Vol. 16 No. 2 CHIN. J. OCEANOL. L I M N O L .

1998

EQUILIBRIUM COASTAL PROFILES:

I. REVIEW AND SYNTHESIS*
G A O Shu ( ~ )
(Institute of Ocetmology. Ctu'nese Academy of S ~ . Qinydao 266071)
Michael Collins
(Department of Ocetmogmla~ty. The Uravers~ty, Southampton S014 3ZH. UK)

Ra:eived July 30, 1997; mwsion atmepted Dec. 28, 1997

hJaslrael Applicability of the coastal equilibrium concept depends upon proof of

the existence of equilibrium. The present study demonstrates that, on the basis of the sediment
continuity equation, three types of equih'brittm are possible. Type I equilibrium requires that
instantaneous s0diment transport rates in both longshore and cross-shore directiom are small,
representing a final stage of erosion in response to natural processes. Type [I equilibrium is
reacl~ if there are no variations in the net sedirrmat transport rate in the longshore dima~m
(i.e. zero cross-shorn sediment transport). Str.h a situation occurs if the coastline is straight and
there are no alongshore variations in hydrodynamic (i.e. waxe and tidal) conditions. Type 1II
equilibrium occurs wtma there are variations in longshore transport rotes but the magnitude of
instantaneous transport rote in the longsbom direction is small compared with that in the
cross-shore dimctiom. In th~ case, the coastal profile is cimm~rised by parallel
advancement or retreat. Disequilibrium occurs if these corditions are not satisf~d. Hence,
prior to the selection of rr~xxts to determine the equ~'brium coastal profile and the response
time, the type of equih'brium must be identif~xt.
~ coastal profde, equilibrium, sediment rnoxerrmat

INTRODUCTION

Profdes on sandy coasts are similar in their morphology under similar sediment and
hydrodynamic (tidal current and wave) conditions. Such an observation has led to the
concept o f coastal equilibrium. Associated with the concept are a number o f crucial issues,
including: (i) the evidence to demonstrate the existence o f equilibrium; (ii) calculations o f
the shape o f an equilibrium coastal profile; and (iii) the period o f time required to reach
the equilibrium state (known as the response time). There have been many efforts looking
for solutions to these problems, since the studies undertaken by Cornaglia (1898) and
Cornish (1898). In spite o f these studies, it is still uncertain whether or not equilibrium ex-
ists under many specific hydrodynamic and sedirnentological conditions and what an
equilibrium coastal profde is. Although several equilibrium conditions have been normally
assumed in coastal engineering applications, " n o fully adequate theory o f nearshore
equilibrium exists" (Greenwood and Miller, 1984). In order to be able to use the
equilibrium concept confidently, a theoretical consideration o f equilibrium is neoessary.
The present study is intended to deal with the problem o f the existence o f
equilibrium on sandy coasts (with weak biological activities) in terms o f the shape o f a
* Contribution No.3336 from the Institute of O:eaaology, ~ A.,-a,temyof Sciences.
Pro.loci supported by the SOOPAC (UK) and the CAS (through the 1-IundredTalent Programme,No. AI0970203)
98 CHINESE JOURNAl_. OF OCEANOLOGY AND LIMNOLOGY Vol.16

coastal profde, on the basis of an overview of the problem and some theoretical analyses
using the sediment continuity equation.

OVERVIEW OF THE PROBLEM AND PREVIOUS SOLUTIONS

Since the introduction of the equilibrium concept in the late 19th century, a variety
of definitions of equilibrium have been proposed. In general, these defmitiom are derived
from different considerations, including: (i) the null point (or neutral line) hypothesis; (ii) the
coastal gradation theory; (iii) the concept of parallel advancerm~t or retreat of coastal pro-
files; (iv) the zero cross-shore sediment transport rate; (v) power law expressions of
the profile morphology; and (vi) mathematical or physical modelling of beach evolution.
1. The Bull lmint (or neutral line) eoneel~
This concept was proposed initially by Comaglia (1898) in an attempt to
determine a stable position for sedinmatary particles according to their grain size. The origi-
nal hypothesis states that seabed sediment is transported by oscillatory wave-induced cur-
rents in combination with the gravitational force. The wave-generated currents have
greater landward speeds than the seaward speeds. Such asymmetry becomes progressively
more significant towards the shoreline. The gravitational rome favours, on the other hand,
down-slope (i.e. seaward) moverrent. Thus, there must exist a null point or neutral line,
at which the shoreward and seaward forces are balanced so that the position of any
sedimentary particle is stabilized. The position of the neutral line depends upon the seabed
slope, the density of sedimentary material and the grain size.
There have been subsequent modifications to the null point hypothesis, but the basic
idea ~ , a i n s i.e. the shape of any coastal profde will be adjusted in response to a particu-
lar wave dirnate, such that sedirm'ntary particles tend to move towards their stable posi-
tion. Thus, an equilibrium state was defined as the state when the shape of a coastal pro-
fde becomes stable and no further sedirm~t movement oocurs. For the beach face, there is
sorre indication that the slope is a function of the grain size of sediment and the input
of wave energy (King, 1972),
S = a t + a.,p,:p+ a31og~oEw (1)
where S is the bed slope, p, is the dimensionless mean grain size of beach material, and
Ew is the rate of wave energy input per width of coastline. The parameters al, a2 and a.~
are reg~e~ion constants. Elsewhere, investigations into sediment distribution patterns have
shown some distinct trends of material sorting (e.g. Hayes, 1967; Sunamura, 1984; Liu
and ZariUo, 1989).
These observations may not provide direct support to the null point theory. It is diffi-
cult to define a stable position for a single particle because the size of the particle may
be controlled by the source rather than hydrodynamic conditions. Nevertheless, they show
that grain size characteristics represent an important factor affecting the shape of a coastal
profde.
2. Coastal gradation
The graded profile is a geomorphological interpretation of equilibrium, which stems
from a geomorphological theory known as the "erosion cycle". According to this theory,
the deepest part of the seabed where erosion could happen is controlled by the wave base
(i.e. the depth at which the wave-induced orbital velocity is below the critical velocity for
No. 2 EQUILIBRIUM COASTAL PROFILES 99

sediment motion). Above the wave base, seabed erosion takes place until the graded pro-
file is formed. At this 'bid" georr~rphological stage, the wave energy is dissipated over the
seabed, without causing any sedin-~nt m o v ~ t ; Cornish's (1898) c o ~ t is probably rel-
evant to the concept of coastal gradation: an equilibrium profile is "the final beach
configuration due to a given set of waves".
3. Parallet a d v a ~ t / Y e a ~ a t of coastal profiles
In this hypothesis, the position of the coastal profile is not necessarily stable. Rather,
the relationship between the beach slope, sediment movement and hydrodynamic forces are
adjusted so that some constancy in morphology is maintained. For example, the pmfde
may shift landward or seaward in response to sediment movermmt, but the shape will be
stable. An early publication (Fenneman, 1902) shows deafly such an idea: 'When this pro-
file has once been assutr~, the entire form may slowly shift its position towards or away
from the land, but its slope will change little or not at all".
4. Zero crossel~re sedin~at transport rate
Equilibrium has been interpreted also as a phenomenon of zero cross-shore sediment
transport rate. Johnson's (1919) statement that "At every point the slope is precisely of
the steepness required to enable the amount of reave energy there developed to dispose
of the volume and size of debris there in transit" is representative of the idea. Similarly,
a recent definition is that "the profile which, when subjected to a given wave condition,
dissipates and/or reflects all wave energy reaching it in such a manner that no net tran-
sport of material ot~xtrs anywhere along that profile" (Powell, 1986).
The ' ~ m transport" definition forms a basis for many recent investigations into coastal
changes (e.g. Leont' ev, 1985). The methodology adopted is that the net transport rate is
decomposed into a number of terms, each representing a particular transport ~rAmnism
(e.g. asymmetric wave-induced currents, gravitational flow, rip currents, and undertow), to
form an equation on the basis of mass conservation. Because beach slope is included as a
function of other variables, such an equation determines the shape of the pmfde.
5. Power law exptesgons
Using a thoroughly empirical method, Equilibrium forms have been defined by a power
law expression, which relates the bed elevation ( h ) to a characteristic distance from the
shoreline ( x ) (Bruun, 1954):
h = ax ~ (2)
where 0~ and m are constants determined using regression analysis. The pamrneter m
has been estimated to be around 2/3. Dean (1977) found that such a relationship can be
derived theoretically on the basis of the following two assumptions: (1) the wave height in
the surf zone is proportional to the water depth; and (2) for a given bed material, the
mean wave energy dissipation per unit water volume is uniform. The power law equation
has been used to represent equilibrium condition for a number of investigations (e.g.
Dean, 1991; Dean et al., 1993). Such an approach implies that the equilibrium profile is
defined as an "average" profile at a fixed location. It is worth noting that Eq. 2 cannot
represent the morphology of an underwater ridge, which is a secondary feature
superimposed upon the coastal pmfde. Indeed, in many cases the assumptions adopted by
Dean (1977) are not valid; consequently, the derived relationship is applicable only to
some n o n - b a r r e d coastal profiles.
I00 CHINESE JOURNAL OF OCEANOLOGY AND LIMNOLOGY Vol.16

6. Beach evolution mofldliag

Equilibrium may be simulated using a (mathematical or physical) model for beach
sediment transport. In a mathematical model (e. g. Dally and Dean, 1984), wave
pararneters (i.e. length, period, and heigh 0, tidal current velocities, grain size data for
surficial sediments, and topographicfoathyrnetric data (for an initial stage) are used as the
input. Then, the rate of sediment transport and the resultant changes in coastal
morphology are calculated. For the next step, the newly-obtained topographic and
bathymetric data are used as input. Finally, the morphology of the profile may fluctuate
only slightly around a "mean" profde. At present, this approach to equilibrium is still
at a premature stage, because of an incomplete understanding of coastal s e d ~ t trans-
port processes. However, the process-oriented methods represent an important research
field in coastal geomorphology and engineering (e.g. Southgate and Naim, 1993; Naim
and Southgate, 1993).
Physical models have shown that, within a coastal emba3nmmt located betw~-n two
headlands, the dispersion of wave energy results in readjustment of the shape of the
shoreline. Eventually, a crenulate-shaped (or logarithmic spiral) bay will be formed; such
shape l~---illains stable when it is subjected to further wave action (Silvester, 1974). This situ-
ation has been referred to as a "static" equilibrium shoreline (Hsu et al., 1989). However,
such equilibrium is associated with the plan view of the shoreline alone. It is not directly
relevant to the concept of equilibrium coastal profiles.
7. Cotiitiit~l~
The above description shows that the definition of equilibrium is diversified and some-
times inconsistent. Furthermore, some researchers have attempted to deny the existence of
an equilibrium coastal profile. For instance, King (1972) argued that 'q~ven in the con-
trolled conditions of uniform waves in a model tank complete equilibrium is rarely comple-
tely reached. It is, therefore, much less likely that equilibrium is ever reached in nature".
Hence, a dear, consistent definition for equilibrium beconx~ crucial. It is worth noting
that different types of equilibrium may develop in response to different hydrodynamic and
sediment dynamic conditions (sediment transport patterns in particular). Zenkovich (1967)
proposed that two types of equilibrium should exist i.e. static equilibrium (represented by
the condition that there is no net movermmt for any sedimentary particles) and dynamic
equilibrium (associated with continual supply and removal of sediments).
THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
1. Defmltions
Here, the term '~uilibrium" raeam that a morphological parameter (such as position or
shape) is evolving towards a fixed state, under any initial conditions, with a tendency for
such a state to be maintained. Such equilibrium is referred to as stable equilibrium. Sta-
ble equilibrium can be reached if the following two conditions are satisfied: (i) some nega-
tive feedbacks are present (a negative feedback means that if a physical quantity is for
some reason enhanced, then such an e n h a n ~ t will trigger a series of other processes
which lead to reduction of the quantity in comidemtion); and (ii) such feedbacks domi-
nate over other processes within the system. These two conditions represent both sufficient
and necessary conditions for equilibrium_ Hence, the task of proving the existence of
coastal equilibrium is to identify these conditions.
For any investigation into equilibrium, it is also an important aspect to determine
No. 2 EQUILIBRIUM COASTAL PROFILES 101

which physical variables should be considered. The chamaeristics of a pmfde can be ex-
pressed as an h - x . S - x or S - z relationship (where h is the bed elevation, x is
the horizontal position in the cross-shore direction, z is the vertical coordinate (pointing
positively downwards), and S is the bed slope). For certain reasons (which will be provid-
ed below), none of these relationships is always convenient for the equilibrium study, al-
though the S - z curve appears to be the best.
Because the instantaneous bed slope at a fixed vertical coordinate changes constantly
in response to instantaneous hydrodynamic conditions, an equilibrium bed slope does not
imply that the instantaneous value is a constant but means that the temporally-averaged
slope (as a function of vertical coordinate) is stable with time. The following analysis
shows that there are three possible equilibrium types.
2. Type I equifibrium
We consider a condition that
q~ = q, = 0 (3)
where qx and qy are volumetric transport rotes in the x (i.e. cross-shore) and y
(i.e. longshore) directions, respectively. This means that the (tidal and wave) energy input
does not cause any instantaneous sediment movement. On the basis of sediment mass
conservation, the instantaneous bed elevation can be related to the gradients of
instantaneous sediment transport rates, by
3h Oq~
at + --~-x + =0 (4)

The first term, 8h/at, represents the local deposition rate; this defines morphological
change.
Inserting Eq.3 into Eq.4, we have 8h/at=O. Under such a condition, no temporal
changes in bed elevation will take place. Hence, there will be a fixed h-x or S-z
relationship. This condition, which is sufficient for a stable S-z relationship, is referred to
here as Type I equilibrium.
A question associated with Type 1 equilibrium is, in natural coastal environrrents, how
can we have instantaneous zero sediment transport rotes? This situation can occur when
the coastal system is in its final stages of erosion on an eroding coast. At the initial
stages of coastal erosion, the coastline will retreat in response to sedknent loss from the
beach and nearshore areas. As reoession continues, the wave and/or tidal energy dissipated
over a unit area of seabed becomes smaller. Eventually, when the sea bed elevation is re-
duced sufficiently in response to erosion, wave and tidal energy will dissipate across the
shoreline without causing further removal of material from the coastal system i.e. at this
time the conditions defined by Eq. 3 will be reached.
As stated before, any equilibrium state must be associated with some negative
feedback mechanisms. In the case of Type I equilibrium described above, the negative
feedback required is provided by the morphodynamic processes. Under the condition of a
fixed wave climate, initially the rote of wave energy loss is high because of the relatively
small water depth. This combination results in erosion of the sea bed, causing an increase
in the water depth. Then the rate of energy loss is reduced, which, in turn, reduces the in-
tensity of seabed erosion. Eventually, a balance is reached between the rate of wave ener-
gy loss and the seabed elevation.
102 CHINESE JOURNAL OF OCEANOLOGY AND LIMNOLOGY Vol.16

In order to demonstrate how Type I equilibrium can be reached, let us consider a

coastal system in which erosion is taking place and any sediment material derived from
erosion is removed from the foreshore area. In the offshore waters, the density of wave en-
ergy (i.e. the amount of wave energy over a unit area of the sea surface) is given by:
1
E= y p~H2 (5)
where H is the wave height, p is the density of seawater, and g is the acoeleration
due to gravity. When propagating towards the shoreline, changes in wave height take
place, in response to wave refraction and diffraction, shoaling effects, and wave
attenuation (which can be related to a nulnher of factors such as friction at the sea bot-
tom and the air-water interface). The following example is used to demonstrate how
wave height is modified from the offshore areas towards the coastline due to seabed fric-
tion (this is a simplified example; in reality, other factors affecting the modification to
wave height should be included, in addition to seabed friction).
In shallow water areas, wave-induced water motion is present on the seabed,
forming a wave boundary layer. Within the boundary layer, some wave energy is lost due
to friction. The average rate of wave energy dissipation, due to bottom friction, may be
written as (Massel, 1989):
2
E,= ~ pf, U~b (6)
Here E, is the average energy dissipated due to bottom friction per unit area of the bed
and per unit time, f, is a dimensionless wave friction coefficient Factor, and Ub is the
maximum wave-induced n e a r - b e d current speed:
xH
U b- (7)
T sinh(k h~)
where H is wave height, T is the wave period, k is the wave number ( = 2 ~ / L
where L is the wave length), and hw is water depth. Let D be the distance b e B ~ n
Locations LI and L2 along a profile perpendicular to the coastline (with LI being lo-
cated to the seaward), and C be the wave celerity (the speed of wave propagation).
The total wave energy loss (over a unit area), when the waves propagate from Location
L I to Location L2, will be
~.=;~Edt (8)
Physically, the difference between the wave energy density at LI and L2 is Eto~ , defined
by Eqs.4 to 7. Hence, the relationship between the wave heights at Location LI ( H s )
and Location L2 (H2) can be written as
I__ pg(H~- H~ = E~,, (9)
8
Consequently, we can calculate the wave height at Location L2, using

H = ~H~ - 8E~ (10)

Pg
In Eqs. 7 to 10, both the wave height and the wave-induced water particle velocity are
functions of the horizontal distance from an origin along the coastal profde, although
these functions have not been expressed explicitly.
When Type I equilibrium is reached, the maximum wave-induced n e a r - b e d orbital
speed at any location within the system, calculated on the basis of F-as. 7 to 10, will not
exceed the critical speed ( U~, ) at the threshold of movement. Such speeds, written as
No. 2 EQUILIBRIUM COASTAL PROFILES 103

U~, can be expressed as:

nH
U,~- Tsin(k h,) ~<V,, (l l)
for wave action alone. Under the combined action of waves and tidal currents, the
equilibrium condition becorr~
nH
uc+ Tsin(k h.) 02)
here Uc is the tidally-induced near-bed current speed. Because, in Eqs.ll and 12, H
is a function of the horizontal distance and h, is a linear function of the vertical
coordinate, these two equations imply a fried h - x relationship and, therefore, a fixed
S-z relationship (using the definition S = dh/dx ).
The above description of the processes involved represents a simplified explanation,
but it provides a basic understanding of Type I equilibrium. Such equilibrium is consis-
tent with the concept of the graded profde described above. Elsewhere, the techniques of
calculating the equilibrium depth (known as the "depth of closure") have been evaluated
by Wright (1995).
a. T m n
In natural environments, most coastal sections have not yet reached the final stage of
erosion or the coast is simply not eroding. Hence, the S-z relationship representing
Type I equilibriuna, described above, cannot be applied to the entire pmfde. For the part
of the pmfde which is active in terms of sediment movement, other equilibrium conditions
may be derived on the basis of the sediment continuity equation.
Let us modify Eq.4 by averaging the various terms over the temporal scale on which
equilibrium is considered, so that

Ot ~ + ~.v =0 (13)
where the overbar represents the temporally-averaged value. Here, we consider a condition
that there is no variation in net sediment transport rates in the longshore diroaions at
any point along the profile i.e.
c3~, =0 (14)
0y
Such a situation will occur if the coastline is straight and there is no longshore variations
in hydrodynamic conditions. In this case only will spatial variations in sediment tran-
sport in the cross-shore directions along the coastal profile modify the shape of the
profile. Previous investigations (e.g. Leont' ev, 1985) have revealed some prevailing
transport mechanisms, such as: (i) asymmetric wave-induced currents; (ii)gravita-
tional flow; (iii) rip currents; and (iv) undertow. Thus, the net cross-shore transport
rate can he decomposed into a number of terms relating to these transport mechanisms
and, therefore, is influenced strongly by some negative feedbacks caused by the
interaction of these raechanisms. For example, due to any e n h a n ~ t of the asymme-
try in wave-induced currents, onshore sediment transport will increase. This process
will result in accretion near the high water mark, making the shoreface slope steeper. The
increase in beach slope will then enhance transport d i r ~ t ~ towards the offshore, cau-
sed by gravitational flow, rip currents, and undertow. Eventually, such a negative
feedback reduces the magnitude of net sediment transport rates and results in a zero
104 C-34IN~E J O U R N A L OF OCEANOLOGY A N D L I M N O L O G Y Vol.16

cross~hore transport at any point along the profile. This situation can be expressed
mathematically as:
cq~ = 0 (15)
3x
and
~-x=0 (16)
Under such a condition, there will be a "zero deposition rate" according to Eq. 13. This
equilibrium state, defined by Eq.16, has been identified by a number of researchers; this is
equivalent to the early concept of zero cross-shore transport. When such an equilibrium
state is reached, no accretion or erosion will take place if variations in longshore transport
rates do not exist. Here, this condition is referred to as Type II equilibrium.
The above result is obtained on the basis of theoretical analysis. In order to examine
whether or not such a model is valid, the shape of the coastal profde may be calculated
according to the zero transport assumption; this can be compared with the real profile.
To undertake such a comparison, the net cross-shore transport rate can be decomposed
into a number of terrm, each representing a particular transport mechanism (e. g.
asymmetric w a v e - induced currents, gravitational flow, rip currents, and undertow) for
the computation of mass balance. Based upon such an analysis, for example, Leont' ev
(1985) derived the following formula for n o n - b a r r e d beaches:
!
S=Az-T +B (17)
where the parameter A is controlled by hydrodynamic and sediment characteristics.
Some empirical observations have suggested that, for a spatially-and temporally-
averaged general shape, the coastal profde for n o n - b a r r e d beaches can be expressed as
a p o v ~ r - law relationship:
S=flz ~ (18)
where fl and n are constants. Eq. 18 can be derived from Eq.2. Based upon Eq.2 and
noting that the bed elevation is expressed in terms of the vertical coordinate, the bed
slope becorr~s (using m =2/3 in Eq.2)

0h l ,,-1 2 3_ _ s
S= Ox = m a r , z ,, ~ - or2 z 2 (19)
Eq.19 is the same as Eq.18 if we write fl = 2/3 ~3aand n = - 1/2.
Such a relationship has the same format as Eq.17, if the parameter B in Eq.17 is ze-
ro. Both equations predict that the bed slope is infinitive for x =0, implying that at
some point along the profde the bed is vertical (this not realistic for most natumlly-
o~urring beaches). Moreover, the equations cannot predict the profde morphology on bar-
red coasts, for which more studies are required.
4. Type Ill equfh'brium
Finally, we consider a condition that variations in the longshore transport rate exist:
~-- 4 : 0
.7
(20)
This condition shows that, aocording to Eq.13, accretion or erosion will take place along
the profde. However, this does not necessarily rrean that the shape of the profde will
change as well.
No. 2 EQUILIBRIUM COASTAL PROFILES 105

A spatial gradient of longshore transport rate will cause accretion or erosion over a
part of the profde. This results in temporal 'ttisequilibrium" of the profde (the original pro-
fde is assumed to be in Type 1I equilibrium). Whether or not the shape of the original
coastal profde will change in response to the variation in longshore transport rate depends
upon the magnitude of dqJdy, in comparison with that of 3qx/dx, under the
disequilibrium conditions. The idea is that when the shape of a profile is disturbed by
accretion or erosion the condition described by Eq. 16 is not satisfied; however, at this
time, as long as I~q~/3xl > > I3q~/~yl , the profde readjustment will take only a short peri-
od of time, followed by the restoration of equilibrium (represented by Eq.16).
in most cases, the magnitude of longshore drift ranges between 10 3 and 105 m 3 / a
(Nummedal et al., 1984). If this transport takes place over a 50 m profde, then qy is of
the order of 10 -3 to 10 I kg /ms. The magnitude of 3qy/3y will be much smaller, if the
longshore variations in wave action and sediment characteristics are small. On the other
hand, the magnitudes of instantaneous qx can be much larger. Daily beach elevation
changes in response to changes in hydrodynamic conditions can exceed 0.3 m(Musielak,
1978); this is equivalent to a cross-shore transport rate of more than 100 kg /ms.
Fredsoe and Deigaard (1992) also found that daily averaged cross-shore transport rates
caused by relatively small waves (with height of I m and period of 5 s) may reach I1
m 3 /md (i.e. 0. 25 kg /ms). Under the condition of disequilibrium, the magnitude of
~qx/3x can be of the same order as that of qx, at least at certain points along the profde.
The condition that the magnitude of dq~/dx is much greater than that of 3qy/dy was
also used by Wright (1995). Thus, any disturbance to the profde caused by accretion or
erosion can be eliminated rapidly by cross-shore transport and the beach profile can re-
spond rapidly to accretion or erosion. For an eroding coast, Johnson (1919) comnented
that 'h shore profile of equilibrium is early established, the maintenance of which is acx:om-
panied by constant recession of the shoreline". In this case, the shape of the profile is
still controlled by the feedback rrechanism for Type I1 equilibrium. The profile which is
affected by accretion or erosion will change in the form of "parallel advancermaat or re-
treat", as described by Fenneman(1902). Such equilibrium is referred to as Type HI
equilibrium.
The condition Idqx/dx[> >ldqy/Cgyl may not be satisfied. On a cliffed coast, for
example, landslides can transfer a large quantity of sedimentary material from a coastal
cliff onto the beach face. The resultant effect may be equivalent to the situation that
[3qy/Oy[ is not small compared with [dqJDx[. In this case, a disequilibrium state of the
coastal profile may exist persistently over a relatively long period if the volurre of materi-
al involved in a landslide event is large. This may happen also with beach renourishrm~t.
The coastal profde data in the form of h - x or S - x relationship may not be as
convenient as the S - z relationship, in describing the profile shape of Type III
equilibrium, Based upon the Bruun approach to Type II equilibrium, Eq.2 should be
modified into the following equation for the profde of Type [ ] equilibrium:
h = r~(x- RAt)~ (21 )
where R is the rate of horizontal advanoenlent ( R being positive) or retreat ( R be-
ing negative) of the shoreline and At is the time span during which changes in the
shoreline position take place. Thus, in dealing with Type [ ] equilibrium, the Bruun meth-
od involves the detem-~nation of the parameter R (which introduces some practical
difficulties). On the other hand, in order to describe the profile shape associated with the
106 CHINESE JOURNAL OF OCEANOLOGY AND LIMNOLOGY Vol.16

parallel retreat or advancement, Eq. 18 is still applicable, for both Types !1 and 111
equilibrium (in this equation, the parameter R is not involved).
For the reason outlined below, the relationship between S and x is also not conve-
nient to be used for defining Type Ill equilibrium. Let us consider the
tempomUy-averaged seabed elevation at any site along a coastal profile as a function of
the position and time. In the case of "pamUel shifting" of the pmf'ile in response to
shoreline advancement or retreat, the seabed elevation at x and t will be the same as that
at x + R A t and t + A t ,
h = (x.t) = -h(x + RAt.t + At) (22)
Thus, the rate of seabed elevation change over time At, at position x, can be written as:
td~ _ g( x.t + at ) - '& x,t )
At At
= -h(x,t+At)-h(x+RAt.t+At) (23)
At
=-R -h( x + RAt.t + At ) - -h(x.t + At )
&x
In the partial differential equation form, Eq. 23 becomes
- R-- (24)
at ~x
Inserting the above equation into Eq.13. we have

g= a~ l a~, aft,
ax - R ~ ~-x + W ) (25)
where

I s d~, ,Ih (26)

R = ~7o ,. a~--7

where tt,, is the range of water depth within which longshore sediment transport takes
place. In Eq. 25, R can be seen as a mnstant but the gradients of sediment trampon
rotes in x and y directions are functions of time. Hence, the slope defined by Eq. 25
is also a function of time. This implies that the S - x relationship changes with time
and, therefore, does not represent the equilibrium state (any temporally-averaged
parameter in equilibrium must be stationary with time).
However, if an offshore bar is present, then the use of S - : curves also has a
disadvantage: there will be at least three S values for some bed elevations, resulting in a
problem of determining a representative slope for these particular depths. In this aspect,
more studies are required.
CONCLUS IONS

(I) A number of definitions of eqmlibrium have existed,, based on: the null point con-
cept; the coastal gradation theory; the parallel retreat/advancmrent theory; the zL~O
cross-shore transport rate; the power law hypothesis; and beach evolution modelling.
(2) Analysis on the basis of the sediment continuity equation shows that these defini-
tions can be synthesised into three possible types of equilibrium. Type I equilibrium is as-
sodated with the condition that the instantaneous sediment transport rate becorrm small,
representing a final stage of morphology evolution on an eroding coast. Type II
 No. 2 EQUILIBRIUM COASTAL PROFILES 107

equilibrium means that net sediment transport rates in the longshore directions are con-
stant. Type HI equilibrium occurs when the gradient in longshore drift is not zero but is
small compared with that of cross-shore sedinmat fluxes during the temporal
disequilibrium period.
(3) Disequilibrium occurs if these conditions are not satisfied.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Dr A. Bradbury (New Forest District Council, England) for his constructive
discussiom and Dr Ke Xiankun for his constructive conuma~ts.

Rdmm~s

Brtam, P., 1954. Coast erosion and the de~o'lo~tmi of Ixach I:Xt:s Beach Erosion Board, T ~ a l Memo No.44, 79 p.
Comagiia, P., 1898. On leaches, in: Fisher, J. S. and Dolan, R. (editors), 1977, Beach Pmcem~ and Coastal
Hydm~cs, Dov~m, Hutc.2fingsonand Ross, Stmudsburg. p. 11-26.
Cormsh, V., 1898. On sea beaches and sand banks. ~. J. !1 : 528-559, 69,28-647.
Dally, W. R., Dean, R. G., 1984. Suspended sediment tramport and beach profile emlution. J. Waterway. Port, Coa,~t-
ol Oce~m F_~., ABCE ll0 : 15-33.
Dean, R. G., 1977. Equilibrium beach profiles: U.S. Atlantic 'and Gulf Coasts. Department of Civil Engmoering, Ocean
Engineering Report No. 12, University of Ddawa~, 45 p.
Dean, R. G., 1991. Equilibrium beach profiles: charactemtics and applications, d. Coast. Rex 7 : 53-84.
Dean, R. G , Heady, T. R., D o - - I t , A. P., 1993. A "blind-folded" test of equilibrium beach profile concepts
wrth New Zealand data. Mar. Geo/. 109 : 253- 266.
Fetmetmn, N. M., 1902. Development of the profile of equilibrium of the subaqueous sbom terraoe. J. Geol. 10:353 - 369.
Fmdsoc, J., Deigaard, R., 1992. Mechanics of Coastal Sediment Transport. World Scientific, Singapore, 369 p.
Greenmxxl, B., Miller, P. R., 1984. Sediment flux and equilibrium slopes in a barred nearshom. Mar. COd. ~ 79-98
Hayes, M.O., 1967. Relationship bet~oen coastal climate and bottom sedirmnt on the inner continental shelf. Mar.
Geol. 5 ; Ill - 132.
Hsu, J. R. C., Silvester, R., Xia, Y.M., 1989. ~ i t i e s on static equilibdttm bays. Coast. E,,u3. 12:353-369.
Johmon, D. W., 1919. Shorn ~ and Shoreline ~ o p m e n t . John Wiley, New York, 584 p.
King, C. A. M., 1972. Beaches and Coasts (2rid edition). Ed~ard Arnold, London, 570 p.
Leont'ev, I. O., 1985. Sediment transport and beach equilibrium profile. Coast. F.~. 9:. 277-291.
Liu, J. T. , Zarillo, G. A., 1989. Distribution of groan sizes aca,om a tramgnmive shotefane. Mar. C_n~. 87 :
121-136.
Massel, S. R., 1989. Hydrodynamics of Coastal Zones. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 336 p.
Musielak, S., 1978. Littoral pmcemes in the swash zone. Oceano/o0/a, $: 5-56. (in Polish, with English abstract).
Naim, R. B., Southgate, H. N., 1993. Deterministic profile modelling of nearsbom p ~ . Part H: Sediment transport
and beach profile development. Coaa. F-,,~3. 19:. 57-96.
~ , D., Sonntmfeld, D. L., Taylor, K., 1984. Sediment transport and ~ o g y at the surf zone of Presqm Isle,
Lake Erie, Pertmyt~ania. Mar. Geol. 60 : 99-122.
Pov,ell, K. A., 1986. The Hydraulic Behaviour of Shingle Beaches under Regular Wa~es of Nortrtal Inc'ideno~.
Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Southampton, 359 p.
Silverer, R., 1974. Coastal Engineering (Vol.2). Elsevier, Amsterdam, 338 p.
Southgate, H. N., Naim, R. B., 1993. Deterministic profile modelling of nearsbom p r o o f s . Part I: Waxes and Cur-
rents. Coast. Eng. 19 : 27-56.
Sunamura, T., 1984. Quantitative pttxtictiom of beach-face slopes. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 95 : 242-2,15.
Wright, L. D., 1995. Morpbodynamies of Inner Continental S h e l ~ . CRC Press, Boca Raton, 241 p.
Zenkovich, V. P., 1967. ~ of "Coastal Development (English edition). Oliver and Boyd, Edinbmgh, 738 p.