep the rain off.
Another proposal was to demolish the entire edifice and deposit the reliefs in a museum.

In 1907, Theodore Van Erp, a Dutch engineering officer, led a major restoration project. He
rebuilt the crumbling stupas and heaving floors of the upper terraces, cleaning the sculptures of
moss and lichen. But after four years, the limited funds were exhausted before work could begin
on the lower galleries, and the basic problem of drainage had not been solved. Carvings were
rapidly disintegrating; walls were crumbling. By 1948, when the Republic of Indonesia came
into existence, Borobudur was on the brink of ruin. According to Soekmono, 5"Deterioration was
so widespread all over the monument that no partial restoration could effectively ensure its
safeguard. Since the Indonesian people were determined to pass on the best of their cultural
heritage to forthcoming generations, drastic but deliberate action was called for in the form of a
gigantic project." But it would be several decades before attention would again turn to
Borobudur.
Little is known about the early history of Borobudur except that it was built some time between
AD 750 and 850, during the Sailendra Dynasty. A huge workforce must have been required to
hew, transport and carve the 60,000 cubic metres of stone in constructing the temple, but the

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details remain as vague as the monument's name, which possibly derives from the Sanskrit words
‘Vihara Buddha Uhr’, meaning Monastery on the Hill’.

The three temples at Borobodur belong to the Mahayana Buddhism. The details of the cults
practised are unsure, but a relationship certainly existed between the temples and the proclaimed
divine nature of the kings who ordered their construction. In this connection, a possible,
symbolic relationship between the three monuments was investigated in details by Moens. In this
controversial but anyhow scholarly work, the idea is that the temples were connected by a
“magical birth” ritual, in which the monarch’s consecration occurred both as the Buddha and as
King. Moens proposed a ritual based on an analogy with the sun path in the sky in one day, and
thus endowed with three main “stations”: east, zenith, and west. To these steps corresponded for
the west, the beginning of the western staircase at Borobudur; for the east, Mendut; and for the
zenith, Pawon.

Role of the moon: It is worth mentioning that the role of the moon is quite relevant in
Buddhism, since festivals and recurrences associated with Buddha's life are timed by the full
moon. As is well known, in the course of a 18,6 years cycle the maximal declination of the Moon
in her monthly cycle undergoes a slow variation from a minimum to a maximum, equal to the
obliquity of the ecliptic minus/plus the obliquity of the earth-moon plane ( =5° 9') with
respect to the ecliptic. This leads to a minor standstill at declination and a maximal
standstill at declination . In 800 AD the obliquity of the ecliptic was about 9' greater than
today so =23° 39' and the two standstills correspond to declinations 28° 48' and to 18° 30'
respectively. The last matches impressively well the orientation of Pawon, while the first is not
far (less than two degrees in declination, corresponding to less than 2 degrees also in azimuth)
from that of Mendut (parallax corrections are negligible at these latitudes).

Since the minor standstill of the Moon is always mimicked by the sun two times a
year, it is impossible to distinguish it from a solar orientation in the case of a single
building. However, the coincidence of two buildings possibly related to the two
standstills is, to say the last, impressive. In this respect it is important to remember that precise
azimuths for the major standstills of the Moon are very difficult to individuate, and major
standstills lunar orientations should always be understood as aimed to the full moon closest to
the solstice, which always attains a declination close to the extremal one in the years of the
standstills. The choice of orientation to the extrema of the moon might thus have arisen from
calendrical reasons.6
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Moens: Confirmed that the temple triad of Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon dates from the period
of the Shailendra dynasty, 1& 3which in close cooperation with the kings of the Sanjaya dynasty
dominated Central Java for nearly two centuries, is no longer liable to doubt since the
explorations of Van Erp and Krom. In his extensive Barabudur-monograph, Van Erp called the
three temples “...a triad that according to (their) architecture and ornamentation derive from the
same time period.” 7This observation of course concerns the style of the temples as we are
familiar with today, that is to say following the renovations and extensions which must have
been executed by the end of the ninth century when Shailendra hegemony in Java came to an
end.

REFERENCES
1. and 3. .J. L. Moens (1951). "Barabudur, Mendut en Pawon en hun onderlinge samenhang
(Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon and their mutual relationship)" (PDF). Tijdschrift voor de Indische
Taai-, Land- en Volkenkunde. Het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen:
326–386. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 10, 2007. trans. by Mark Long
2. 1.Beschrijving van Barabudur,Krom (N.J.) & Van Erp (T.),Martinus Nijhoff, 1920-31., 1920
4."Mataram, Historical kingdom, Indonesia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 1
January 2015.
See also The Role of Dutch Colonialism in the Political Life of Mataram Dynasty: A Case
Study of the Manuscript of Babad, Tanah Jawi, Asian Social Science 10(15) · July 2014
5. Art of Indonesia: Pusaka, Haryati Soebadio, Bambang Sumadio, et al. | 1 March 1998
6.Archaeoastronomy of the “Sun path” at Borobudur,Giulio Magli,School of Architecture,
Urban Planning and Construction Engineering,Politecnico di Milano, Italy
7. BESCHRIJVING VAN BARABUDUR. EERSTE DEEL. ARCHAEOLOGISCHE
BESCHRIJVING DOOR,
Krom, N.J.; Erp, T. van.,Published by 's-Gravenhage, 1920. (1920)

145
Not the Borobudur but a Thigh temple like a lotus concept

146
147
148
Borobudur Temple previously, which is emerged from more elementary and simple rules of
particular cellular automata. Furthermore, our discussions conclude some characteristics of the
utilized cellular automata used in the observation. This observation confirms the explanatory
power of cellular automata to ancient architectures. This is a supplementary to the widely
recognized exploratory power of cellular automata as inspiration to the modern and
contemporary architectural designs.
Many ancient Lord Siva temples from Kedarnath till Rameswaram with Kaleshwaram, Sri
Kalahasti, Ekambareswar at Kancheepuram, Thillai Nataraja Temple at Chidambaram are
aligned in a geographic straight line around 79° E 41’54” Longitude
Siva has five temples built, representing the manifestation of Linga in 5 elements of nature
named as the Pancha Bhoota – Earth, Water, Fire, Air and Space.
The temple for water is in Thiruvanaikaval, fire is in Thiruvannamalai , air is in Kalahasti , earth
is in Kanchipuram and The temple for space/sky is in Chidambaram.
Geographic Speciality : The five temples were built according to the yogic sciences, and are
placed in a certain geographic alignment with each other, so that the entire region reverberated
with the possibility they offered.

149
All above temples exist for thousands of years when no satellite technology was available to
measure latitude and longitude of those places.
Thiruvanaikkaval is located at around 3 degrees to the south and exactly 1 degree to the west of
the northern tip of this divine axis, while Thiruvannamalai is around midway (1.5 degree to the
south and 0.5 degree to the west).

REFERENCES
1.Borobudur, Mark Long (Author), Voute Caesar (Author), Fitra Jaya
Burnama (Photographer) DK Printworld, 2008
2.Chandi Borobudur: A monument of mankind,Soekmono, The Unesco Press (1976)
3. Ethnic vs Math: The Secret inside Borobudur Temple, Wanda Nugroho Yanuarto,
Indonesia,2017
Borobudur was Built Algorithmically Hokky Situngkir , Dept. Computational Sociology,
Bandung Fe Institute Center for Complexity, Surya University, Indonesia
https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1508/1508.03649.pdf
4. Some architectural design principles of temples in Java : a study through the buildings
projection on the reliefs of Borobudur Temple,Parmono Atmadi,Yogyakarta : Gadjah Mada
University Press, 1988.
5.Exploring Ancient Architectural Designs with Cellular Automata Hokky Situngkir
[hs@compsoc.bandungfe.net] Dept. Computational Sociology Bandung Fe Institute BFI
Working Paper Series WP-9-2015.See also Adapting cellular automata to support the
architectural design process, Christiane Herr, Automation in Construction, January 2007
6..Role of Fractal Geometry in Indian Hindu Temple Architecture, Dhrubajyoti Sardar, S. Y.
Kulkarni, International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT), 2015
7.Reading Borobudur, Presented at the Indonesian Mathematics Student Association
(IKAHIMATIKA) Association " Nothing without Math ," Jakarta, November 3, 2012.
https://qact.wordpress.com/2012/11/05/matematikaborobudur/

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 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Uday Dokras

B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
MBA CALSATATE USA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN

CONSULTANT Human Resource and Administration, FDCM ESSELWORLD GOREWADA ZOO Pvt.
Ltd

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