Youth Theatre Journal

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Connecting With Their Inner Beings: An

International Survey of Drama/ Theatre Teachers'
Perceptions of Creative Teaching and Teaching for
Creative Achievement

Laura A. McCammon , Larry O'Farrell , Aud Berggraf Sæbø & Brian Heap

To cite this article: Laura A. McCammon , Larry O'Farrell , Aud Berggraf Sæbø & Brian Heap
(2010) Connecting With Their Inner Beings: An International Survey of Drama/ Theatre Teachers'
Perceptions of Creative Teaching and Teaching for Creative Achievement, Youth Theatre Journal,
24:2, 140-159, DOI: 10.1080/08929092.2010.518907

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Youth Theatre Journal, 24:140–159, 2010
Copyright © American Alliance for Theatre and Education
ISSN: 0892-9092 print / 1948-4798 online
DOI: 10.1080/08929092.2010.518907

Connecting With Their Inner Beings:

An International Survey of Drama/Theatre
Teachers’ Perceptions of Creative Teaching and
Teaching for Creative Achievement

LAURA A. MCCAMMON,1 LARRY O’FARRELL,2 AUD

BERGGRAF SÆBØ,3 AND BRIAN HEAP4
1
School of Theatre Arts, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
2
Faculty of Education, Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
3
Faculty of Arts and Education, University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway
4
Philip Sherlock Centre for the Creative Arts, University of the West Indies,
Kingston, Jamaica

As the first phase of a multinational exploration of the nature of creativity and its
relationship to drama/theatre education, a mixed methods survey was given to 100
classroom teachers in four countries: Canada (Ontario), the United States (Arizona),
Jamaica and Norway. Teachers were both elementary generalist and secondary spe-
cialists; most had some drama education. This article documents the following: a brief
review of the related literature; survey results with an emphasis on the qualitative
data; and a brief overview of the next phases of the research. Survey results suggest
that teachers of drama/theatre believe in the importance of teaching for both creative
achievement in their students and in themselves as creative teachers—especially when
solving teaching problems. Examples of their practice indicate that teachers implement
a variety of student-centered drama/theatre approaches in their classrooms. However,
teachers do not perceive support for their creative work from their schools or the school
system, nor do they have confidence in their capacity to assess student achievement in
creativity.

Creative teaching allows both students and teacher to connect with their inner
being.
Jamaican Elementary Teacher

Calling creativity a “distinctive attribute of the human species,” the director-general

of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) noted
that when schools can enhance creativity and teach “artistic values and subjects,” they can
better meet the needs of young people in a modern world. The report concluded, “Creativity
is our hope” (UNESCO 2001, 40). In recent years, creativity in education has been iden-
tified in public policy as a factor necessary for economic growth, innovative business,

The authors acknowledge with thanks the financial support of the Norwegian Research Council,
The University of Stavanger, and the Faculty of Education at Queen’s University. We also extend
thanks to our research assistant, Soodabeh Salehi, who was of great assistance with our review of the
literature, and to the respondents to our surveys for sharing their insights with us.
Address correspondence to Laura A. McCammon, School of Theatre Arts, University of
Arizona, P. O. Box 210003, Tucson, AZ 85721-0003. E-mail: mccammon@email.arizona.edu

140
 Connecting With Their Inner Beings 141

democratic societies, developing individual capacities, and the improvement of quality in

education (e.g., Fiske 1999; Robinson 2001; UNESCO 2001).
Inspired by the statement, “Creativity is our hope,” the authors of this article initiated a
multiyear, multinational research project in 2006 focusing on the relationship between cre-
ativity and drama/theatre teaching and learning; we felt that drama/theatre offers a unique
context for exploring creativity. The project co-investigators are drama/theatre teacher
educators from Canada, Jamaica, Norway, and the United States.
In this article, we document the following: a brief review of the related literature
and the results of a survey given to classroom teachers in Canada (Ontario), the United
States (Arizona), Jamaica, and Norway. We conclude with a description of how we cur-
rently are applying survey results to new projects. This mixed-methods survey included
both quantitative responses and open-ended questions yielding qualitative data. Survey
results suggest that elementary and secondary teachers of drama/theatre believe in the
importance of teaching for creative achievement in their students and in themselves as cre-
ative teachers. Examples of their practice indicate that the teachers implement a variety
of student-centered drama/theatre approaches in their classrooms. They tend to see them-
selves as creative teachers particularly when they solve teaching problems. However, the
teachers do not perceive support for their creative work from their schools or the school
system, nor do they have confidence in their capacity to assess student achievement in cre-
ativity. The survey data also suggest that the lowest levels of support are reported by the
newest teachers. This article will concentrate on those sections of the survey relating to
teaching and assessing creative achievement and not on the teachers’ perceived levels of
support which has been reported elsewhere (McCammon et al. 2008; O’Farrell et al. 2009).

Teacher Survey
The long-range goals of our research are twofold: first, to understand the nature of
creativity and teaching and assessing creative achievement, particularly as practiced in
drama/theatre contexts, and second, to apply our discoveries to drama/theatre teacher
education. An important first step, therefore, was to learn how classroom teachers view
teaching for creative achievement and themselves as creative teachers. To this end, we
created a survey, which has been administered in all four sites.1
The survey was organized as follows:

Section 1—About You. This section asked for information about the teachers.
Section 2—Definition of Creativity. Teachers choose a definition from a list.
Section 3—Creativity and Creative Teaching in Your School.
Section 4—Assessing Student Achievement in Creativity. Sections 3 & 4 included
Likert-scale, forced-choice responses to a series of statements.
Section 5—Some Examples From Your Teaching. This section included four open-
ended questions:

• Give an example of an activity you use to teach creativity.

• How did you assess student achievement in creativity in this activity?

1
The survey was piloted with a group of teachers and administrators in Arizona. Administration
of the survey was approved by the appropriate institutional review boards and hosting organizations.
All responses were anonymous. Survey results were tabulated by McCammon. For a copy of the
survey and the technical report (Sæbø et al. 2008), e-mail: mccammon@email.arizona.edu.
142 L. A. McCammon et al.

• Give an example from your practice of yourself as a creative teacher (where your
teaching exemplified creativity.)
• Is there anything you would like to add about teaching creativity and/or creative
teaching?
We felt our study would be best served by a mixed-methods survey including both
quantitative and qualitative data, as we see them as complementary (Kalleberg 1996): The
quantitative data yield potentially generalizable results, while the qualitative data can help
to interpret these results and develop a deeper understanding of the coherence between the
two forms of data (Reynolds et al. 1996). Insights from the strengths and weaknesses of
the survey itself will be explored in more detail throughout the article.

Survey Sites
The survey was administered in the context of four events for teachers interested in
drama/theatre: the Council of Ontario Drama Dance Educators conference in Canada
(14 responses), the Arizona State Thespian Festival in the United States (27 responses),
a teachers’ workshop at the University of the West Indies in Jamaica (33 responses), and a
conference of the Norwegian Drama Teachers’ Association in Norway (26 responses).

Strengths and Limitations of the Survey Data

Although we sought for consistency in the administration of the survey, this was not
entirely possible. Because the surveys were given out during a conference in Ontario
and Arizona, respondents had little time to reflect on their answers. Teachers in Jamaica
completed the survey during the course of a professional development workshop. The sur-
vey, translated into Norwegian, was mailed to teachers. Responses were translated back to
English for tabulation.
Exactly one hundred usable surveys were returned from a diverse group of classroom
teachers but with one thing in common: an engagement in drama/theatre. This engage-
ment was crucial as we were interested specifically in the experiences of teachers who
could base their responses on “lived” practice in drama/theatre contexts. We acknowledge
that this is not only a relatively small sample size, but it is also a sample of “conve-
nience,” reducing the generalizability of the survey data (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison
2000). This survey, however, employed mixed methodology, because our purpose was
not entirely to “generalize” but also to understand, which according to Creswell (2003),
is one purpose of mixed-methods research. We believe that the survey data are infor-
mative; furthermore, this is the only international survey that we know of that explores
the responses of drama/theatre classroom teachers and their perceptions of teaching for
creative achievement and creative teaching. The survey is a first step.

Demographic Data
The first section of the survey gathered demographic information about the teachers.
Teaching assignment. Nearly half, 47 percent, indicated they teach in elementary
schools, while exactly half, 50 percent, teach in secondary schools; 4 percent indicated
“other,” adding up to 101 percent.2 Although regional differences occurred, we feel the
2
Some respondents indicated more than one assignment.
 Connecting With Their Inner Beings 143

survey can be viewed as a cross-section of teaching levels. The Ontarian and Norwegian
respondents represented a range of teaching assignments. All Arizonian respondents
taught in secondary schools, a majority (73 percent) teaching drama/theatre. By contrast,
all Jamaican respondents were elementary school teachers, most of whom (83 percent)
identified themselves as generalist teachers.

Teachers’ educational background. Although educational background varied within

each site, a strong majority, 88 percent, reported formal academic qualifications specific
to drama/theatre. We were pleased to see this high percentage because it suggests that the
sample, as a whole, reflects an informed understanding of drama/theatre even among the
generalist respondents.

Years of teaching experience. There was a range in years of teaching experience at

each site. It is of note that, across sites, approximately one-third of all teachers have been
teaching for more than sixteen years. Norway reported the most experienced teaching force
of all survey sites: 81 percent with more than 11 years of experience. Sixteen percent of
all teachers were in their first three years, 37 percent reported four to ten years of teaching,
and 16 percent reported eleven to fifteen years.

Gender. Across-country comparisons demonstrate that the teaching force was nearly
80 percent female. In Jamaica, 88 percent were female—not surprising given that they were
elementary teachers—but in Norway, where there was a wider range in years of experi-
ence, 88 percent were also female. In Arizona and Ontario, approximately 66 percent were
female.

Type of school. The large majority (95 percent) taught in public schools. One each in
Arizona and Ontario taught in Catholic/parochial/religious schools.

Location of school. Seventy percent of the Jamaican teachers work in rural schools,
while the Ontarian teachers were evenly split between rural areas and urban centers (43
percent each). In Arizona, slightly more than half the teachers (52 percent) work in sub-
urban schools located in large metropolitan centers, with only about 20 percent located in
rural schools and 30 percent in urban schools. Nearly two-thirds of the Norwegian teach-
ers work in urban schools with about a third in suburban schools. Overall, the teachers
divided nearly evenly among rural, urban, and suburban schools, although a rural school in
Jamaica might not compare directly to a rural school in Norway. Urban schools in North
America can be expected to have significant ethnic diversity, but the same may not be true
in Jamaica. Norwegian schools generally do not have significant ethnic diversity except in
the capital city of Oslo.

Size of school. Respondents taught in schools ranging in size from less than 500 stu-
dents to more than 2,000. Of particular note is that 57 percent of the Arizonian teachers
work in schools with more than 2,000 students. The fact that 13 percent of the elementary
schools in Jamaica also had more than 2,000 students could be of note as well. In Norway,
teachers work within much smaller schools than in other locations as all teachers reported
schools with less than 1,000 students. In fact, in Norway, there are very few schools with
more than 1,000 students.
144 L. A. McCammon et al.

What Is Creativity?
Historically, creativity has proven to be a difficult concept to define. There is general agree-
ment, however, that creativity results in something new, useful, and hopefully, ethical.
According to Fisher (2004, 9), there are three levels of originality:

• Individual: “I have not thought or done this before.”

• Social: “We have not thought or done this before.”
• Universal: “No one has thought or done this before.”

There are four general contexts for creativity: creative persons, creative processes,
creative products or ideas, and creative environments. These four are not indepen-
dent of each other and frequently interact (Shallcross 1981). Drawing from across the
literature, we note that there are a number of elements frequently associated with cre-
ativity, including: imagination/flexibility of the mind, divergence and convergence, risk
taking, problem solving, critical thinking, playfulness, new insights or ideas, rebellious-
ness and challenges to the status quo, ethical commitments, and achieving a “flow”
state.
We begin by focusing briefly on the characteristics of creative persons and ask: What
will be the characteristics of a new generation of creative individuals? Later, we will discuss
creativity in a more collective, social environment such as classrooms.

Creative Individuals
Since the psychological field of creativity research was revitalized in 1950 by J. P. Guilford
(O’Quin and Besemer 1999), researchers have investigated a creative person’s approach to
thinking, reasoning, and reacting both aesthetically and emotionally in the process of his
or her work. Researchers, for example, who have examined the personal traits of creative
individuals, have described creativity as domain variable (Aguilar-Alonso 1996); that is, a
creative cook might not necessarily be a creative saxophone player. Some definitions have
concentrated on exceptionally creative people (e.g., Einstein or DaVinci), while others have
addressed creativity in ordinary people and their capacity for problem solving in everyday
life (Craft 2000).
Of those who have explored the nature of the creative individual, the work of Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi is perhaps best known to drama/theatre educators; therefore, we turn
to his description in this section: Csikszentmihalyi (1996, 57) believed that complexity
is what makes a creative person different from others and identified various antithetical
traits of creative people that are combined in a dialectical tension. Creative people, for
example, emphasize both playfulness and hard work; they can think both divergently and
convergently; they are both humble and arrogant; and they move between imagination and
a rooted sense of reality often creating a new reality. While they desire radical changes,
take risks, and intend to break the rules, they first internalize and value the culture and the
tradition in which they work.
Csikszentmihalyi (1990) identifies flow as the common characteristic of creative peo-
ple. Flow is an automatic, effortless, yet highly focused state of consciousness which
is achieved when engaged in individual states of intuition, rumination, reverie, or even
boredom. When the Jamaican teacher quoted at the beginning of this article referred
to connecting with one’s “inner being,” she may well be expressing an idea similar to
Csikszentmihalyi’s notion of flow. Each of these states can play a role in creativity and
problem solving.
 Connecting With Their Inner Beings 145

Teacher Survey: Definition of Creativity

Rather than ask teachers an open-ended question about their definition of creativity, we
selected four of the most common definitions:
• A personal attribute (e.g., a capacity for solving problems);
• A process (e.g., playful activity that leads to fresh insights);
• A product (e.g., the emergence of an entirely new and unique idea or product); or
• An ethical commitment (e.g., collaboration that sustains the environment)
Teachers could also choose “none of these definitions.”
We intended that respondents would rank-order their choices; however, a significant
number of respondents (sixteen) checked only one possibility or checked multiple answers
rather than rank ordering. When the surveys were tabulated, only the first choice was
marked in those surveys with rank ordering. If more than one response was checked with-
out indication of rank ordering, all responses were tabulated. This occurred in a relatively
small number of surveys (see Table 1). We note that the irregularity in responses could
restrict the potential for interpreting results in this instance.
The first three of the responses were favored over the response “ethical commit-
ment”; more responses indicated a preference for “a process” as the definition. The North
American teachers were more evenly divided on their definition of creativity, with the most
equal responses coming from the Arizona teachers. All were secondary theatre teachers
who may have based their answers on their observations of the play production pro-
cess, possibly because in their view, a successful play requires all three—creative people,
creative process, and creative product.
The elementary teachers in Jamaica, who might be expected to be more child/process
centered, saw creativity more often as a new idea or product. This could also be a reflection
of the kinds of pedagogical strategies they use with their children. The Norwegian teachers
viewed creativity almost entirely as process or a personal attribute possibly because there
is strong emphasis on process-centered teaching strategies in Norwegian arts (Haug 2003;
Sæbø 2005).
How teachers approach creativity in their classrooms could be influenced by their
personal beliefs about or understandings of the nature of creativity, by their teacher

Table 1
Definition of creativity: Responses to the question “Which of the following definitions
best matches your understanding of creativity?”

Combinations of items marked #1 and

those items checked as choices Ontario Arizona Jamaica Norway Total
A personal attribute (e.g., a capacity for 7 9 5 11 32
solving problems)
A process (e.g., playful activity that leads 5 10 10 13 38
to fresh insights)
A product (e.g., the emergence of an 5 9 15 2 31
entirely new and unique idea or product)
An ethical commitment (e.g., collaboration 3 2 1 0 6
that sustains the environment)
None of these definitions
146 L. A. McCammon et al.

education or curriculum guidelines, or by their own personal levels of confidence and

creativity.

Is a Capacity for Creativity Enhanced by Drama/Theatre Study?

Before looking specifically at the potential of drama/theatre to build creative capac-
ity, it will be useful to consider how the literature addresses the broader question: Is
creativity teachable? Most approaches to creativity affirm that creative capacity can be
taught or developed (e.g., Craft, Jeffrey, and Liebling 2001; Fisher 2004; National Advisory
Committee on Creative and Cultural Education [NACCCE] 1999). According to Shallcross
(1981, 2), “Creative abilities exist in varying degrees among us, as do other kinds of
intelligence. It’s a matter of getting those abilities to surface and making them work for us.”

Deficit Versus Barrier Model

Ripple (1999) identifies two fundamentally different approaches to enhancing creativity:
the deficit model and the barrier model. The deficit model looks at creativity in terms of
skills and abilities that are not currently present and must be learned. It proposes tech-
niques, instructional programs, and exercises to enhance creativity-related elements such
as fluency, flexibility, and originality. The barrier model, on the other hand, assumes that
a potential for creativity is inherent. It seeks to remove barriers to help people express
their creative nature and identifies the elements which affect creativity such as attitudes,
interests, and motivation (633).
Pioneer creativity educator Doris Shallcross (1981, 57–59) posited that creative capac-
ity can be enhanced or stymied by both psychological conditions (within oneself) and the
sociological context (outside oneself). It seems reasonable to us, then, that a successful
drama/theatre program might include an emphasis on building skills especially within the
individual (e.g., risk taking, divergent thinking), while at the same time removing barriers
particularly from the group context (e.g., trust, a safe space).

Developing Problem-Solving Skills

Those who write about teaching creativity in classrooms often frame creativity as a
problem-solving skill (e.g., Shallcross 1981) or a problem-finding ability (e.g., Starko
2010). Ripple classifies problems into two groups: well structured and ill structured. Well-
structured problems “are those that are clearly defined with all the needed information
provided and an available algorithm that guarantees a correct answer” (1999, 637). Ill-
structured problems, on the contrary, are unclear, so they need “divergent or creative
thinking abilities like idea generation, fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration, prob-
lem finding, analogy seeking” to be solved (637). Both drama and theatre invite young
people to solve problems either in the production of a play or during more drama-based
activities in the classroom. As will be demonstrated later on, the teachers’ descriptions of
themselves as creative teachers seem to support the idea that creative teaching involves
problem-solving skills.

Collective Approaches to Creativity in Education

At this point, we return to the question of how the arts, particularly drama/theatre, can
foster a capacity for collective creativity. We refer to the arts as plural here because
 Connecting With Their Inner Beings 147

drama/theatre often includes other art forms. Indeed, in our survey, teachers reported
projects involving visual and media arts, music, dance and movement, and creative writing.
Play production typically involves students working collaboratively as actors, directors,
designers, and playwrights. Sometimes students follow strictly defined roles; other times,
they are encouraged to explore alternative, more innovative, approaches to collective deci-
sion making. In some cases, the teacher, as guide, will assign specific themes, materials,
or techniques, while in others, the students are given considerable latitude in setting their
own direction.
The creative community is a particularly important aspect of drama/theatre classroom
practice. As Gallagher (2007, 1235) notes, “In schools and beyond, drama is a collective
experience; any notions of the introverted, solitary, creative genius are quickly dispensed
with.” There is, then, a fundamentally social nature inherent in the arts: the experience
of communitas (Turner 1982) that is associated with the arts and the parallel category of
ritual. In theatre, for example, this feeling of communitas, of we did this together, can be
observed in that “opening night” feeling of satisfaction when the play “goes up.”
Another characteristic associated in the literature with the experience of communitas
is flow, described by Csikszentmihalyi (1990). People who encounter flow are able to make
meaningful patterns of all that they experience. People who experience flow together tend
to bond into supportive, egalitarian communities. Drama/theatre participants describe, for
example, the thrill of “being in the moment.” When students experience both communi-
tas and flow, there is a strong feeling of intrinsic reward that can be very empowering
(Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, and Whalen, 1993; McCammon 2009).

Creative Teaching
The British NACCCE report (1999, 89) distinguishes between teaching creatively
and teaching for creativity. Teaching creatively occurs when teachers use imaginative
approaches to make learning more interesting, exciting, and effective, while teaching for
creativity takes place when teaching strategies are used to develop young people’s own cre-
ative thinking and behavior. Creativity is regarded as a key component in all good teaching,
but it does not guarantee that young people are developing their own creative potential, nor
does it guarantee that a teacher’s own creativity is applied with clear ethical guidance (Craft
2005, 131).
To develop the creative abilities of the students, the NACCCE (1999) report sets up
three main principles for the teachers to address:

• encouraging students to believe in their creative potential, engage their sense of

possibility, and give them the confidence to try;
• identifying students’ own creative strengths in different areas; and
• fostering the creative potential of all children and realizing that the best way to
enhance creativity is through the process of being creative.

Craft (2005, 45) would add a fourth principle: to adopt a learner-inclusive approach
to pedagogy, in which the students can co-participate or co-create with each other or their
teachers. Achieving these principles is dependent on the creative abilities of the teachers
and their ability to co-create with the students.
Lucas (2001, 39) outlines four key conditions for teaching creativity and creative
learning relevant in the school context:
148 L. A. McCammon et al.

1. The need to be challenged—both by having goals set for students helping them to set
their own goals in a supporting and demanding atmosphere.
2. The elimination of negative stress.
3. Feedback—to distinguish which approaches work better than others and to develop
reflective internal feedback strategies.
4. The capacity to live with uncertainty.

We anticipated that creative teachers, especially in drama/theatre learning situations,

would foster creative learning for their students. The same characteristics discussed earlier
concerning creative individuals would also apply to creative teachers. One characteristic
of creative individuals is confidence developed from knowledge of a discipline and of
problem-solving strategies (NACCCE 1999).

Teacher Survey: Creativity and Creative Teaching in Your School

What do teachers think about the importance of creativity for their students and for their
own creative teaching? In this section of the survey, teachers were asked to respond to state-
ments about creativity and creative teaching using a Likert-scale response from a rating of
5, indicating “strongly agree,” to a rating of 1, indicating “strongly disagree.” Teachers also
had the option to answer NA, or not applicable.
We interpreted the summary data as follows:

• Responses in the 4.5–5.0 range = strongly agree, very positive

• Responses in the 3.5–4.4 range = agree, positive
• Responses in the 2.5–3.4 range = neutral, neither agree nor disagree
• Responses in the 1.5–2.4 range = disagree, negative
• Responses below 1.4 = strongly disagree, very negative

Creativity
The teachers responded to two questions about the importance of creativity for their
students and their role in nurturing creativity (Table 2).
The teachers in Ontario had the most positive response to the importance of creativity
for their students, followed by the Norwegian teachers. But the response across sites and
teaching levels was strong. Teachers of drama/theatre believe creativity is important.

Table 2
Importance of creativity

Ontario Arizona Jamaica Norway Average

It is important for me 4.9 4.6 4.7 4.9 4.7
to nurture creativity N = 14 N = 27 N = 33 N = 26 N = 100
in my students.
Creativity will be 5.0 4.6 4.6 5.0 4.8
important for my N = 14 N = 27 N = 33 N = 26 N = 100
students throughout
their lives.
 Connecting With Their Inner Beings 149

Qualitative responses. Teachers’ responses to the open-ended questions, especially,

“Is there anything else you would like to add about teaching creativity and/or creative
teaching?” yielded additional rich insights into their beliefs about creativity. A secondary
teacher in Ontario, for example, echoes government policy in the following:
It is extremely important because employers and postsecondary institutions are
looking for problem solvers and idea people—not just people who are intelligent
or can operate technology. They want leaders, quick thinkers, creative people.

Most teachers reported that developing creative capacity would benefit young peo-
ple: An Arizona teacher observed that creativity is “very critical to the development of
strong minds and individuals,” and another noted, “It helps people grow.” A Norwegian
secondary teacher said, “It is very important to engage the whole human being.” A rather
poetic description was offered by a Norwegian elementary teacher: “Creativity is impor-
tant because then you can reach/engage students. In creative dance, one can see stars in
the eyes of the students and even in those students that normally don’t like to dance, who
say I cannot dance!”
A Jamaican teacher lamented, however, “Too often this part of the pupil’s ability tends
to be ignored,” while another teacher explained further:
Creative teaching and teaching for creativity is essential as it helps children
develop critical-thinking skills. They will openly express themselves without
feeling inadequate or foolish. Jamaica should use these methods instead of the
traditional rote learning and chalk and talk.

Teaching Creativity
Teachers were asked to assess themselves as teachers of creativity (Table 3). Overall, these
teachers had generally positive views of themselves as effective teachers of creativity. The
Ontarian teachers appear to have the most positive perceptions, while the Jamaican teachers
rated themselves the lowest, although their score was still in the neutral range. Teachers in
Arizona and Norway rated themselves about the same.
The teachers were asked to give an example of an activity they use to teach creativity.
Responses for this question were divided between elementary and secondary teachers and
were grouped around categories suggested by the responses.

Give an Example of an Activity You Use to Teach Creativity—Elementary

Story-based drama activity and role play. Many of the Jamaican teachers reported
using stories to stimulate other activities such as writing new endings to stories or new
stories based on one read in class, drawing pictures, or writing poems. Others used story

Table 3
Teaching creativity

Ontario Arizona Jamaica Norway Average

I am an effective teacher 4.1 3.7 3.3 3.7 3.7
of creativity. N = 14 N = 27 N = 32 N = 26 N = 99
150 L. A. McCammon et al.

dramatization or role play; for example, one teacher asked her students to put the wolf in
“The True Story of the Three Little Pigs” on trial. One Norwegian teacher reported using
puppet theatre and role play:

My Grade 2 students were scared by some Grade 6 students who told stories
about snakes in a hole outside. I helped my students to create a story about
snakes that scared all!

Combination of drama and other arts activities. Several Norwegian and Ontarian
teachers said they used drama to enable their students to create their own dances, while
in Jamaica, teachers used drama to help their students write poems or songs or to tell
stories as this example illustrates:

I read them a story about a crocodile who tried to catch a monkey. Then I ask
them to pretend they were an old crocodile [and to tell about] how he caught a
monkey when he was younger. This they did in groups. They should write the
story as a group.

Drama with other subjects. Teachers asked students to work in role as scientists
(Ontario); others used drama in physical education and social studies (Jamaica) and in
mathematics and science (Norway).

Give an Example of an Activity You Use to Teach Creativity—Secondary

Production based. The Arizona teachers cited various production projects—an origi-
nal radio play, readers’ theatre with Shakespearean plays, a shadow puppet unit, costume
designs, creation of a technical theatre board game, student-run productions, open scenes,
director’s concept development, and an open-ended performance assignment. Script
writing was listed by an Ontarian teacher.

Improvisation. An Arizona teacher and two Norwegians described using various

prompts (e.g., situations, props, songs, diaries) for student improvisations. Several of the
Norwegian teachers used role play to explore issues such as tourism or young people’s
night life.

Collective creations, devised plays. Teachers in Arizona, Norway, and Ontario

reported developing plays, ensemble pieces, and collaborative creations with their students.
One Arizona teacher specifically noted using Theatre of the Oppressed techniques.

Creative movement. Several teachers in Arizona and Ontario described movement

activities they use with their students to promote team work and body, music, and sensory
awareness. This activity from a teacher in Arizona was typical:

I write movements on a card and split the students into small groups. All are
unknowingly given the same movements and asked to create two counts of
eight of dance. The results demonstrate how unique and creative they can be
with the same materials.
 Connecting With Their Inner Beings 151

Table 4
Creative teaching

Ontario Arizona Jamaica Norway Average

I am a creative teacher. 4.6 3.9 3.8 4.1 4.0
N = 14 N = 27 N = 33 N = 26 N = 100

Multi-arts projects. A variety of creative projects employing other art forms were used
by teachers in Ontario (e.g., a love song from an existing piece of music, masks, creative
writing, mixed media) and in Norway (e.g., a process drama in art history and the fashion
industry, portrait drawing).

Creative Teaching
Teachers rated themselves as a creative teacher (Table 4). Overall, the teachers held pos-
itive views of themselves as creative teachers. The most positive response was from the
teachers in Ontario, followed by the teachers in Norway. Jamaican teachers held the lowest
but still positive view.
Qualitative responses demonstrated the relationship teachers perceived between cre-
ative teaching and student learning:

Creative teaching is important for the development of students’ confidence and

should always be a part of the curriculum. (Jamaica)

The students look more motivated when the teacher uses new methods—a new
way in doing things in teaching. The students get active in their own learning
process. (Norwegian elementary school teacher)

Give an Example From Your Practice of Yourself as a Creative Teacher (Where Your
Teaching Exemplified Creativity)—Elementary
While teachers gave examples of creative teaching activities that fell within the general
categories of teaching for creative achievement, they also included examples of challenges
they faced as teachers and how they met those challenges creatively:

I remember teaching adjectives to a Grade 2 class. I dressed up like a mad

woman and I asked the children to say something about the way I looked. All
[their] words were written on the board (e.g., mad, pretty, stupid). I explained
to the students that the words they gave me are called adjectives—describing
words. That concept never left their heads. (Jamaica)

I use a lot of teacher-in-role in relation to different themes. I have been a

confused troll in the forest that the students had to take care of. I think it is
important to be a role model for the students so that they dare to play roles.
In teacher-in-role, one needs to be spontaneous and creative to respond to the
students’ actions and inputs. (Norway)

Teacher examples cited for this question were again separated by elementary and
secondary and organized into the same general categories as with the previous question:
152 L. A. McCammon et al.

Story-based drama activity and role play. In elementary classrooms in Jamaica and
Norway, teachers asked their students to dramatize stories either through improvisation or
with puppets.

Combination of drama and other arts activities. Music activities were used by some
Jamaican teachers to promote discovery learning (the sounds made by bottles) or creative
thinking “outside the box” (music as expression). Jamaican teachers reported promoting
creativity through drawing and painting. Ontarian teachers also used drama for guided
discovery of lessons about their own expressions of personal meaning.

Drama with other subjects. A Norwegian teacher used finger puppets to help her stu-
dents learn English when the puppets became “magic” and could talk English. A Jamaican
teacher taught her students about “living things” by asking her students to write songs,
poems, or stories, and another asked her children to write poems about germs and the
care of their bodies. Another Jamaican teacher used drama to help her students learn math
concepts through role play in a market:

I took [a] mathematics unit (probability) and created a series of lessons that
would allow the children to learn all key concepts through drama activities. The
children responded with enormous enthusiasm and a measurable improvement
in the class average. (Ontario)

Give an Example From Your Practice of Yourself as a Creative Teacher (Where Your
Teaching Exemplified Creativity)—Secondary
The secondary teachers also included descriptions—not so much of the assignments
they developed but of how they solved teaching problems using creative approaches,
particularly allowing for student input and choice during assignments:

Adding drama activities and student input to ‘traditional’ information such as

theatre history. (Arizona)

Students created their own ‘rubric’ for a performance assignment based on

goals they set in specific skill areas. The class used each student’s rubric to
evaluate them. (Arizona)

I do the projects with the students demonstrating process along the way, taking
risks and risking controversy in the piece. (Ontario)

Because there were not as many secondary examples, some of the categories have
been combined:
Play production and collective creations, devised plays. The practices used by
Arizonian and Norwegian teachers focus on multiple interpretations of role. This learning
activity from a teacher in Arizona was typical of the types of original storytelling promoted
in theatre classes:

Students created an original movie, including editing and filming with very
little prompting from myself. These were second-year drama students, and the
finished product, while not technically perfect, was very inspiring.
 Connecting With Their Inner Beings 153

Improvisation. Developing improvisation skills where young people create new envi-
ronments or situations, learn to accept offers, apply dramatic concepts (e.g., conflict) to
improvisations, create characters or new materials from random objects (e.g., designing a
robe, a litterbag, tape, newspaper, etc.) were prominent from teachers in Arizona and Norway.

Multi-arts projects. Students learn how to choreograph and develop their own dance
(Arizona); in other settings, students learned historical dances from the Middle Ages
and Renaissance (Norway). Students worked in role to explore topics relevant to teens
(Norway). This Norwegian teacher describes a process drama lesson she used to explore
multiple topics:

To teach different learning theories, I divided the students into roles/groups in

relation to theories. We did a panel discussion. The students wrote an essay as
researchers using one of the learning theories and analyzed a character from
Henrik Ibsen’s The Wild Duck after having seen this drama staged at our local
theatre.

Teaching Creativity and Creative Teaching: Insights From the Qualitative Data
The examples teachers gave of both creative teaching and teaching for creative achievement
indicate that the teachers use a variety of strategies to promote student-centered learning,
characteristics of good teaching for creative achievement referred to earlier (e.g., Craft
2005; Lucas 2001; NACCCE 1999).
Teachers across the board, but particularly in Arizona and Jamaica, may not have
confidence, however, in their abilities as creative teachers or as teachers for creative
achievement. Some Arizona teachers noted, for example, “I feel my students are limited to
[be] creative based on my limitations,” and, “I wish I knew more about teaching creativity.”
Others urged for more preparation in this area: “I would like to find additional resources
on teaching creativity” (Arizona). A Jamaican teacher observed, “This should be included
in the curriculum of teacher training institutes.”

Teacher Survey: Assessing Student Achievement in Creativity

An emphasis on creativity in any classroom has implications for assessing student achieve-
ment. We were interested to know teacher beliefs in this area and what assessment devices
might be the most useful (Table 5).

Table 5
Perceptions of assessment

Ontario Arizona Jamaica Norway Average

It is important to assess 4.2 3.7 3.9 4.5 4.0
student achievement N = 13 N = 27 N = 32 N = 26 N = 98
in creativity.
I know how to assess 3.2 2.9 2.7 3.8 3.1
student achievement N = 13 N = 27 N = 32 N = 26 N = 98
in creativity.
154 L. A. McCammon et al.

The responses of all teachers indicate positive beliefs in the need to assess creative
achievement but some uncertainty as to how to actually assess creativity. The Norwegian
teachers were the most positive in both their beliefs in the importance of assessments
and in their assessment confidence. While the Jamaican teachers were neutral in their
stated beliefs about the importance of the assessment of creativity, they expressed the
least confidence in their abilities to actually conduct these assessments. The responses here
may represent the general confusion over the definition of creativity, lack of knowledge
concerning the nature of creativity, or a resistance on the part of teachers to assessment in
general.
We note that the Norwegian teachers, who gave a very positive response to the need to
assess creative achievement, have been wrestling with the concept of creativity as mandated
in their national curriculum for about ten years. They may have the most experience thus
far with assessment, even though one Norwegian secondary teacher complained, “It is very
difficult to give marks for creativity and I HATE it!”
Arizona teachers reported the lowest scores, which seems odd considering the empha-
sis on traditional theatre-related assignments they use (e.g., improvisation, monologues,
duo scenes, play performances). Most teachers use some form of critique either written or
oral to assess these activities.
The relatively low confidence shown by teachers in their capacity to assess student
achievement in creativity, despite their belief that they should be doing this assess-
ment, indicates a disparity between teacher intentions and their ability to meet their
goals. This may reflect the diverse definitions of creativity held by teachers or a lack
of understanding on the nature of creativity and how to recognize it when it appears
in student work. Any uncertainty in defining the criteria by which student achievement
is to be evaluated will necessarily result in some confusion in identifying assessment
methods.
Teachers were also asked, “What is the best way to assess student achievement in cre-
ativity?” (Table 6). Here again, we hoped the teachers would rank-order their responses.
Some of them did, but many simply checked a range of effective measures. In tabulation,
the top three measures were counted where the respondent had rank-ordered, and all mea-
sures counted in other instances. The results across countries give a fairly clear picture of
some agreement among teachers.

Table 6
Assessment measures for creativity: Responses to the question “What is the best
way to assess student achievement in creativity?”

Ontario Arizona Jamaica Norway Total

Paper-and-pencil test 1 0 1 1 3
Essay 1 2 7 8 18
Student self-report/self-critique 11 15 26 22 74
Peer feedback/critique 14 13 25 22 74
Teacher-administered rating 8 17 19 10 54
form/rubric
Audience response form 2 5 12 2 21
Outside evaluator 0 6 2 1 9
Other 3 9 12
 Connecting With Their Inner Beings 155

Student self-report/self-critique and peer feedback/critique are clearly the most

preferred measures for assessing student achievement in creativity (see Tables 7 and 8).
We assume that teachers feel that the best way to determine if students have been creative
is to ask them! Teacher-administered rating form/rubric also received strong support. As
a pedagogical practice, drama/theatre teachers tend to involve students in the assessment
of and reflection on their own learning, whether in the rehearsal of a theatre piece or in a
more process-oriented drama activity. Students frequently share feedback with each other
creating a collaborative climate. This suggests to us that the collective nature of drama and
theatre could contribute to the creative experience.
Survey responses added more information to our understanding of the teachers’ expe-
riences with assessment. One Jamaican teacher noted, “While creativity is important, it
seems those assessing schools are more interested in checking records, etc. Many teachers
including myself feel inadequate where assessment of creativity is concerned.”
The teachers were asked how they assessed the creative learning activity they had
previously described. Some teachers listed specific assessment tools, others listed criteria
they used. One teacher from Jamaica admitted, “I did not really know how to.” In the
analysis of this data, we have indicated the number of responses that gave specific criteria
but did not describe the instruments used to measure the level of attainment for the criteria
(e.g., rating or critique form). Examples of some of the projects have been repeated here to
illustrate the relationship between the project and the criteria teachers used. Again, we have
separated responses between elementary and secondary. We note that elementary teachers
often do not assign grades or marks for specific assignments, whereas this is a common
expectation in secondary classrooms.

Table 7
Assessment instruments used by elementary teachers

Peer feedback (9) Rubric (5)

Checklist (5) Observation (5)
Self reflection/student log (3) Gave praise, but did not assess (3)
Discussion (2) Asked students to explain what they
had created (2)
Assessed individually with the Oral feedback (1)
child’s help (1)

Table 8
Assessment instruments used by secondary teachers

Teacher rubric (10) Peer evaluation (9)

Self-evaluation (5) Reflection/student writing (3)
Check lists (2) Oral critiques (2)
Performances (2) Observation (2)
Progress checks/formative assessment (2) Reflective discussion (2)
Written feedback (1) Interview (1)
Participation points (1) Video record (1)
156 L. A. McCammon et al.

How Did You Assess Student Achievement in This Activity?—Elementary

Eighteen elementary teachers assessed how students followed through with established
criteria but did not indicate the assessment instrument they actually used.
Examples From Survey.

Students should create and present a drama piece based on a lesson taught.
Assessment: Creativity was assessed based on how students interpreted the les-
son and presented it in a way that I did not think of or I did not see before but
showed the meaning of the lesson. (Jamaica)

“If I could be . . . a flower/song/piece of furniture, I’d be _______

because_______.” This is helpful in creating a leveled response that is not
subjective. I usually have children fill out a specific sheet, helping or scrib-
ing for special needs students as necessary. Assessment: Students were told
that I am looking for ‘outside the box’ thinking for this activity. We look at
examples of level 1, 2, 3, 4. Sample: Level 1, ‘I’d be a dog because I like
dogs’—little supporting detail, little evidence of creativity. Level 4, ‘I’d be a
hamster because I could hide underground or fill my cheeks with delicious
food!’—strong supporting detail; strong evidence of creativity. (Ontario)

How Did You Assess Student Achievement in This Activity?—Secondary

Thirteen secondary teachers assessed how students followed through with established
criteria but did not indicate the assessment instrument they used.
Examples From Survey.

Students are given random characters & places (which are usually incongru-
ent) and must improvise a scene. Assessment: Did students . . . 1) attempt
the demonstrations and to what degree? 2) incorporate both parts? 3) clearly
communicate everything? 4) attempt to make sense of it? (Arizona)

I bring in a male artist that paints for a living to inspire my students using
mixed media; they choose their topics/themes/proposal. Assessment: They are
risking to work on the spot from the heart-mind to do rather than think and
create by experimenting with new media. I give them perfect (no risk in terms
of marks). Mark total freedom. (Ontario)

Improvisations without any manuscripts where the students use rhythm and
sounds as an ensemble and they move around in the whole room. Assessment:
I was present during the process. The students wrote a log about the process.
The students gave reasons for concept of production. (Norway)

When teachers listed effective means for assessing student creative achievement, self-
evaluation and peer feedback were the most often-chosen instruments. In their examples,
however, the most often-cited involve some sort of teacher assessment. Although teachers
recognize the need for students to evaluate their own learning and the value of peer feed-
back for both the person giving the feedback and the person receiving it, the teacher is still
the one responsible for assessing student learning and reporting those results.
 Connecting With Their Inner Beings 157

Conclusions
Because the sample size at each of the survey sites was small, any conclusions from the
survey portion of the study must be regarded as conditional. Even with this limitation,
however, the survey suggests that teachers of drama/theatre in all four locations were
committed to the teaching of creativity and to teaching creatively. We can also draw the
following observations:
1. Emphasizing creativity and creative teaching benefits teachers as much as their
students. This observation is supported with words from the teachers:
• “Creative teaching is an art that all teachers need to engage with. It can be a different
process, but the product will be beneficial to all major stakeholders in the education
system.” (Jamaica)
• “I think it is very important and needs to be cognizant in all teachers’ minds as it’s
easy to get stuck in a rut.” (Arizona)
• “It’s good to learn a variety of strategies/structures. Then teachers have springboards
for creativity for their students and themselves.” (Ontario, elementary school teacher)
• “Drama and creativity stimulate delight/pleasure in teacher and students. It gives
energy since we are in a playing mode simultaneous with working with essential
topics. I think the problem is to get the teachers to understand this. It seems like they
think drama is energy draining.” (Norway secondary education teacher)
2. Creative teaching enables the teachers to use student-centered approaches.
• “In teaching creativity, teachers need to provide opportunities where students are
allowed to give their own idea and present what they are feeling, which also will help
to develop critical-thinking skills.” (Jamaica)
• “Teachers must keep an open mind to all solutions.” (Arizona)
• “Accept everything presented—be patient—help students work through
blocks/issues. Utilize self-evaluation as part of the feedback process. Provide
a good deal of time to the explorative process and as teacher facilitate and support.”
(Ontario elementary school teacher)
• “The most important thing is TO SEE each of the students and use different
methods/ways of working so that every student can develop their own competencies.”
(Norway elementary school teacher)
3. Teachers would benefit from learning more about creativity itself, how it can be taught,
and how it can be assessed.
The quantitative data and the responses to the open-ended questions indicate that
the teachers generally feel capable of teaching creatively and for creative achievement;
indeed, their examples suggested a rich variety of creative classroom approaches. There
were exceptions, however, with some teachers, across all sites, indicating that they
would like to know more about creativity itself. Although all the teachers generally
perceive a need to assess student achievement in creativity and indicated they preferred
qualitative critiques over more traditional, paper-based forms of assessment, they did
express doubts about how to go about this. Preservice and in-service teacher education
could focus more in detail on the nature of creativity, elements of the creative process,
and what the literature suggests about teaching for creative achievement.

Where Do We Go From Here?

The survey data, and in particular the responses to the open-ended questions, shed some
light on classroom practice. But this information cannot possibly tell the whole story of
158 L. A. McCammon et al.

what happens between teacher and students in drama/theatre contexts. To really understand
what teachers do in classrooms and how students respond, it is necessary to watch them
work and talk to them in depth.
As a part of the next phase of our research, we are developing individual case stud-
ies in our respective locations. Our goal is to describe what happens during creative acts
in the classroom. Each of us is taking a different approach to the case study research:
In Norway, a large action research project has been launched, designed to use drama
as a teaching strategy to improve both the teaching and learning process. In Canada, a
descriptive case study was conducted with teachers, administrators, and students in an arts
magnet school. A collaborative action research project is underway in Arizona, where the
researcher and a classroom teacher are working together to enhance and assess students’
creative capacities. A portion of this project replicates the case study methodology used
in Canada. Extensive teacher workshops are planned in Jamaica to promote more creative
approaches in elementary school classrooms. Ultimately, we plan to apply our research to
drama/theatre teacher education.
We have found that our work on this project thus far has given us exciting opportunities
to collaborate creatively and learn from each other. Our own understandings of teaching
and learning for creative achievement are also changing and developing as we combine
research and practice. Finally, we are inspired by the teachers who responded to our survey.

Creative teaching demands a sure, secure, and brave teacher, and then cre-
ative teaching creates secure and brave students. (Norway elementary school
teacher)

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