Thermal Management of Lithium-Ion Batteries

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Texas at Dallas

Jeffrey Pham, Sivakrish Sivarajah, Michel-Andre Wuilleumier, Mangona Yanamala

Introduction
Batteries have been around ever since the 1900s. A battery is generally a device that contains a
chemical reaction system which can provide energy for different technologies from a cellphone to even a
vehicle (a car to be specific). In this report, our group will mainly be focusing on the thermal dynamics
and how heat would affect the batteries themselves while under usage as well as the system receiving the
power. This report will be going over the thermal management of Lithium-ion batteries in everyday real
life applications and the battery type(s) used in automotive industries. These two branches will have
different concepts and aspects that affect them. For example: the capacity of batteries that are used in the
automotive industries are much higher than the capacity of Lithium-ion batteries that are used for lifestyle
purposes. Both of them need to be put under a strict process of ensuring the consumers’ safety at any
time. Batteries seem harmless most of the time but if any step was missed in the manufacturing process
could ruin a person’s life, therefore, the topic over thermal management of batteries are extremely
important nowadays as humanity is trying to move close to a clean source of energy, thus, most of new
technologies being developed or being prepared to release to customers are more likely to be powered by
batteries over other already-available sources of power.

Designing a safe Lithium-ion battery

The designing/manufacturing process of a safe Lithium-Ion requires experience from the
operators. Knowledge in both chemistry and physics electricity are required. A commercial Lithium-ion
battery usually comes with a PTC device (positive temperature coefficient) installed close to the cap with
the role of limiting the external currents preventing short to the cells of the battery. This diagram belows
shows how the PTC is placed in the circuit of the battery:

Figure 1: PTC placement in a Lithium-ion battery [REF9]

How the PTC works to prevent shortness in the cell: PTC resistance increases as the temperature
raises which will cut back a certain amount of currents. This works as a type of energy a system would
develop: from the lectures in class, we learn that the Energy Conservation Law exists in any system
therefore the PTC device’s resistance must be able to change in order to modify the currents going
through the system. This could be see as one simple example of Qdot - heat transfer: if heat transfer is the
current going through different layers, the only way to lower the current is to increase the total resistance
Rtotal of the system. In this case, the total resistance Rtotal of this system is increased by increasing the
resistance of the PTC device or PTC layer. I have sketched a diagram to better present this idea:
 Figure 2: How PTC device lowers currents

The next element that is the closest to our Heat Transfer course is the Thermal Model of the
Lithium-Ion battery. Most Lithium-Ion batteries have the 5-node cell mode: Top button, PTC, Jelly Top,
Jelly Middle, Jelly Bottom [REF9]. There are 2 heat transfer equations for this model:
dT i
Steady form: Qi = ΣK ij (T i − T j ) Unsteady form: Qi = ΣK ij (T i − T j ) + M Cpi dt

The Thermal Network of this model has 3 main points: Thermal Mass which provides the thermal
mass at each node of the battery, Heat Generation which contains the PTC, charges the transfer heat and
Heat Transfer in the battery which is heat exchanging among the 5 nodes of the battery. We have the
equation for the Heat Transfer transport:
Qtransport = Qij,radiation + Qij,connector conduction + Qij, convection + ...
And an equation for heat transfer to Ambient: Qi−a = hAi−a (T i − T inf inity )

Now that we have introduced most of the thermal elements of a commercial Lithium-Ion battery,
the in depth analysis for building a safe battery is next. As mentioned above, the PTC is the part that is
supposed to protect the battery (the cells) from electrical short, thus, this part must be able to reduce the
over the limit current going through the battery. If this PTC part fails to do its job, the current going
through the battery would quickly rise the cell voltage past the safe level and lead to overcharging
condition and the chances of the battery exploding is extremely high at this point[REF8].

Thus, from this information, we have gotten two most beneficial solutions: determining the
correct Resistance value for the PTC of each type of batteries (depending on number of nodes and voltage
limit) is extremely important and is the easier solution to be done. The second solution is creating such
shells/or the battery cells to have the ability of releasing heat quicker, reducing the overworking condition
on the cells which would lower the chances of them exploding due to the overheating process. Each type
of battery will have different limits for the current to go through/into the cells, therefore, researching on
the resistance of the PTC or the limit that the cells of the batteries can handle are extremely important.

From further research, new innovative technologies have allowed us to replace the traditional
liquid electrolyte with lower cost ​transition metal fluorides​ and solid ​polymer electrolyte​. [REF10] These
two new elements were found to have such stability when being used with each other, they can handle
much higher temperatures compared to the regular electrolyte cells. This new type of materials used in
creating batteries proved to have higher heat convection rate thus will maintain much cooler temperature
when being operated. This is due to a different design of cathode and anode in the battery which will also
provide much lighter weight, higher capacity and faster recharging rate.

Recycling Lithium-ion batteries

Having the safe, reliable Lithium-ion batteries are not all of the manufacturing/consuming this
type of batteries. Using batteries would not be considered using a clean energy source unless we can keep
the amount of trash to a minimum. There are many methods to do this and the best way right now is still
recycling. Recycling process allows us to save materials by using most of the components that were used
on old/dead batteries, cutting the cost in manufacturing and materials supplying. Not only that, recycling
helps us in reducing pollution, cutting the harm-doings to the environment. In general, around 50%
[REF7] of a Lithium-ion battery can be recycled which is not really high compared to Lead batteries
which can be recycled up to almost one hundred percent [REF11]. Though, being able to recycle half of
the amount is still a significant number to both economics wise and environmental protection wise.

Thermal management in lithium-ion battery

As the world is moving towards more sustainable forms of energy, a Lithium-ion battery is
among the best options for our world right now. Lithium-ion batteries are essentially just rechargeable
batteries with high power efficiency. They can be found in many appliances such as electric vehicles,
phones, laptops and many more devices. In this section, we will explore the effects of temperature and
thermal management strategies for Lithium-ion batteries as described in the article ​“A Review of
Lithium-Ion Battery Thermal Management System and the Evaluate Criteria”[​ REF 6].

The functionality of a battery is quite sensitive to ambient temperature, and this holds especially
true for lithium-ion batteries. There is a range of temperatures at which lithium-ion batteries function at
their maximum efficiency. This range varies from battery to battery, but as a general rule, lithium-ion
batteries, like most batteries, function best at room temperature, about 20 degrees Celsius [REF 5].
However, some lithium-ion batteries can be a little more resistant and can still perform well at
temperatures up to 40 degrees celsius. Regardless, ambient temperature is so important that if a
lithium-ion battery is used in a hot climate, outside the ideal temperature range, the battery life may be
reduced by ⅔ if no cooling system is present [REF 6]. Additionally, another major concern regarding
usage of lithium-ion batteries in a hot climate is the production of battery runaway. This is referred to as
thermal runaway and can be hazardous to the health of anyone near this damaged battery. Thermal
runaway occurs when a battery is overheated (usually due to external conditions), which causes uneven
heat distribution within the battery. As a result, the battery can swell up. This form of overheating can
lead to thermal runaway. Runaway in lithium-ion batteries can be especially dangerous because if one
lithium ion battery in a system experiences thermal runaway, just 12% of the thermal runaway from that
battery can trigger thermal runaway in nearby batteries [REF 6]. This can create a very dangerous
environment if there are many batteries operating together. Similar hazardous exothermic reactions can
occur at extremely low ambient temperatures as well. As described, though lithium-ion batteries have
their advantages of being efficient and clean, they still pose several risks.
 In order to help prevent these hazardous situations or at least limit the risk factors, a battery
thermal management system is used. The purpose of a battery thermal management system is to keep the
working conditions favorable to the battery so the battery works at full efficiency without any thermal
runaway or short circuiting. Cooling/heating methods use two primary principles from heat transfer:
conduction, and convection. The usage of these principles in lithium-ion thermal management are
described in more detail below.

The most common forms of battery thermal management for lithium-ion batteries are air cooling,
and liquid cooling [REF 6]. Air cooling, depending on the system application, can involve natural
convention (natural cooling) or forced convection (forced cooling). Based on the intensity of cooling
required, the velocity of airflow must be adjusted. For example, if a system is susceptible to becoming
especially hot, a small fan spinning at a high velocity can be used near the batteries to help keep the
temperature of these batteries in homeostasis. Air velocity and convective heat transfer efficiency have a
positive correlation. Liquid cooling is the next most common method of keeping the temperature of the
lithium-ion battery in check. A coolant’s temperature is actively controlled and then set through the
battery module area which allows the heated batteries to cool down. The existing coolant is then cooled
again, and set back into the battery module. This loop allows the liquid cooling system to work efficiently
to create ideal working temperature for lithium ion batteries. Another way of using the liquid cooling
system is to build a structure with a battery and cold plate alternating to help regulate battery temperature.
Figure 3 below shows schematics of both options. The type of liquid cooling system used can depend on
factors such as battery geometry, usage, and system requirements and limitations. There are several more
cooling methods such as phase change material cooling, and heat pipe cooling, but the two described
above are the most common methods used for lithium-ion batteries. Each cooling technique has its own
advantages and disadvantages; for example, the liquid cooling system is the most efficient and can help
stabilize large temperature differences. On the other hand, air cooling is the simplest and cheapest system
to implement generally and works well for smaller temperature ranges.

Figure 3: (a) Alternating cold plate technique for thermal management. (b)Coolant Battery Module loop for thermal
management [REF 6]

Since lithium ion batteries are sensitive to both hot and cold temperatures, similar to cooling
systems, there are heating systems available as well. Heating systems are usually less common however,
since due to the laws of thermodynamics, electrical systems tend to overheat versus be too cold for
operation. Three of the common forms of heating for lithium-ion batteries are self internal heating,
convective heating, and mutual pulse heating. A simple diagram of how each of these systems work can
be seen in Figure 4 below.

Figure 4: (a)Self internal heating method. (b)convective heating method. (c)Mutual pulse heating

Batteries in Internal Combustion Automotives

Motor Vehicles around the world use batteries for a variety of functionalities, the main purpose
that is common among all of these is to use the battery to supply the starter, this would allow it to rotate
the crank and get the engine going. After accomplishing this the battery would go on to supply power for
all the internal electronic components in the vehicle. While doing these functions, it is being continuously
recharged by the alternator from the vehicle's motion. These batteries used in internal combustion
vehicles have typically short discharges as a means to conserve the lifespan of the battery, Another major
impact on the lifespan of a car battery is heat. Heat has a major impact on the way car batteries would
work. It leads to the battery working harder to convert chemical energy into electrical energy. This is
especially a concern for motor vehicles as heat is constantly generated by various components in the
vehicle.

The combustion from the engine, the exhaust leaving the engine, the hot side of a turbocharger
are among the components that lead to a lot of heat being circulated around the vehicle. This was
especially a concern in older vehicles as most of the batteries were located in the engine bay, the source of
most of the heat. However, a lot of vehicles in today’s day and age have been starting to change location
of the battery and placing it in the trunk of the vehicle such that it will be away from all the heat.
However, the battery can still be affected by the heat from the material around it, if they become hot
enough. As a result a lot of research and development have been done in BMS. This stands for Battery
Management System, and essentially this system functions as a means to protect the battery and ensure
that it can operate in optimal conditions. This is accomplished by monitoring the cells,​ controlling the
charge, determining the state of charge (SOC), the state of health (SOH), and the remaining useful life
(RUL) of the battery [REF1]. And all these values are determined by monitoring heat interactions
between the battery and its surroundings. However, the BMS simply monitors and manipulates the
batteries so that it can always work in the best possible condition based on the situation.

The heat is kept away from the battery through battery diffusive methods used by the battery and
other components in the vehicle to keep the heat away as best as possible. The battery housing is typically
made of material that can stay cool in high temperatures and it is very thick in order to prevent the
chemicals inside from leaking out and to also generate a larger boundary for the heat to travel through to
affect the cells. On top of this, adding air ducts on the hood, allows for better flow of air into the engine
bay allowing for better cooling and easier dissipation of heat. Improvements in intercooler technology
allows for overall cooler air to enter the engine bay. Ultimately, all these factors working together, allow
for the battery in the engine bay to work in the most optimal condition it could.

Batteries in Electric Vehicles

Unlike Internal Combustion Vehicles, that mostly use the battery for the starter, electric vehicles
use batteries much more extensively. The batteries in electric vehicles are used to power the motors along
with all the other internal features within the vehicle. As a result the battery needs to be managed much
more thoroughly. As an empty battery in an Electric Vehicle means you can’t go anywhere, unlike
Internal Combustion where this is not necessarily the case. Due to increased reliance on batteries, Electric
Vehicles are more affected by heat. Extreme temperatures have been shown to reduce the range of various
electric vehicles out on the market today.

Figure 5: Range of Chevy Volt when accounting for all else being the same

Currently, the common methods of cooling in Electric Vehicles is Phase Material Cooling, Air
Cooling, Fin Cooling and liquid cooling. Phase Material Cooling will make it much harder for heat to get
to the battery, but once it's there it's hard to dissipate, and it adds unnecessary weight, which is the same
case for fin cooling as well. Air cooling is simple and allows for easy dissipation however, requires a lot
of energy and compromises the vehicle to accomplish efficient cooling. This leaves liquid cooling, which
is simple and effective as submerging the battery in coolant will make it difficult for heat to affect the
battery. Additionally, development is being done into creating heat pipe systems that will allow coolant to
flow similar to an Internal Combustion vehicle, allowing it to be in places where more coolant is needed,
thus making it more efficient. ​An electric vehicle’s battery pack creates an immense amount of heat due
to the packing of all the battery components, and this heat affects the performance, efficiency, life, and
many other things in an electric vehicle. For an electric vehicle to function properly, these batteries need
to have high power density and which leaves little room for a cooling system, this is where, n​anofluid, the
suspension of nanoparticles in a base fluid, is being researched to be used in coolant in various
electronics[REF2]. From a research done it is shown that using a nanofluid coolant reduced ​28.65% of the
maximum temperature[REF4].
 Figure 6: Coolants at different temps (module 2 is nanofluids)

Proposal
New researches have proven that there are many different ways to improve the commercial
Lithium-Ion batteries. Based on the research done, the two biggest problems are, first, PTC’s resistance is
not enough to limit the current going through the battery and, second, current cells being used in batteries
don’t have high enough heat convective rates. One suggested solution for these would be more in depth
research that has to be conducted to determine which material, how thick, and which value should the
PTC resistance be for each type/size/capacity of Lithium-Ion batteries available on the market. Improving
the PTC part would ensure the protection for the cells of a battery, which will prevent any possible
incidents. Another suggested solution would be to continue research, testing to find new methods to create
different types of battery cells. We need more stable battery cells that can resist the heat problem, and
have the ability to release excess heat in the system to the environment quickly through any possible way:
conduction, convection but not radiation as it might cause harm to the consumers. These guidelines can
help create a new type of Lithium-Ion battery which has more capacity, less weight and faster charging
rate in the future.

Traditionally, cooling systems for batteries target a specific find or the surface around the battery
to cool it as a whole. With this being the case, traditionally there is an exhaust system that expels heat
from the engine of a combustion vehicle. Another cooling system idea for batteries is just that, create an
exhaust/ heat pipe system for the electric vehicles and the batteries that power them. The way this works,
a pipe would be put inside of the battery which would be connected to a spreader disc, which creates a
heat conduction system [REF3]. From there, the disc is connected to an evaporators with elevated heat
from the cells and then it is also connected with a condenser that removes the heat from the system
[REF3].
 Figure 7: Cooling Method Schematic for Heat Pipe System

This idea is building off the fact that current batteries have the potential to have better, and more
efficient cooling systems, because systems built for sling tab cooling wouldn’t need the cooling
mechanism in between the cells. The original sing tab cooling system had a very long heat transfer path
which didn't cool the battery as efficiently [REF3]. If the heat pipe system was adopted, there would be no
need for the old single tab cooling system which would allow the cells to be more compact, allowing
parallel cells to be cooled at the same time. With the same approach in mind the heat pipe system would
enhance the thermal performance, which in turn would improve the performance, and efficiency of
electric vehicles [REF3].
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