*This results in the formation of micelles as illustrated in Figure. ° * Micelles can be visualized as droplets of oil about 3-4 nanometers (nm) in diameter and covered with ions or polar groups. * According to this model, micelles form when a certain concentration of surfactant species, typically around 1 x 10%, is reached. *The concentration at which this occurs is called the critical micelle concentrationCOLLOIDAL STRUCTURE AND STABILITY * The stability of colloidal particulate matter is dependent on their electrokinetic property. * Colloidal particles acquiring similar primary charges develop repulsive forces that keep them apart and prevent their agglomeration. * The primary electrical charges could be either negative or positive. However, the majority of colloids that exist in aqueous systems are negatively charged.Coagulation and FlocculatiqnCoagulation and flocculation constitute the backbone processes in most water and advanced wastewater treatment plants. Their objective is to enhance the separation of particulate species in downstream processes such as sedimentation and filtration. Colloidal particles and other finely divided matter are brought together and agglomerated to form larger size particles that can subsequently be removed in a more efficient fashion.The traditional use of coagulation has been primarily for the removal of turbidity from potable water. However, more recently, coagulation has been shown to be an effective process for the removal of many other contaminants that can be adsorbed by colloids such as metals, toxic organic matter, viruses, and radionuclidesCoagulation process into three distinct and sequential steps: 1. Coagulant formation This two steps are usually fast and take place in a rapid- 2. Particle destabilization mixing tank. 3. Interparticle collisions The third step, interparticle - collisions, is a slower process that is achieved by fluid flow and slow mixing. This is the process that causes tige agglomeration of particles and it takes place in the flocculation tank.Coagulation is usually achieved through the addition of inorganic coagulants such as aluminum- or iron-based salts, and/or synthetic organic polymers commonly known as polyelectrolytes. Coagulant aids are available to help in the destabilization and agglomeration of difficult and slow to settle particulate material.APPLICATIONS OF COAGULATION 1. Enhancing the effectiveness of subsequent treatment processes . Removal of turbidity . Control of taste and odor . Coagulation of materials causing color . Removal of bacteria and viruses . Removal of metals and toxic materials . Coagulation of NOM (natural organic matter), humic materials which are the precursors of THMs and other DBPs 8. Removal of arsenic and radionuclides NOU BWHNPROPERTIES OF COLLOIDAL SYSTEMS * Colloids are very small particles that have extremely large surface area. * Colloidal particles are larger than atoms and ions but are small enough that they are usually not visible to the naked eye. They range in size from 0.001 to 10 Lum resulting in a very small ratio of mass to surface area. - * The consequence of this smallness in size and mass and largeness in surface area is that in colloidal suspensions 1. Gravitational effects are negligible, and 2. Surface phenomena predominate.Electrokinetic Properties The electrokinetic properties of colloids can be attributed to the following three processes: 1. lonization of groups within the surface of particles. 2. Adsorption of ions from water surrounding the particles. 3. lonic deficit or replacement within the structure of particlesOrganic substances and bacteria acquire their surface charges as a result of the ionization of the amino and carboxyl groups as shown below: R-NH,* > R-NH, +H* R-COOH > R-COO- +H* * The resulting charge on the surface of such parti¢les is a function of the pH. « Athigh pH values or low hydrogen ion concentrations, the above reactions shift to the right and the colloid is negatively charged. * Ata low pH, the reactions shift to the left, the carboxyl group is not ionized, and the particle is positively charged due to the ionized amino group. + When the pH is at the isoelectric point, the particle is neutral, ie., neither negatively nor positively charged.Oil droplets adsorb negative ions, preferably hydroxides (OH), fronssolution and, consequently, they develop a negative charge. Some other neutral particles adsorb selected ions from their surrounding medium such as calcium (Ca**) or phosphate (PO,3-) ions rendering them either positively or negatively charged, respectively Clays and other colloidal minerals may acquire a charge as a result of a deficit or imperfection in their internal structure. This is known as isomorphic replacementClays consist of a lattice formed of cross-linked layers of silica and alumina. In some clays there are fewer metallic atoms than nonmetallic ones within the mineral lattice producing a negative charge. In others, higher valency cations may be replaced by lower valency cations during the formation of the mineral lattice that renders the clay particles negatively charged. Examples of such imperfection include (a) The substitution of an aluminum ion (Al3*) by either Mg?* or Fe?* and (b) the replacement of Si** cation by Al>*. the type and strength of the charge resulting from this imperfection in the clay structure are independent of the surrounding water properties and pH. This is in contrast to the first two processes discussed above, in which both pH and ionic makeup of the surrounding solution play a big role in determining the sign and magnitude of the acquired charge on colloidal particles.Hydration Water molecules may also be sorbed on the surface of colloids, in addition to or in place of, other molecules or ions. The extent of this hydration depends on the affinity of particles for water. Colloidal particles that have water-soluble groups on their surface such as hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, and sulfonic exhibit high affinity for hydration and cause a water film to surround the particles. Such colloids are classified as hydrophilic (water loving) particles. On the other hand, colloids that do not show affinity for water and do not have bound water films are classified as hydrophobic (water etme coeBrownian Movement * Colloids exhibit a continuous random movement caused by bombardment by the water molecules in the dispersion medium. * This action, called Brownian movement, imparts kinetic energy to the particles that tends to cause an increase in the frequency of collisions, thus promoting coagulation. * Elevated temperature increases molecular velocity resulting in more kinetic energy and more intense Brownian movement.Tyndall Effect * Because colloidal particles have an index of refraction different from water, light passing through the dispersion medium and hitting the particles will be reflected. * The turbid appearance due to this interference with the passage of light is termed the Tyndall effect. * However, it should be noted that this might not always be the case. * Water-loving, hydrophilic, colloids may produce just a diffuse Tyndall cone or none at all. * The reason for this behavior can be attributed to the bound water layer surrounding colloids. * These particles will have an index of refraction not very different from that of the surrounding water. * Hence, the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium behave in a similar fashion toward the passage of light.Filterability * Colloids are small enough to pass through ordinary filters, such as paper and sand, but are large relative to ions in size, diffuse very slowly, and will not pass through membranes. ¢ Asaresult, colloidal particles can be readily removed by ultrafiltration but require coagulation prior to their efficient removal by ordinary filtration.Occurrence of Colloids in Water * Colloids composed of a variety of organic substances (including humic substances), inorganic materials (especially clays), and pollutants occur in natural water and wastewater. * These substances have a number of effects, including effects on organisms and pollutant transport. * The characterization of colloidal materials in water / wastewater is obviously very important, and a variety of means are used to isolate and characterize these materials. * The two most widely used methods are filtration and centrifugation °Kinds of Colloidal Particles * Colloids may be classified as hydrophilic colloids, hydrophobic colloids, or association colloids. These three classes are briefly summarized below. * Hydrophilic colloids generally consist of macromolecules, such as proteins and synthetic polymers, that are characterized by strong interaction with water resulting in spontaneous formation of colloids when they are placed in water. * In asense, hydrophilic colloids are solutions of very large molecules or ions. * Suspensions of hydrophilic colloids are less affected by the addition of salts to water than are suspensions,of hydrophobic colloids.° Hydrophobic colloids interact to a lesser extent with water and are stable because of their positive or negative electrical charges as shown in Figure. e *The charged surface of the colloidal particle and the counter-ions that surround it compose an electrical double layer, which causes the particles to repel each other. * Hydrophobic colloids are usually caused to settle from suspension by the addition of salts. * Examples of hydrophobic colloids are clay particles, petroleum droplets, and very small gold particles.Representation of negatively charged hydrophobic colloidal particles surrounded in solution by positively charged counter- ions, forming an electrical double layer. (Colloidal particles suspended in water may have either a negative or positive charge.)* Association colloids consist of special aggregates of ions and molecules called micelles. To understand how this occurs, consider sodium stearate, a typical soap with the structural formula shown below: HOnHna HHH H-C-C-¢-C C-66 Ce, HH AN AH AH AH WHE Represented as www) © The stearate ion has both a hydrophilic -CO, head anda long organophilic tail, CH3(CH2).¢-. © Asa result, stearate dhions in water tend to form clusters consisting of as many as 100 anions clustered together with their hydrocarbon “tails” on the inside of a spherical colloidal particle and their ionic “heads” on the surface in contact with water and with Na* counterions.Water-insoluble organic matter may be envained in the micelle, Representation of colloidal soap micelle particles