02 Whole

University of Wollongong Thesis Collections
University of Wollongong Thesis Collection

University of Wollongong Year 
3-D dynamic modeling and simulation of

a multi-degree of freedom 3-axle rigid
truck with trailing arm bogie suspension
Bohao Li
University of Wollongong
Li, Bohao, 3-D dynamic modeling and simulation of a multi-degree of freedom 3-axle rigid
truck with trailing arm bogie suspension, M. Eng. thesis, School of Mechanical, Materials and
Mechatronic Engineering, University of Wollongong, 2006. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/583
This paper is posted at Research Online.

http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/583
3-D Dynamic Modeling and Simulation of a
Multi-degree of Freedom 3-axle Rigid Truck with
Trailing Arm Bogie Suspension
A thesis submitted in (partial) fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of
MASTER OF ENGINEERING RESEARCH

(Mechanical Engineering)
from
UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG
by
Bohao Li, ME Prac
Faculty of Engineering
June 2006
CERTIFICATION
I, Bohao Li, declare that this thesis, submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the award of Master of Engineering Research, in the School of Mechanical, Material
& Mechatronic Engineering, University of Wollongong, is wholly my own work unless
otherwise referenced or acknowledged. The document has not been submitted for
qualifications at any other academic institution.
Bohao Li
5 April 2006
I
Acknowledgements
Development and completion of this thesis has been aided by the kind assistance of
many people, who have devoted their knowledge and time.
Dr Arnold McLean, contributed much to this thesis. His knowledge and experience in
the area of pneumatic systems and heavy vehicle air suspensions gave me great
assistance. He always encouraged me and provided many opportunities to contact the
industry including attendance at several conferences at which I presented several papers.
He also provided me with numerous research articles and trade brochures from his
collection and even assisted with financial assistance. Without his guidance, it would
have been impossible to complete this thesis.
Professor Michael West kindly took over my supervision after Dr Arnold McLean was
granted leave. His knowledge in dynamics and mathematics proved invaluable in
solving numerous problems incurred during the modeling process. He continuously
guided me and inspired me to employ various methods in the modeling process which
successfully transferred the physical vehicle into a mathematical model, eventually.
Special thanks should be given to Mr. Bill Haire, who kindly provided me financial
support to continuously study in Australia and provided me numerous opportunities to
contact the industry.
I would like to thank Dr Zhou Zhou, Mr Wang Xiaogang and Mr Zhou Jianwen, who
are my colleagues of the CAE Department of Changan Automobile Engineering
Institute, for their sustained help and support.
I would also like to thank Mr Li Kai from MSC Software Beijing Representative Office
and Mr Chen Song from MSC Software Chengdu Representative Office for their
II
assistance and question-answering in using MSC ADAMS.
Finally, I should thank my family in China and my friends all over Australia, who
supported me continuously in the last 4 years.
III
Abstract
This thesis concentrates on the modeling and simulation of a multi-degree of freedom 3-

axle rigid truck. The linear model features cab and seat suspensions, rigid live axles, and
suspension geometries. The Lagrange’s equation was used to obtain the motion
equations and system matrices, and the numerical central difference method was
adopted to obtain the system responses subject to sinusoidal road excitations,
programmed in MATLAB. Furthermore, the eigenvectors, the seat bounce acceleration,
the maximum dynamic tyre loads and the maximum suspension dynamic deflections
were studied. ADAMS/View was then used to conveniently reexamine the model in the
virtual environment as validation. Some advanced simulations such as sweep sine and
triangular bump excitation were also conducted in ADAMS. As a result, some very
important characteristics of this particular truck were revealed which can be used either
to better understand the vehicle dynamic performance or to improve the original design
specifications.
IV
List of Symbols
Amp , – Amplitude, m
Ar – Road roughness amplitude, m

C – System damping matrix of the 13 DoF truck model
C19 – System damping matrix of the 19 DoF truck-poster system model
F – The reaction force vector of the 19 DoF truck-poster system model
Fdmax – Maximum dynamic tyre force, N
Fs – Static tyre force, N
Fw – Tyre contact force, N
Fwmax – Maximum load applied on road, N
G – The gravity vector of the 19 DoF truck-poster system model
Gq ( f ) - Power spectrum density in the time domain
Gq (n) - Power spectrum density in the spatial domain
I1x – Inertia of the front axle unsprung mass (roll), 280kgm2

I2x – Inertia of the centre axle unsprung mass (roll), 510kgm2
I3x – Inertia of the rear axle unsprung mass (roll), 510kgm2
Ibx – Inertia of the spring mass excluding the cab, around the X axis (roll), 7800kgm2
Iby – Inertia of the sprung mass excluding the cab, around the Y axis (pitch), 78000kgm2
Icx – Inertia of the cab around the X axis (roll), 150kgm2
Icy – Inertia of the cab around the Y axis (pitch), 100kgm2
I y – Vehicle inertia around the pitch axle, kgm2
K – System stiffness matrix of the 13 DoF truck model

K19 – System stiffness matrix of the 19 DoF truck-poster system model
L – Road surface wave length, m
L f – Distance from the leading axle to CG, m
Lr – Distance from the trailing axle to CG, m
V
M – System mass matrix of the 13 DoF truck model
M1 – Front axle unsprung mass, 450kg
M2 – Centre axle unsprung mass, 1025kg
M3 – Rear axle unsprung mass, 1025kg
M19 – System mass matrix of the 19 DoF truck-poster system model
Mb – Sprung mass excluding the cab, 19000kg
Mc – Mass of the cab, 500kg
M cg – The connection mass at the position of CG, kg
M f – The concentrated mass at font axle, kg
M r – The concentrated mass at rear axle, kg
Ms – Mass of the seat and the driver, 120kg
M t – Total vehicle mass, kg
P – System potential energy

R – System dissipation energy
T – System kinematics energy
Tmin – The minimal period possessed in all modes
V0 – Critical speed at which the tyre begins to lose contact with the road , km/h
V30% – Critical Speed at which the tyre contact force begins to be less than 30% of the
static tyre load, km/h
W – Displacement vector of the 13 DoF truck model
W&– Velocity vector of the 13 DoF truck model
W&
&– Acceleration vector of the 13 DoF truck model
W19 – Motion vector or displacement vector of the 19 DoF truck-poster system model
W&19 – Velocity vector of the 19 DoF truck-poster system model
W&
& – Acceleration vector of the 19 DoF truck-poster system model
19
Ws – The static deflection vector of the 19 DoF truck-poster system model
VI
a1, a2, b1~b5, e1, e2, l1~l3 –Critical geometric dimensions, m
a max – Maximum relative seat acceleration, g
c1, c2 – Front suspension damping coefficients, 7028.5Ns/m

c3, c4, c5, c6 – Drive suspension coefficients, 14090.78Ns/m
cc1, cc2, cc3, cc4 – Cab suspension damping coefficients, 0.75e3 Ns/m
ce3 , ce4 , ce5 , ce6 – Drive axle suspension effective damping coefficients, Ns/m
cs – Seat damping coefficient, 0.2e3Ns/m

f(t) – Road excitation vector
h – The distance between CG and the roll centre, m
h(t − τ ) – the system unit impulse response when t = τ
k1, k2 – Front axle suspension spring stiffnesses, 10.2e4N/m

k3, k4, k5, k6 – Drive axle suspension spring stiffnesses, 20.9e4N/m
kc1, kc2, kc3, kc4 – Cab suspension spring stiffnesses, 100e3N/m
ke3 , ke4 , ke5 , ke6 – Drive axle suspension effective stiffnesses, N/m,
kw1, kw2 – Front tire stiffnesses, 0.69e6N/m

kw3, kw4, kw5, kw6 – Drive tyre stiffnesses, 1.38e6N/m
ks – Seat spring stiffness, 20e3N/m
n - Spatial frequency, m-1
u 1 – Steer axle left suspension static deflection, m
u 2 – Steer axle right suspension static deflection, m
u 3 – Centre axle left suspension static deflection, m
u 4 – Centre axle right suspension static deflection, m
u 5 – Rear axle left suspension static deflection, m
u 6 – Rear axle right suspension static deflection, m
VII
u c1 – Cab front left suspension static deflection, m
u c 2 – Cab front right suspension static deflection, m
u c 3 – Cab rear left suspension static deflection, m
u c 4 – Cab rear right suspension static deflection, m
u s – Seat suspension static deflection, m
u w1 – Left steer tyre static deflection, m
u w 2 – Right steer tyre static deflection, m
u w3 – Left centre tyre static deflection, m
u w 4 – Right centre tyre static deflection, m
u w5 – Left rear tyre static deflection, m
u w6 – Right rear tyre static deflection, m
v – Vehicle forward speed, m/s
w1 – Bounce of the left steer wheel poster type excitation rig, m
w2 – Bounce of the right steer wheel poster type excitation rig, m
w3 – Bounce of the left centre wheel poster type excitation rig, m
w4 – Bounce of the right centre wheel poster type excitation rig, m
w5 – Bounce of the left rear wheel poster type excitation rig, m
w6 – Bounce of the right rear wheel poster type excitation rig, m
w100 – Chassis bounce, m
w101 – Steer axle bounce, m
w102 – Centre axle bounce, m
w103 – Rear axle bounce, m
VIII
w104 – Cab bounce, m
w106 – Driver seat bounce, m
&
&t max – Maximum absolute seat acceleration, m/s2
w
∆f - Frequency bandwidth in the time domain, Hz
∆n - Frequency bandwidth in the spatial domain, Hz

∆t – Simulation time interval, 0.0005s
Λ – A n × n matrix comprised of the eigenvalues λi (i = 1,2,⋅ ⋅ ⋅, n)
Λ – A n × n matrix comprised of the eigenvalues λ i (i = 1,2,⋅ ⋅ ⋅, n)
α – The dynamic tyre force coefficient, dimensionless

δ , – Phase angle, rad
ε – Suspended mass distribution coefficient
θ 100 – Chassis roll, radian
θ 101 – Steer axle roll, radian
θ 102 – Centre axle roll, radian
θ 103 – Rear axle roll, radian
θ 104 – Cab roll, radian
ρ y – Vehicle gyration radius around the pitch axle, m
σ q2~ ∆n - The power of the road unevenness in the bandwidth of ∆n
ϕ – A 2n × n matrix comprised of the eigenvector ϕ i (i = 1,2,Λ , n)
ϕ – A 2n × n matrix comprised of the eigenvector ϕ i (i = 1,2,Λ , n)
ϕ100 – Chassis pitch, radian
ϕ104 – Cab pitch, radian
IX
ϕ n – The phase angle of the nth wheel, rad
φ – An n × n matrix comprised by φ i (i = 1,2,Λ , n)
φ – An n × n matrix comprised by φ i (i = 1,2,Λ , n)
ω , – System natural frequency, rad/s
ω dr – Drive frequency, rad/s; ω dr = 2πv / L
X
List of Figures and Tables
Figure (2-1): 3-axle rigid truck chassis layout

Figure (2-2): Truck chassis layout simplified 3-D view
Figure (2-3): Adopted vehicle axis system
Figure (2-4): 3-axle rigid truck general model
Figure (2-5): 3-axle rigid truck model 3-D view
Figure (2-6): Equivalent stiffness and damping of a trailing arm suspension
Figure (2-7): 3-D rigid truck model using equivalent suspension stiffness and damping
Figure (3-1): Road Profile
Figure (3-2): Road excitations of high and low frequency cases
Figure (3-3): Excitation phase angle between the left and the right steering wheel
Figure (3-4a): System time response, 1st – 7th DoF, high drive frequency, ϕ12 = 0
Figure (3-4b): System time response, 8th – 13th DoF, high drive frequency, ϕ12 = 0
π
Figure (3-5a): System time response, 1st – 7th DoF, high drive frequency, ϕ12 =
2
π
Figure (3-5b): System time response, 8th – 13th DoF, high drive frequency, ϕ12 =
2
Figure (3-6a): System time response, 1st – 7th DoF, low drive frequency, ϕ12 = 0
Figure (3-6b): System time response, 8th – 13th DoF, low drive frequency, ϕ12 = 0
π
Figure (3-7a): System time response, 1st – 7th DoF, low drive frequency, ϕ12 =
2
π
Figure (3-7b): System time response, 8th – 13th DoF, low drive frequency, ϕ12 =
2
Figure (3-8a): Seat to cab floor relative bounce time response, high drive frequency,
ϕ12 = 0
Figure (3-8b): Cab to chassis relative bounce time response, high drive frequency,
ϕ12 = 0
XI
π
ϕ12 =
2
π
ϕ12 =
2
Figure (3-10a): Seat to cab floor relative bounce time response, low drive frequency,
ϕ12 = 0
Figure (3-10b): Cab to chassis relative bounce time response, low drive frequency,
ϕ12 = 0
π
ϕ12 =
2
π
ϕ12 =
2
Figure (4-1): Dynamic tyre load time response, V=27.78m/s, ϕ12 = 0
π
Figure (4-2): Dynamic tyre load time response, V=27.78m/s, ϕ12 =
2
Figure (4-3): Dynamic tyre load time response, V=4.17m/s, ϕ12 = 0
π
Figure (4-4): Dynamic tyre load time response, V=4.17m/s, ϕ12 =
2
Figure (4-5): Left steer tyre maximum dynamic tyre load versus speed
Figure (4-6): Right steer tyre maximum dynamic tyre load versus speed
Figure (4-7): Left centre tyre maximum dynamic tyre load versus speed
Figure (4-8): Right centre tyre maximum dynamic tyre load versus speed
Figure (4-9): Left rear tyre maximum dynamic tyre load versus speed
Figure (4-10): Right rear tyre maximum dynamic tyre load versus speed
Figure (4-11): Main suspension dynamic deflection time response, V=27.78m/s,
ϕ12 = 0

π
ϕ12 =
2
XII
Figure (4-13): Main suspension dynamic deflection time response, V=4.17m/s, ϕ12 = 0

π
ϕ12 =
2
Figure (4-15): Seat bounce acceleration time response, V=27.78m/s, ϕ12 = 0
π
Figure (4-16): Seat bounce acceleration time response, V=27.78m/s, ϕ12 =
2
π
2
Figure (4-19): Relationships between Gq(f), Gq(n) and v
Figure (5-1a): The ADAMS/View model of the 3-axle truck in wireframe mode
Figure (5-1b): The ADAMS/View model of the 3-axle truck in rendered mode
Figure (5-2): Seat acceleration for the 0.4g acceleration condition
Figure (5-3): Seat acceleration for the0.6g deceleration condition
Figure (5-4): Seat acceleration for the 0.5g left cornering condition
Figure (5-5): Seat acceleration for the 0.5g right cornering condition
Figure (5-6): Seat acceleration for the 5g bounce condition
Figure (5-7): Comparison of the seat acceleration PSD for the sweep sine simulation
Figure (5-8): Comparison of the seat, cab and chassis vertical acceleration PSD for the
sweep sine simulation
Figure (5-9): Comparison of the vertical acceleration PSD transferability for the sweep
sine simulation
Figure (5-10): Chinese standard triangular bump pulse excitation for heavy trucks
Figure (5-11): Triangular bump pulse excitation seat vertical acceleration magnitude
frequency response
Figure (5-12): Seat vertical vibration factor contribution chart
Figure (6-1): Position of the roll centre and the CG
Figure (6-2): Location of the roll axis
XIII
Table (2-1): Critical Geometric Dimensions
Table (2-2): Static deflections of some critical components
Table (2-3): Reaction forces on tyres
Table (3-1): Some system characteristics of different modes
Table (3-2): Phase angles of the eigenvectors in degrees
Table (4-1): The maximum dynamic tyre load and dynamic road load, V=27.78m/s,
ϕ12 = 0
π
ϕ12 =
2
ϕ12 = 0
Table (4-4): Maximum dynamic deflections of vehicle main suspensions, V=4.17m/s,

π
ϕ12 =
2
Table (4-5): Speed at which the tyres lose contact with the road
ϕ12 = 0
ϕ12 = 0.5π
ϕ12 = 0

π
ϕ12 =
2
Table (5-1) : Joints types, numbers and functions
Table (5-2): ADAMS/View truck model predicted static tyre forces
Table (5-3): ADAMS/View truck model predicted suspension static deflections
Table (5-4): ADAMS/View truck model predicted maximum dynamic tyre forces
XIV
Table (5-5): Adams/ View truck model predicted modal parameters
Table (5-6): ADAMS/View truck model predicted mode principal motions
Table (5-7): Predicted static tyre force comparison
Table (5-8): Predicted maximum dynamic tyre force comparison
Table (5-9): Predicted static suspension deflection comparison
Table (5-10): Predicted damped natural frequencies comparison
Table (5-11): Predicted seat accelerations for various extreme operational conditions
Table (5-12): Predicted maximum seat vertical accelerations at different speeds for the
triangular bump pulse excitation.
Table (5-13): Candidate factor settings
Table (5-14): Factor combination trail list
XV
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Table of Contents.............................................................................................................1
Chapter 1: Introduction..................................................................................................4
1.1 Background .............................................................................................................4
1.2 Thesis Aims .............................................................................................................4
1.3 Literature Review....................................................................................................5
1.3.1 Brief Development History of Vehicle Dynamics ...........................................5
1.3.2 Ride Dynamics .................................................................................................7
1.3.3 Dynamic modeling of the vehicle vibration system.........................................8
1.3.4 Previous research finding...............................................................................10
1.3.5 Heavy vehicle dynamics ................................................................................ 11
1.4 Features of the Model Used in This Thesis...........................................................14
1.5 Methodology .........................................................................................................15
Chapter 2: Modeling of a 19 DoF 3-Axle Rigid Truck – Poster Vibration System .16
2.1 The Trailing Arm Bogie Suspension .....................................................................16
2.2 Global Coordinate System ....................................................................................18
2.3 Assumptions and Simplifications..........................................................................18
2.4 Limitations ............................................................................................................19
2.5 Some Special Considerations for Various Components........................................20
2.5.1. Modeling of the Unsprung Mass...................................................................20
2.5.2 Motion of the Cab ..........................................................................................20
2.5.3 Sprung Mass Distribution ..............................................................................21
2-6 Derivation of the System Motion Equation Using the Lagrange’s Equation .......21
2.6.1 Degrees of Freedom .......................................................................................21
2.6.2 Drawings of the Model ..................................................................................22
2.6.3 Derivative of the Motion Equations...............................................................27
2.7 Calculation of the Suspension Static Deflection and the Reaction Force on Each
Wheel ..........................................................................................................................47
Chapter 3: Model Numerical Simulation....................................................................54
3.1 Reduction of the 19 DoF truck-poster model to the 13 DoF truck model ............54
1
Table of Contents
3.2 Calculation of eigenvalues and eigenvectors in state-space .................................55

3.3 Complex eigenvalues, complex eigenvectors and the complex modal matrix .....56
3.4 Some system characteristics obtained by eigenvalues and eigenvectors ..............59
3.5 System Simulation ................................................................................................63
3.5.1 The central difference method........................................................................63
3.5.2 Road roughness excitation .............................................................................63
3.5.3 Time response predictions..............................................................................67
Chapter 4: Case Studies................................................................................................79
4.1 Dynamic tyre force................................................................................................79
4.2 Maximum dynamic suspension deflection............................................................91
4.3 Maximum seat bounce acceleration ......................................................................96
Chapter 5: Simulation of the 13 DoF Truck Model Using ADAMS/View..............103
5.1 ADAMS Modeling ..............................................................................................103
5.2 Preprocessing of the ADAMS/View Model........................................................103
5.2.1 Adaptation of the 13 DoF Model to the ADAMS/View Model ...................103
5.2.2 Modeling of the Suspension Force...............................................................104
5.2.3 Joints of the ADAMS/View Model ..............................................................104
5.2.4 Motion Constraints.......................................................................................105
5.2.5 Modeling of the Vibrating Actuators............................................................106
5.3 Simulation of the ADAMS Model ......................................................................107
5.3.1 ADAMS Solver Settings ..............................................................................107
5.3.2 Simulation Types..........................................................................................108
5.3.3 Static Simulation ..........................................................................................109
5.3.4 Dynamic Simulation .................................................................................... 110
5.3.5 Modal Simulation......................................................................................... 111
5.3.6 Comparison of the ADAMS Simulation Results with the Previous 13 DoF
Model .................................................................................................................... 114
5.3.7 Extreme Operational Condition Simulation................................................. 118
5.3.8 Sweep Sine Simulation ................................................................................121
5.3.9 Standard Triangular Bump Excitation Simulation .......................................124
5.3.10 Contribution Analysis ................................................................................126
Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations.......................................................130
6.1 Conclusions .........................................................................................................130
2
Table of Contents
6.2 Special Considerations for Vehicle Roll Mechanics ...........................................132

6.3 Further Research Recommendations ..................................................................135
References ....................................................................................................................138
Appendix 1: Static Deflection and Reaction Force - MATLAB Programming Code
.......................................................................................................................................142
Appendix 2: MATLAB Programming Simulation Code .........................................149
Appendix 3: System Time Responses ........................................................................162
Appendix 4: Truck Model Mode Shapes...................................................................190
3
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Background
Modern heavy vehicles are extremely sophisticated machines. Although some

components or arrangements look primitive compared with those found on passenger
cars, they do exhibit distinctive characteristics. The suspension system is one of the
most complicated systems on heavy vehicles. With the development of the technology,
the suspension of modern heavy vehicles is very different to that used on passenger cars.
On one hand, leaf springs are still dominantly on the steer axle suspension, whereas they
are longer used on passenger cars. On the other hand, air suspensions are rapidly
replacing the traditional “steel” drive suspensions. The latter air suspensions exhibit
different characteristics compared to the well-proven steel or mechanical drive system.
However, research on heavy vehicle suspension systems is, although not limited,
insufficient. Some research only focuses on the suspension itself rather than to integrate
the suspension analysis into analysis of the complete vehicle. Those who did model the
whole vehicle often over-simplified the model. The problems of modeling a heavy
vehicle, especially the heavy truck in the case of this thesis, are multifold: with the non-
independent suspension and the rigid live axles the motions of wheels are coupled; with
the multi-axle arrangement the load sharing is not even; with the air suspension
incorporated, the suspension characteristics are highly nonlinear.
1.2 Thesis Aims
This thesis mainly focuses on a complete 3-D rigid truck model incorporating trailing
arm drive suspension geometries. This analysis is helpful to better understand the
coupled motions of the wheels. The load sharing function and the nonlinear spring
characteristics are not covered in this initial investigation which may be further studied
in the future. The developed model is then simulated to obtain system responses in both
the time and frequency domains. Furthermore, some studies will be conducted to
evaluate vital truck performances characteristics subject to a more realistic and easier
4
understood background. Finally, the initial mathematical model will be transferred to

ADAMS/View to facilitate some advanced analyses and calibration of the initial model
evaluations.
1.3 Literature Review
Overview of the Development of Vehicle Dynamics

This thesis mainly focuses on the dynamic modeling and simulation of a multi-Degree
of Freedom (DoF) truck model, which lies in the category of vehicle dynamics. Before
the modeling and simulation processes are described in details, it is essential to have an
overview of the development of vehicle dynamics. This discussion is appropriate to
provide the reader a general idea of the state of the art of this particular area.
1.3.1 Brief Development History of Vehicle Dynamics
Vehicle dynamics is a relatively newly established discipline with a history less than
100 years. It derives from awareness of various ride problems experienced in early
vehicles. In the early 1930’s, engineers such as Lanchester, Olley and Broulheit began
to analyze suspension kinematics [7], cornering kinematics and tyre dynamics during
their research on development of independent suspensions. Up to present two major
research directions are formed in the category of vehicle dynamics: Ride Dynamics and
Handling Dynamics.
Vehicle dynamics was in its first “golden age” in the 1950’s, during which period the
linear dynamics theory was established [7]. In 1993, Segel [34] made a speech to an I.
Mech. E conference, giving the audience an overview of the infantile development of
the vehicle dynamics. He divided the achievement of the early vehicle dynamic research
into 3 stages:
z Stage 1 (up to the early of the 1930’s)
Examination of vehicle dynamic performance based on experience;
Practical experience of front wheel hunting;
Awareness of the importance of the ride performance.
z Stage 2 (From the early of 1930’s to 1952)
5
Understanding of the simple tyre dynamics and definition of the slip angle;
Definition of “Understeering” and “Oversteering”;
Understanding of the steady-state cornering characteristics;
Establishment of the simple 2 DoF handling model;
Test work in relation to ride performance and presenting the concept of “flat ride”;
Introduction of front independent suspension.
z Stage 3 (After 1952)
Deeper understanding of the tyre characteristics after testing and modeling;
Establishment of the 3 DoF handling model;
Extension of handling, stability and cornering response analysis;
Initial prediction of the ride performance using random vibration theory.
After 1950’s, vehicle dynamics developed even more rapidly. During this period it was
further explored in several important areas. First, test methodologies were more
complete and test standards were established. Researcher’s understanding of nonlinear
response characteristics improved allowing improved nonlinear modelling. Second, with
the development of CAE technology, the availability of some general simulation
software and the development of Multi-body System Dynamics (MBS) techniques and
various numerical methods, it is now possible to simulate a complicated vehicle model
with large numbers of DoFs in relatively short time and with high accuracy.
Meanwhile, active control technology began to be adopted on practical vehicles. Active

suspension, active anti-roll bar, active steering and active engine mounts were
developed in the past 20 years. Many designs have since then been installed on practical
vehicles. Integration of modern control theory into traditional vehicle technology has
been a popular research area.
In the past 60 years, although the theory of the vehicle dynamics has achieved great
success in improving passenger vehicle dynamic performance, it is still deficient.
Notably vehicle manufacturers currently use both subjective and objective evaluation
techniques to assess vehicle dynamic performance, and pure CAE technology is
supplemented and even integrated by test results using so called “Hybrid Modeling”.
6
1.3.2 Ride Dynamics
In this thesis, the vehicle multi-DoF dynamic model established is mainly used to
evaluate the truck ride related characteristics. Therefore, only ride dynamics will be
presented in this section to give some background information in this particular area.
As previously briefly noted Lanchester might have conducted the initial research,
beginning in 1900, into the basic theory of vehicle vibration when he was designing his
own car.[7] However, until 1930’s, research related to ride comfort was essentially
based on experience or trial and error.
In 1930’s, debates about ride comfort problems became prevalent so promoting several
other researchers. One of these researcher Olley made great contribution to improved
understanding of the relationship between bounce natural frequency, pitch natural
frequency and the stiffness distribution of the front and rear suspensions. [7]
Further development of ride dynamics was the result of more recent comprehensive
measurement and calculation methods which have been developed. To this end MIRA
(ex. Institute of Automotive Engineering, UK) made great contribution to this. Its
achievement included the measurement of road unevenness, the relationship between
subjective and objective evaluations, development of some special measurement
equipment, adoption of computer-aided dynamics calculation, etc. [7].
As far as the development of the generic dynamic model is concerned, during this
period the “Lumped Mass Model” was widely used by many researchers, with random
road unevenness as the excitation. Mitschke was one of such researchers who made
great contribution to the area. He suggested using the mean square root of the vertical
acceleration to evaluate the random ride characteristics [22]. This approach has been
widely accepted by other researchers. His work “Dynamik der Kraftfahrzeuge” was
considered as ‘classic technology source’ for long time, covering all aspects of the
traditional vehicle dynamics theory.
In the area of ride dynamics, researchers are most interested in 3 areas: the dynamic
7
deflection of the suspension, the dynamic tyre force and the vertical acceleration at
various places. The dynamic deflection determines if and how frequently the suspension
will reach the suspension travel limits (ie hit the rubber stop (if fitted)). The dynamic
tyre force determines if the wheel will jump off the ground or alternatively if the wheel
contact force will damage the pavement surface. The vertical acceleration, following the
rule defined in ISO 2631 “Guide for the evaluation of human exposure to whole body
vibration” [14], can be converted to weighted vibration ratings, which is used as a
criterion to determine the ride performance.
“Primary ride” and “Secondary ride” are another two important concepts [7]. The
“Primary ride” is the ride that can be analyzed via mathematic modeling. However, the
“Primary ride” does not cover all vibration characteristics of a operating vehicle. Some
characteristics such as structural vibration response beyond 15 Hz, harshness problems
in the high frequency range, nonlinear rubber bush effects, etc. are difficult to be
accurately described by mathematical modeling. These characteristics are considered as
“Secondary ride” or second order effects. However, “Secondary ride” concerns are of
significant interest in the broader NVH (Noise, Vibration and Harshness) investigations.
Consequently secondary ride considerations will not be covered in this thesis.
1.3.3 Dynamic modeling of the vehicle vibration system
Generally there are 3 different dynamical models for a rigid vehicle according to the
level of simplification. [47]
Typically three dimensional (3-D) vehicle models are widely used in the research of
vehicle dynamics for both vehicle vibration and handling simulation. A basic 3-D 2-axle
rigid vehicle (ie a typical truck void of a trailer) model includes 7 DoF. The associated
system variables are the bounce, roll, pitch of the suspended mass and bounces of the 4
wheels. For simplification reasons, it is usually assumed that the roll and pitch axis
intersect at the suspended mass CG if it is not extremely high. Thus, no non-linear
characteristics due to CG shifting will occur during body roll with the products of the
vehicle body inertia terms eliminated at the same time.
8
If it is assumed that the vehicle is symmetrical about its longitudinal plane and the road
excitations on the left and right tracks are exactly identical, the vehicle then only
exhibits 4 degrees of freedom. Namely, the bounce and pitch of the suspended mass; the
bounce of the front axle (unsuspended mass) and the bounce of the rear axle
(unsuspended mass). This is called a 2-D bounce-pitch model. Similarly, if there are no
road excitations but vehicle lateral accelerations due to heading changes, or if the
difference between the left and right track is only that due to road camber, a 2-D vehicle
roll model can be obtained.
Furthermore, for a 2-D 2-axle bounce-pitch model, the suspended mass can be
decomposed into 3 concentrated masses located at the front axle, CG and rear axle,
respectively. Obviously, the decomposed masses must fulfill the following
requirements:
1. The total suspended mass is unchanged:
M f + M r + M cg = M t (1-1)
2. The CG position is unchanged:
M f L f − M r Lr = 0 (1-2)
3. The moment of inertia is unchanged:
I y = M t ρ y2 = M f L2f + M r L2r (1-3)
Where:
M f – The concentrated mass at front axle, kg
M r – The concentrated mass at rear axle, kg

M cg – The connection mass at the position of CG, kg
M t – Total vehicle mass, kg
L f – Distance from the leading axle to CG, m
9
Lr – Distance from the trailing axle to CG, m

I y – Vehicle inertia around the pitch axle, kgm2
ρ y – Vehicle gyration radius around the pitch axle, m
Let the suspended mass distribution coefficient be ε . If ε is 1, M cg equals 0. In this
case, the concentrated masses on the front and rear axles vibrate independently in terms
of bounce motion. This implies that if the front axle is excited the M f will bounce but
the M r will remain static, and vice versa. Researchers show that most road vehicles
exhibit a ε value ranging between 0.8 and 1.2. [22] Therefore, in some cases, the
bounce-pitch model can be further simplified into two off 2 DoF body-wheel vibration
systems with each 2 DoF system representing the front and rear axles, respectively.
1.3.4 Previous research finding
The 2 DoF body-wheel vibration system is the simplest vehicle dynamic model and is
well understood. If the frequency of the road excitation closes to the natural frequency
of the suspended mass, low frequency resonance will occur. Because the vibration
amplitude of the body is much larger than that of the wheel, this is called “body
vibration”. On the other hand, if the frequency of the road excitation closes to the
natural frequency of the wheel, high frequency resonance will occur. This phenomenon
is called “wheel vibration” due to the wheel’s much larger vibration amplitude
compared to that of the body.
The 2-D bounce-pitch vehicle model has also been studied in depth. Research shows the
bounce motion is produced by pavements exhibiting short wavelength (high frequency).
On the contrary, the pitch motion is produced by pavements exhibiting longer
wavelength (low frequency) and it most likely appears only at lower speeds. [22][27] As
early as 1930s, Maurice Olley developed 3 basic design rules for better ride quality
which are still used today. [27] These rules are based on findings of a bounce-pitch
model. He found that the best road vehicle ride is obtained by placing the bounce centre
behind the rear axle and the pitch centre near the front axle. This can be achieved by
designing the front suspension with lower natural frequency than the rear suspension. A
10
lower front suspension natural frequency will tend to induce bounce rather than pitch
because the road excitation affects the front wheel first and the bounce motion is less
annoying than the pitch motion in terms of vehicle occupant subjective assessment
The researches of roll model often focus on the effect due to shifted CG. This usually
occurs in the case when the position of the CG is relatively high or the roll centre is
relatively low. To know the precise position of the roll centre requires detailed study of
the suspension type. On the other hand, a simple roll model without suspension
compliance tends to underestimate the extra roll behavior due to CG shifting. However,
Hac [11] developed a series of roll models including the suspension compliance to
simulate the roll behaviors of typical SUVs which, exhibiting relatively higher CG, are
very roll-sensitive.
A 3-D vehicle dynamic model may be set up to include dozens of DoF, although 7
degrees of freedom, as described previously, is sufficient for general passenger cars. The
more DoF a particular model has, the much more complex the associated system matrix.
A high DoF model can provide more information otherwise omitted from a simple
model, but it requires considerably more solution resources. Therefore, reasonable
simplifications are important in order to find a compromise between ease of solution
and information abundance. However, with the development of numerical methods and
the availability of the now ubiquitous powerful simulation software packages, the
advantages of dynamic models, with large DOFs, can be adopted
Further refinements can be included in the modeling. For example, Zili Zhou [51]
developed an 8 DoF model based on a Nissan Pulsar passenger car extended to include
driver seat bounce motion and piecewise linearization of the non linear dampers.
1.3.5 Heavy vehicle dynamics
Research on heavy vehicles dynamics has experienced rapid development in recent

years. The adoption of computer-aided numerical simulation greatly expanded the
research activities. The latter research examined some previously unexplored aspects
and 2nd order effects. However, more handling dynamics research was conducted
11
relative to that conducted on ride dynamics. This research bias resulted from the
multiplicity, safety implication and significance of rollover accidents incurred by
articulated vehicles. Consequently Winkler of UMTRI [43] did a lot of work in this area.
Hac [11] expanded the general vehicle roll model to suit vehicles with high CG and
considered the effects of suspension compliance. On the other hand, in the area of ride
dynamics, Sweatman, in the 1980’s, conducted extensive research focusing on dynamic
wheel loading from different heavy vehicle suspensions and the predicted effect on the
pavement due to the dynamic wheel loads. [38] Cebon [2] and Coles [6] used computer
based modeling to determine optimal vehicle suspension parameters and to predict the
pavement wear mechanism. Port [28] used experimental methods to determine different
suspensions’ dynamic wheel loads on pavements. NRTC of Australia also did a lot of
research on the so termed “road friendly suspensions” [25]. Active control theory is
also adopted in the field of heavy vehicle dynamics. One example is the research by
Sampson [32] who conducted extensive modeling to design an innovative active anti-
roll bar for semi-trailers.
For the heavy vehicle modeling, Cebon [1] developed some complicated truck model
with large degrees of freedom. Such a comprehensive model is difficult to solve using
traditional methods, but fortunately there are some commercial simulation software
packages currently available. The most widely used general MBS software available is
the MSC. ADAMS package. Similar software includes DADS, LMS TestLab and
VDAS developed by the University of Leeds. Software that is specially developed for
heavy vehicle dynamic simulation such as TruckSim is also available. Even the general
purpose robust simulation package SIMULINK can be used with great advantage. For
example Wang Li [42] developed a 10 DOF truck model combining road unevenness
excitation, engine excitation and transmission torsional excitation simultaneously using
SIMULINK with the simulation results closely matching test results. Cong Yingbiao [5]
also successfully modeled an air-suspended coach by using SIMULINK. However, for
air-suspended heavy vehicles with load-sharing, it is extremely useful to combine
SIMULINK with ADAMS to conduct so-called “joint simulation”. Here the former
concentrates on the pneumatic part and latter on the mechanical part. With these
powerful computer-aided engineering tools, accurate models can be built with many
DoFs. For example, using ADAMS, the 1st Academy of China Aerospace Technology
12
Group built an 8*8 heavy missile TEL (Transport, Erection and Launch) vehicle model
comprising 46 movable parts, 68 joints and 8 hydropneumatic independent suspensions
[18]. Solving such a complicated model is hard to imagine without the aid of computer.
However, it is not always necessary to include such large DoFs in a particular model.
There is always a balance between reality, accuracy and solution speed. In many cases,
a basic 3D model with relative less DoFs is sufficient. When more accurate results are
needed some strategic DoFs can be added.
Heavy vehicles, typically trucks and buses, have very different structures compared to
passenger cars. These differences demand special consideration. For example the
Changchun Automobile research centre of China [9] developed a 10 DoF model which
is based on a 2-axle Jie Fang CA1091 medium truck. Because the truck uses non-
independent suspension combined with rigid live axles, two concentrated masses are set
up to represent the front and rear unsprung masses. On the other hand, the chassis is
considered flexible rather than rigid. To decide how many DoFs were included in this
model, mode analysis and the Statistical Energy Analysis (SEA) were conducted to find
the energy distribution of the whole vehicle system. As the result, 10 DoFs were
selected to account for 99% of the total vibrational energy. The paramount DoF
identified included the driver seat bounce, chassis bounce, pitch and roll, chassis
longitudinal bend, chassis twist, front unsprung mass bounce and roll, and rear unsprung
mass bounce and roll, respectively.
Air suspension malfunction and adverse performance is another research hotspot. Air
suspended trucks have been identified to exhibit some safety, durability, ride and
pavement damage related problems. To date few government authorities, industry
representatives and original equipment manufacturers are fully aware of the extent and
significance of this problem. Governments do commit some funds on research, but this
is essentially limited to investigating pavement damage and safety aspects without
inclusion of the heavy vehicle suspension in the investigations. Relatively less research
concerns ride of air-suspended trucks because it is commonly assumed air suspended
are more “road and driver/cargo friendly” relative to a drive axle leaf sprung heavy
vehicle. However, as Cebon pointed out [2], this is not always the truth.
13
In 1999, an investigation was conducted by the Roaduser International Pty Ltd., led by
Peter Sweatman [39], in response to some truck drivers’ complaints. It revealed some
problems in ride and handling performance, and in both cases the test air suspended
vehicles were not consistent with the benchmark vehicles provided by manufacturers.
Since then, McLean, Haire and Lambert have been heavily involved in ongoing research
in this area. Some research findings suggest that the rigid trailing arm on some air
suspensions, the ineffective load-sharing between drive axles on most air suspended
trucks and the chaotic control strategy of some ride height control valve largely
contribute to the malfunction and adverse performance of the air suspensions. [19] [20]
[21]
1.4 Features of the Model Used in This Thesis
The modeling process used in this thesis combines some ideas from previous modeling
practices, and adds some new features. Because methods such as FEA and actual modal
test require comprehensive test rigs it is not practical for this project at this level. In
particular the aim of this project is not intended to build a model covering all the
degrees of freedom. However, a sufficient number of extra DoFs are introduced to make
the model more realistic than other primitive models. The modeling object is a typical
rigid 3-axle heavy truck equipped with trailing arm bogie suspension which is most
likely found on air suspended trucks. As typical equipment on this class trucks, a fully
suspended cab (usually by air) is also included in this model. This inclusion implies the
cab exhibits independent bounce, roll and pitch motions. Furthermore, a suspended
driver-seat system is also incorporated which subsequently implies the seat (and hence
attached driver) exhibits independent bounce.
Furthermore, the live rigid axles and the non-independent suspensions are modeled
following the process used in the Jie Fang truck model [45], although the chassis is
considered absolutely rigid without any bend or twist deflections. The road excitations
include simple sinusoidal input, sweep-sine input and triangular bump input but there is
no random input adopted. Piecewise linearization of the real non linear shock absorbers
is replaced by equivalent conventional linear invariant viscous damping. The
mathematical model is derived using Lagrange’s equation and MATLAB script is used
14
to effect numerical solution. In the latter phase of this investigation some advanced
simulations are conducted using ADAMS/View. Predicted solutions from this package
are also used to validate the initial mathematical model.
The vehicle simulated is a 3-axle rigid truck. Since a 3-axle vehicle is a statically
indeterminate structure the stiffness matrix combined with boundary conditions is used
to calculate the suspension static deflection and the static reaction force (static load on
each tyre).
1.5 Methodology
As previously stated the Lagrange’s equation is used to obtain the motion equations and
system matrices are then assembled. To simulate this model the numerical method is
adopted, which can be easily achieved by programming MATLAB script. The Central
Difference Method is the numerical method adopted to simulate the model subject to
sinusoidal road excitations. Three studies are then conducted focusing on the seat
bounce acceleration, the maximum dynamic tyre forces and the maximum suspension
dynamic deflections, respectively. Modal parameters are obtained by evaluating the
eigenvalues and eigenvectors. In a latter phase the mathematical model is transferred
into the ADAMS/View software package. Static and modal simulations evaluated using
ADAMS/View act as validation and calibration of the previous mathematical model.
Operational condition simulations, sweep-sine simulation and triangular bump
excitation simulation are then be conducted. Finally, a simple contribution analysis is
conducted by ADAMS/Insight using the screening method.
15
Chapter 2: Modeling of a 19DoF 3-Axle Rigid Truck - Poster Vibration System
Chapter 2: Modeling of a 19 DoF 3-Axle Rigid Truck – Poster
Vibration System
2.1 The Trailing Arm Bogie Suspension
The truck to be modeled is a 3-axle rigid truck on which the rear bogie drive axle group
is equipped with trailing arm suspensions. Trailing arm suspensions are widely used as a
simple and reliable configuration for air suspension applications. Typical trailing arm
suspensions on the market are Freightliner AirLiner series, Hendrickson HAS series,
WD series and Primaax® series, Neway AD series, Mitsubishi Air Rider series, Scania
and Renault air suspensions. The general layout of such a suspension is depicted in
Figure (2-1) following. A simplified 3-D view of the same truck chassis is depicted in
Figure (2-2) over page.
Figure (2-1): 3-axle rigid truck chassis layout
16
Figure (2-2): Truck chassis layout simplified 3-D view
The main advantage of the trailing arm suspension is its simplicity and reliability. In this
design, the air spring is relatively bigger than other designs such as the cradle type
suspension, which requires 2 smaller air springs to achieve the same low frequency
characteristics. The trailing arm design, in numerous applications, does not require
complicated positioning linkages except a relatively simple Panhard rod to provide
lateral support. The longitudinal support is achieved by the trailing arms proper and
their associated pivot bushings. The trailing arms, which are essentially rigid, also act to
complement the anti-roll resistance so providing extra roll stiffness. Further roll
stiffness is gained by use of a cross member running transversely between the air
springs supporting each axle. The cross members are not predicted in Figures (2-1) and
(2.2) and their actions are not included in the analysis ignores vehicle cornering actions.
However, the trailing arm design also exhibits some shortcomings. The main
disadvantage is associated with the pivoting action of the trailing arm which fails to
maintain invariant drive line geometry. The subsequent variation in the driveline
geometry, especially under torques rise and depression situations, can trigger
transmission line torsional vibrations [13]. On the other hand, if the trailing arm is rigid
17
(as on Neway systems) and the suspension is controlled by a rudimental proportional

ride height feedback control system, there is opportunity for a chaotic “leverage effect”
to occur. This unexpected behaviour is particularly prevalent exiting long sweeping
corners at which time the vehicle’s handling and/or ride is seriously influenced [21].
2.2 Global Coordinate System
The origin of the global Cartesian coordinate system is set to the CG of the sprung mass
(not including the mass of the cab). The direction, as depicted in Figure (2-3), of each
axis is set as follows: the X-axis is along the vehicle forward running direction; the Y-
axis points to the port and the Z-axis points upwards vertically. It should be noted that
the directions of Y-axis and Z-axis are opposite to the standards quoted from “SAE
J670e – Vehicle Dynamics Terminology”. Therefore, the vehicle vertical motion when
hitting a bump will be positive.
Please see print copy for Figure 2-3
Figure (2-3): Adopted vehicle axis system [based on AUTOCAD sample picture]
2.3 Assumptions and Simplifications
1. The chassis frame is absolutely rigid.

2. The vehicle body is rigidly connected to the chassis frame.
3. The track dimension of each 3-axles are invariant.
4. The cab is fully suspended by four elastic mounts and has 3 degrees of freedom in
bounce, pitch and roll directions.
5. All suspension components can only move in X – Z 2-D planes. There is no
18
suspension compliance considered, which means there is no bump steer, roll steer,
axle lateral shifting, or any change of camber and caster occurring.
6. The front axle leaf springs are simplified as two linear springs connecting the axle
and the chassis.
7. Each trailing arm is treated as rigid due to its relatively high stiffness compared to
the attached air spring.
8. Linear spring characteristics are considered initially and all shock absorbers have
uniform rather than piecewise damping coefficients
9. There is no load sharing mechanism on the bogie drive suspension
10. Torsional vibration excitation from the power-transmission system is not considered.
11. For the cab and unsprung mass it is assumed that the products of the inertia terms
are principal. The roll axis and the pitch axis intersect at the CG position.
12. All wheels contact the ground at all time.
13. The vehicle is running straightforward on level ground.
2.4 Limitations
1. This model can simulate the general dynamic response of a 3-axle air suspended
rigid truck if the road roughness excitation is small, but it cannot represent some
nonlinear characteristics of the air suspension subject to large deflection at this stage.
2. The suspension geometry change and compliance are neglected, which means some
unique characteristics associated with the non-independent suspension and the live
rigid axles cannot be exploited in this model. These include bump steer, roll steer,
change of camber and caster, change of slip angle, etc.
3. Due to the rigid trailing arm assumption, the difference between the rigid trailing
arm and the flexible trailing arm cannot be exhibited. Furthermore, the somewhat
unpredictable linkage effect associated with rigid trailing arm suspensions identified
in some research [21] is neither quantified or included.
4. Plumbing system, which achieve load sharing between the lead and rear axles, are
ignored, which causes the lead and rear axle suspensions to act essentially
independently. This may be realistic for most commercial air suspensions because
the ubiquitous small diameter capillary transmission line connecting the air springs
along each side fails to achieve load sharing under high frequency dynamic
19
excitations. However, this assumption is not appropriate for some modified

dynamically load sharing air suspension kits such as the Haire Bag system. [20]
5. Vehicles equipped with trailing arm suspensions, if void of parallelogram linkage
geometry, are very sensitive to the transmission line torsional vibration, because the
action of the trailing arm will generate variation in the universal joint angle, which
will then amplify the torsional vibration. [13] As this amplification largely depends
on different suspension geometry settings, this effect is difficult to include in this
general model without particular case studies. Therefore, this general dynamic
model does not include any torsional vibration considerations.
2.5 Some Special Considerations for Various Components
2.5.1. Modeling of the Unsprung Mass
Unlike most passenger cars which use independent suspensions at least on the steerable
wheels, almost all trucks use rigid live axles non independent suspensions all round.
This combination means that the unsprung mass on a truck includes the normal
components of tyres, wheels, hubs, brakes and part of the suspension components. In
regard the latter the weight of the axles, certain steering linkage components,
differential housing, propeller shafts and virtually all components connecting the chassis
and axles must be considered. For those components connecting the chassis and axles,
only half of the weights are counted [47]. Because the driveline torsional effect and the
flexibility of the trailing arm are ignored, the axles are free of pitch motion. These
assumption allow the unsprung masses to be modeled as rigid bodies connected to the
chassis by massless springs, shock absorbers and suspension linkages.
2.5.2 Motion of the Cab
Most trucks have 3 or 4 point suspended cabs. Although in reality a cab may have up to
6 degrees of freedom, only the most significant 3 motions are included here. They are
vertical bounce, roll and pitch. Noting the cab mobility it is not uncommon to hear
complaints from truck drivers about excessive vibrations in these 3 directions. [39]
20
2.5.3 Sprung Mass Distribution
The sprung mass consists of 5 concentrated mass components: The mass of the payload,
the mass of the chassis frame, the mass of the engine and driveline and two full diesel
tanks each side. These components are supposed to be rigidly attached on the chassis
frame so that the position of the sprung mass CG can then be determined. Although the
driver including his seat and the cab are also part of the sprung mass, they are listed
individually in this model due to their own degrees of freedom.
2-6 Derivation of the System Motion Equation Using the Lagrange’s Equation
2.6.1 Degrees of Freedom
For the truck model itself, there is 13 degrees of freedom. However, if it is considered to
be placed on a 6-channel poster excitation rig, 6 more degrees of freedom on each wheel
can be added to form 19-degrees of freedom excitation-vibration system. In this case,
the 19 DoFs are:
z Driver seat bounce
z Cab bounce, pitch and roll
z Chassis (sprung mass) bounce, pitch and roll
z Steer axle unsprung mass bounce and roll
z Centre axle unsprung mass bounce and roll
z Rear axle unsprung mass bounce and roll
z 6 bounce motions of the 6-channel poster type excitation rig
It should be noted that 19DoFs is the total DoFs for both the truck and poster type
excitation rigs. If only the truck itself is concerned, it always has only 13 DoFs in this
thesis.
Written in the vector form it gives:

W19 = [ w106 w104 θ 104 ϕ 104 w100 θ 100 ϕ 100 ...
(2-1)
w101 θ 101 w102 θ 102 w103 θ 103 w1 w2 w3 w4 w5 w6 ]T
21
Where
W19 – Motion vector of the 19 DoF truck-poster system model
w106 – Driver seat bounce
w104 – Cab bounce
θ 104 – Cab roll

ϕ104 – Cab pitch
w100 – Chassis bounce
θ 100 – Chassis roll

ϕ100 – Chassis pitch
w101 – Steer axle bounce
θ 101 – Steer axle roll

w102 – Centre axle bounce
θ 102 – Centre axle roll

w103 – Rear axle bounce
θ 103 – Rear axle roll

w1 – Bounce of the left steer wheel poster type excitation rig
w2 – Bounce of the right steer wheel poster type excitation rig

w3 – Bounce of the left centre wheel poster type excitation rig
w4 – Bounce of the right centre wheel poster type excitation rig

w5 – Bounce of the left rear wheel poster type excitation rig
w6 – Bounce of the right rear wheel poster type excitation rig
2.6.2 Drawings of the Model
The general model of the rigid 3-axle truck is depicted in Figure (2-4). A more detailed
3-D drawing showing the nomenclature of critical components is included in Figure (2-
5).
22
Z w100 w104,w100
w106 Z
Phi104
,
Theta100 Theta104
w106 Phi100
Y
CG of the cab X CG of the sprung CG of the
mass (Cab sprung mass
w104 excluded) (Cab excluded)
Roll Center
w101 Theta102
w102
w102 w103
W1 W3 W5 W4 W3
Figure (2-4): 3-axle rigid truck general model
23
c6,k6 c4,k4
w103
M3 Theta103
kw6 kw5
w6 c5,k5 k3
Z w100 w102
Phi100
w5
Theta100 Y
M2
Theta102
X Mb
kw4 kw3
w4 w3
Ms
w106 w104
kc4 cc4 Phi104 kc3 cc3
Mc
Theta104
ks,cs
kc2 cc2 c2,k2 kc1 cc1 c1,k1

w101
Theta101
M1
kw2 kw1
w2 w1
Figure (2-5): 3-axle rigid truck model 3-D view
Essential parameters of the truck for modeling are listed as follows:
z Masses and Inertias:

Ms – Mass of the seat and the driver, 120kg
Mc – Mass of the cab, 500kg
Icx – Inertia of the cab around the X axis (roll), 150kgm2
Icy – Inertia of the cab around the Y axis (pitch), 100kgm2
Mb – Sprung mass excluding the cab, 19000kg
24
Ibx – Inertia of the spring mass excluding the cab, around the X axis (roll),
7800kgm2
Iby – Inertia of the sprung mass excluding the cab, around the Y axis (pitch),
78000kgm2
M1 – Front axle unsprung mass, 450kg
I1x – Inertia of the front axle unsprung mass (roll), 280kgm2
M2 – Centre axle unsprung mass, 1025kg
I2x – Inertia of the centre axle unsprung mass (roll), 510kgm2
M3 – Rear axle unsprung mass, 1025kg
I3x – Inertia of the rear axle unsprung mass (roll), 510kgm2
z Stiffnesses and Damping Coefficients:

ks – Seat spring stiffness, 20e3N/m
kc1, kc2, kc3, kc4 – Cab suspension spring stiffness, 100e3N/m
k1, k2 – Front axle suspension spring stiffness, 10.2e4N/m
k3, k4, k5, k6 – Drive axle suspension spring stiffness, 20.9e4N/m
kw1, kw2 – Front tire stiffness, 0.69e6N/m
kw3, kw4, kw5, kw6 – Drive tyre stiffness, 1.38e6N/m
cs – Seat damping coefficient, 0.2e3Ns/m
cc1, cc2, cc3, cc4 – Cab suspension damping coefficient, 0.75e3 Ns/m
c1, c2 – Front suspension damping coefficient, 7028.5Ns/m
c3, c4, c5, c6 – Drive suspension coefficient, 14090.78Ns/m
z Critical Geometric Dimensions:
Table (2-1): Critical Geometric Dimensions
a1 0.40m b1 5.18m
a2 1.00m b2 0.62m
d1 0.20m b3 1.97m
d2 1.10m b4 6.78m
d3 1.00m b5 4.68m
l1 0.65m e1 0.80m
l2 0.85m e2 0.38m
l3 1.05m h 1.25m
25
For the trailing arm type suspension, an effective spring and damper can be used to
simplify the suspension geometry [46]. Equation (2-2) describes this simplification
using the centre left hand side axle suspension as an example:
2
l 
ken = k n  3 
 l1 
2
l 
cen = c n  2  (2-2)
 l1 
n = 3,4,5,6
Where:
ke3 , ke4 , ke5 , ke6 - Effective stiffness of the drive axle suspension
ce3 , ce4 , ce5 , ce6 - Effective damping of the drive axle suspension
Figure (2-6): Equivalent stiffness and damping of a trailing arm suspension
Thus, the truck model depicted in Figure (2-5) changes accordingly to that depicted
in Figure (2-7):
26
Figure (2-7): 3-D rigid truck model using equivalent suspension stiffness and
damping
2.6.3 Derivative of the Motion Equations
The Lagrange’s equation is written as follows:
d ∂T ∂T ∂P ∂R
( )− + + =0 (2-3)
dt ∂W19 '
∂W19 ∂W19 ∂W19 '
Where T is the system kinematics energy, P is the system potential energy and R is the
system dissipation energy. “W” is the degree of freedom under generalized coordinate
27
system. It should be noted that the system initial position is set to be the system
equilibrium position, therefore there will not be any gravity terms appearing in the
modeling process.
Considering this 19 DoF rigid truck-poster vibration system, the system kinematics
energy is:
1 ' 2 1 ' 2 1 ' 2 1 ' 2 1 ' 2 1 ' 2

T= M s w106 + M c w104 + I cxθ104 + I cyφ104 + M b w100 + I bxθ100
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 ' 2 1 ' 2 1 ' 2 1 ' 2 1 ' 2 1 ' 2 1 ' 2
+ I byφ100 + M 1 w101 + I 1xθ101 + M 2 w102 + I 2 xθ102 + M 3 w103 + I 3 xθ103
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(2-4)
The system potential energy is:
1 1 1 1
P= k s ( w106 − w105 ) 2 + k c1 ( w45 − w31 ) 2 + k c 2 ( w46 − w32 ) 2 + k c 3 ( w47 − w35 ) 2
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
+ k c 4 ( w48 − w36 ) 2 + k1 ( w33 − w13 ) 2 + k 2 ( w34 − w14 ) 2 + k e 3 ( w17 ' − w17 ) 2
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
+ k e 4 ( w18' − w18 ) 2 + k e 5 ( w25' − w25 ) 2 + k e 6 ( w26 ' − w26 ) 2 + k w1 ( w7 − w1 ) 2
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
+ k w 2 ( w8 − w2 ) 2 + k w3 ( w9 − w3 ) 2 + k w 4 ( w10 − w4 ) 2 + k w5 ( w11 − w5 ) 2
2 2 2 2
1
+ k w6 ( w12 − w6 ) 2
2
(2-5)
The system dissipation energy is:
1 1 1 1
R= '
c s ( w106 − w105
'
) 2 + cc1 ( w45 '
− w31 '
) 2 + cc 2 ( w46 '
− w32'
) 2 + cc 3 ( w47'
− w35 '
)2
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
+ cc 4 ( w48'
− w36'
) 2 + c1 ( w33'
− w13' ) 2 + c 2 ( w34 '
− w14' ) 2 + ce 3 ( w17' ' − w17' ) 2 (2-6)
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
+ ce 4 ( w18' ' − w18' ) 2 + ce 5 (( w25 '
' − w25 ) +
' 2
ce 6 ( w26'
' − w26 )
' 2
2 2 2
Where:
28
w105 = w104 − e1θ104 − d 1φ104

w45 = w104 + e2θ104 − d 2φ104
w31 = w100 + e2θ100 − b4φ100
w46 = w104 − e2θ104 − d 2φ104
w32 = w100 − e2θ100 − b4φ100
w47 = w104 + e2θ104 + d 3φ104
w35 = w100 + e2θ100 − b5φ100
w48 = w104 − e2θ104 + d 3φ104
w36 = w100 − e2θ100 − b5φ100
w33 = w101 + a1θ100 − b1φ100
w13 = w101 + a1θ101
w34 = w100 − a1θ100 − b1φ100
w14 = w101 − a1θ101
w17 = w102 + a1θ102
w17 ' = w100 + a1θ100 + b2φ100
w18 = w102 − a1θ102
w18' = w100 − a1θ100 + b2φ100
w25 = w103 + a1θ103
w25' = w100 + a1θ100 + b3φ100
w26 = w103 − a1θ103
w26 ' = w100 − a1θ100 + b3φ100
w7 = w101 + a 2θ101
w1 = Z 1
w8 = w101 − a 2θ101
w2 = Z 2
w9 = w102 + a 2θ102
w3 = Z 3
w10 = w102 − a 2θ102
w4 = Z 4
w11 = w103 + a 2θ103
w5 = Z 5 (2-7)
w12 = w103 − a 2θ103
w6 = Z 6
Substituting Equation (2-7) into Equation (2-5) and (2-6) and applying derivatives
29
according to Equation (2-3) (Lagrange’s equation) yields:
∂T
=0
∂w
d ∂T
( ' ) = M s w106
''
dt ∂w106
d ∂T
( ' ) = M c w104
''
dt ∂w104
d ∂T
( ' ) = M b w100
''
dt ∂w100
d ∂T
( ' ) = I bxθ100
''
dt ∂θ100
d ∂T
( ' ) = I byφ100
''
dt ∂φ100
d ∂T
( ' ) = M 1 w101
''
dt ∂w101
d ∂T
( ' ) = I 1xθ101
''
dt ∂θ101
d ∂T
( ' ) = M 2 w102
''
dt ∂w102
d ∂T
( ' ) = I 2 xθ102
''
dt ∂θ102 (2-8)
d ∂T
( ' ) = M 3 w103
''
dt ∂w103
d ∂T
( ' ) = I 3 xθ103
''
dt ∂θ103
and
∂P
= k s w106 − k s w104 + k s e1θ 104 + k s d1φ104 (2-9)
∂w106
∂P
= − k s w106 + k s w104 + k c1 w104 + k c 2 w104 + k c 3 w104 + k c 4 w104 − k s e1θ104
∂w104
+ k c1e2θ104 − k c 2 e2θ104 + k c 3 e2θ104 − k c 4 e2θ104 − k s1 d1φ104 − k c1 d 2φ104
+ k c 3 d 3φ104 + k c 4 d 4φ104 − k c1 w100 − k c 2 w100 − k c 3 w100 − k c 4 w100 − k c1e2θ100
+ k c 2 e2θ100 − k c 3 e2θ100 + k c 4 e2θ100 + k c1b4φ100 + k c 2 b4φ100 + k c 3b5φ100 + k c 4 b5φ100
(2-10)
30
∂P
= k s e1 w106 − k s e1 w104 + k c1e2 w104 − k c 2 e2 w104 + k c 3 e2 w104 − k c 4 e2 w104 + k s e12θ 104
∂θ 104
+ k c1e22θ 104 + k c 2 e22θ 104 + k c 3 e22θ 104 + k c 4 e22θ 104 + k s d1e1φ104 − k c1 d 2 e1φ104 + k c 2 d 2 e2φ104
+ k c 3 d 3 e2φ104 − k c 4 d 3 e2φ104 − k c1e2 w100 + k c 2 e2 w100 − k c 3 e2 w100 + k c 4 e2 w100 − k c1e22θ 100
− k c 2 e22θ 100 − k c 3 e22θ 100 − k c 4 e22θ 100 + k c1b4 e2φ100 − k c 2 b4 e2φ100 + k c 3b5 e2φ100 − k c 4 b5 e2φ100
(2-11)
∂P
= k s d 1 w106 − k s d1 w104 − k c1 d 2 w104 − k c 2 d 2 w104 + k c 3 d 3 w104 + k c 4 d 3 w104
∂φ104
+ k s d1e1θ 104 − k c1 d 2 e2θ 104 + k c 2 d 2 e2θ 104 + k c 3 d 3 e2θ 104 − k c 4 d 3 e2θ 104 + k s d12φ104
+ k c1 d 22φ104 + k c 2 d 22φ104 + k c 3 d 32φ104 + k c 4 d 32φ104 + k c1 d 2 w100 + k c 2 d 2 w100 − k c 3 d 3 w100
− k c 4 d 3 w100 + k c1 d 2 e2θ 100 − k c 2 d 2 e2θ 100 − k c 3 d 3 e2θ 100 + k c 4 d 3 e2θ 100 − k c1b4 d 2φ100
− k c 2 b4 d 2φ100 + k c 3 b5 d 3φ100 + k c 4 b5 d 3φ
(2-12)
∂P
= −k c1 w104 − k c 2 w104 − k c 3 w104 − k c 4 w104 − k c1e2θ104 + k c 2 e2θ104 − k c 3 e2θ104 + k c 4 e2θ104
∂w100
+ k c1 d 2φ104 + k c 2 d 2φ104 − k c 3 d 3φ104 − k c 4 d 3φ104 + k c1 w100 + k c 2 w100 + k c 3 w100 + k c 4 w100
2 2 2 2
l l l l
+ k1 w100 + k 2 w100 + k 3 3 w100 + k 4 3 w100 + k 5 3 w100 + k 6 3 w100 + k c1e2θ100
l1 l1 l1 l1
2
l3
− k c 2 e2θ100 + k c 3 e2θ100 − k c 4 e2θ100 + k1 a1θ100 − k 2 a1θ100 + k 3 w100 a1θ100
l1
2 2 2
l l l
− k 4 3 w100 a1θ100 + k 5 3 w100 a1θ100 − k 6 3 w100 a1θ100 − k c1b4φ100 − k c 2 b4φ100
l1 l1 l1
2 2
l3 l
− k c 3b5φ100 − k c 4 b5φ100 − k1b1φ100 − k 2 b1φ100 + k 3 w100 b2φ100 + k 4 3 w100 b2φ100
l1 l1
2 2
l l
+ k 5 3 w100 b3φ100 + k 6 3 w100 b3φ100 − k1 w101 − k 2 w101 − k1 a1θ101 + k 2 a1θ101
l1 l1
2 2 2 2
l l l l
− k 3 3 w100 w102 − k 4 3 w100 w102 − k 3 3 w100 a1θ102 + k 4 3 w100 a1θ102
l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2 2 2
l l l l
− k 5 3 w100 w103 − k 6 3 w100 w103 − k 5 3 w100 a1θ103 + k 6 3 w100 a1θ103
l1 l1 l1 l1
(2-13)
31
∂P
= − k c1e2 w104 + k c 2 e2 w104 − k c 3 e2 w104 + k c 4 e2 w104 − k c1e22θ104 − k c 2 e22θ104 − k c 3 e22θ104
∂θ100
− k c 4 e22θ104 + k c1e2 d 2φ104 − k c 2 e2 d 2φ104 − k c 3 e2 d 3φ104 + k c 4 e2 d 3φ104 + k c1e2 w100
2
l
− k c 2 e2 w100 + k c 3 e2 w100 − k c 4 e2 w100 + k1 a1 w100 − k 2 a1 w100 + k 3 3 w100 a1 w100
l1
2 2 2
l l l
− k 4 3 w100 a1 w100 + k 5 3 w100 a1 w100 − k 6 3 w100 a1 w100 + k c1e22θ100
l1 l1 l1
2
l
+k e θ 2
c 2 2 100 +k e θ 2
c 3 2 100 +k e θ 2
c 4 2 100 +k a θ
2
1 1 100 +k a θ 2
2 1 100 + k 3 3 w100 a12θ100
l1
2 2 2
l l l
+ k 4 3 w100 a12θ100 + k 5 3 w100 a12θ100 + k 6 3 w100 a12θ100 − k c1b4 e2φ100
l1 l1 l1
+ k c 2 b4 e2φ100 − k c 3 b5 e2φ100 + k c 4 b5 e2φ100 − k1 a1b1φ100 + k 2 a1b1φ100
2 2 2
l l l
+ k 3 3 w100 a1b2φ100 − k 4 3 w100 a1b2φ100 + k 5 3 w100 a1b3φ100
l1 l1 l1
2
l
− k 6 3 w100 a1b3φ100 − k1 a1 w101 + k 2 a1 w101 − k1 a12θ101 − k 2 a12θ101
l1
2 2 2 2
l l l l
− k 3 3 w100 a1 w102 + k 4 3 w100 a1 w102 − k 3 3 w100 a12θ102 − k 4 3 w100 a12θ102
l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2 2 2
l l l l
− k 5 3 w100 a1 w103 + k 6 3 w100 a1 w103 − k 5 3 w100 a12θ103 − k 6 3 w100 a12θ103
l1 l1 l1 l1
(2-14)
32
∂P
= k c1b4 w104 + k c 2 b4 w104 + k c 3 b5 w104 + k c 4 b5 w104 + k c1b4 e2θ104 − k c 2 b4 e2θ104
∂φ100
+ k c 3 b5 e2θ104 − k c 4 b5 e2θ104 − k c1b4 d 2φ104 − k c 2 b4 d 2φ104 + k c 3 b5 d 3φ104 + k c 4 b5 d 3φ104
− k c1b4 w100 − k c 2 b4 w100 − k c 3 b5 w100 − k c 4 b5 w100 − k1b1 w100 − k 2 b1 w100
2 2 2
l3 l l
+ k3 w100 b2 w100 + k 4 3 w100 b2 w100 + k 5 3 w100 b3 w100
l1 l1 l1
2
l
+ k 6 3 w100 b3 w100 − k c1b4 e2θ100 + k c 2 b4 e2θ100 − k c 3 b5 e2θ100 + k c 4 b5 e2θ100
l1
2 2
l l
− k1 a1b1θ100 + k 2 a1b1θ100 + k 3 3 w100 a1b2θ100 − k 4 3 w100 a1b2θ100
l1 l1
2 2
l3 l
+ k5 w100 a1b3θ100 − k 6 3 w100 a1b3θ100 + k c1b42φ100 + k c 2 b42φ100
l1 l1
2 2
l l
+k b φ +k b φ +k b φ +k b φ + k 3 3 w100 b2 φ100 + k 4 3 w100 b2 φ100
2 2 2 2 2 2
c 3 5 100 c 4 5 100 1 1 100 2 1 100
l1 l1
2 2
l3 l
w100 b3 φ100 + k 6 3 w100 b3 φ100 + k1b1 w101 + k 2 b1 w101 + k1 a1b1θ101 − k 2 a1b1θ101
2 2
+ k5
l1 l1
2 2 2 2
l l l l
− k 3 3 w100 b2 w102 − k 4 3 w100 b2 w102 − k 3 3 w100 a1b2θ102 + k 4 3 w100 a1b2θ102
l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2 2 2
l3 l l l
− k5 w100 b3 w103 − k 6 3 w100 b3 w103 − k 5 3 w100 a1b3θ103 − k 6 3 w100 a1b3θ103
l1 l1 l1 l1
(2-15)
∂P
= − k1 w100 − k 2 w100 − k1 a1θ 100 + k 2 a1θ 100 + k1b1φ100 + k 2 b1φ100 + k1 w101 + k 2 w101
∂w101
+ k w1 w101 + k w 2 w101 − k1 a1θ 101 + k 2 a1θ 101 + k w1 a 2θ 101 − k w 2 a 2θ 101 − k w1 w1 − k w 2 w2
(2-16)
∂P
= − k1 a1 w100 + k 2 a1 w100 − k1 a12θ100 − k 2 a12θ100 + k1 a1b1φ100 − k 2 a1b1φ100
∂θ101
+ k1 a1 w101 − k 2 a1 w101 + k w1 a 2 w101 − k w 2 a 2 w101 + k1 a12θ101 + k 2 a12θ101 + k w1 a 22θ101
+ k w 2 a 22θ101 − k w1 a 2 w1 + k w 2 a 2 w2
(2-17)
33
2 2 2 2
∂P l l l l
= −k 3 3 w100 w100 − k 4 3 w100 w100 − k 3 3 w100 a1θ100 + k 4 3 w100 a1θ100
∂w102 l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2 2 2
l l l l
− k 3 3 w100 b2φ100 − k 4 3 w100 b2φ100 + k 3 3 w100 w102 + k 4 3 w100 w102
l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2
l3 l
+ k w3 w102 + k w 4 w102 + k 3 w100 a1θ102 − k 4 3 w100 a1θ102 + k w3 a 2θ102
l1 l1
− k w 4 a 2θ102 − k w3 w3 − k w 4 w4
(2-18)
2 2 2 2
∂P l l l l
= −k 3 3 w100 a1 w100 + k 4 3 w100 a1 w100 − k 3 3 w100 a12θ100 − k 4 3 w100 a12θ100
∂θ102 l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2 2 2
l l l l
− k 3 3 w100 b2 a1φ100 + k 4 3 w100 b2 a1φ100 + k 3 3 w100 a1 w102 − k 4 3 w100 a1 w102
l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2
l3 l
+ k w3 a 2 w102 − k w 4 a 2 w102 + k 3 w100 a12θ102 + k 4 3 w100 a12θ102 + k w3 a 22θ102
l1 l1
+ k w 4 a 22θ102 − k w3 a 2 w3 + k w 4 a 2 w4
(2-19)
2 2 2 2
∂P l l l l
= −k 5 3 w100 w100 − k 6 3 w100 w100 − k 5 3 w100 a1θ100 + k 6 3 w100 a1θ100
∂w103 l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2 2 2
l l l l
− k 5 3 w100 b2φ100 − k 6 3 w100 b2φ100 + k 5 3 w100 w103 + k 6 3 w100 w103
l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2
l3 l
+ k w5 w103 + k w6 w103 + k 5 w100 a1θ103 − k 6 3 w100 a1θ103 + k w5 a 2θ103
l1 l1
− k w6 a 2θ103 − k w5 w5 − k w6 w6
(2-20)
2 2 2 2
∂P l l l l
= −k 5 3 w100 a1 w100 + k 6 3 w100 a1 w100 − k 5 3 w100 a12θ100 − k 6 3 w100 a12θ100
∂θ103 l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2 2 2
l3 l l l
− k5 w100 b2 a1φ100 + k 6 3 w100 b2 a1φ100 + k 5 3 w100 a1 w103 − k 6 3 w100 a1 w103
l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2
l l
+ k w5 a 2 w103 − k w6 a 2 w103 + k 5 3 w100 a12θ103 + k 6 3 w100 a12θ103 + k w5 a 22θ103
l1 l1
+ k w6 a 22θ103 − k w5 a 2 w5 + k w6 a 2 w6
(2-21)
Similarly,
34
∂R
= c s w106
'
− c s w104
'
+ c s e1θ 104
'
+ c s d1φ104
'
(2-22)
∂w106
'
∂R
= −c s w106
'
+ c s w104
'
+ cc1 w104
'
+ cc 2 w104
'
+ cc 3 w104
'
+ cc 4 w104
'
− c s e1θ 104
'
+ cc1e2θ 104
'
∂w104
'
− cc 2 e2θ 104
'
+ cc 3 e2θ 104
'
− cc 4 e2θ 104
'
− c s1 d1φ104
'
− cc1 d 2φ104
'
+ cc 3 d 3φ104
'
+ cc 4 d 4φ104
'
− cc1 w100
'
− cc 2 w100
'
− cc 3 w100
'
− cc 4 w100
'
− cc1e2θ 100
'
+ cc 2 e2θ 100
'
− cc 3 e2θ 100
'
+ cc 4 e2θ 100
'
+ cc1b4φ100
'
+ cc 2 b4φ100
'
+ cc 3b5φ100
'
+ cc 4 b5φ100
'
(2-23)
∂R
= c s e1 w106
'
− c s e1 w104
'
+ cc1e2 w104
'
− cc 2 e2 w104
'
+ cc 3 e2 w104
'
− cc 4 e2 w104
'
+ c s e12θ 104
'
∂θ 104
'
+ cc1e22θ 104
'
+ cc 2 e22θ 104
'
+ cc 3 e22θ 104
'
+ cc 4 e22θ 104
'
+ c s d1e1φ104
'
− cc1 d 2 e1φ104
'
+ cc 2 d 2 e2φ104
'
+ cc 3 d 3 e2φ104
'
− cc 4 d 3 e2φ104
'
− cc1e2 w100
'
+ cc 2 e2 w100
'
− cc 3 e2 w100
'
+ cc 4 e2 w100
'
− cc1e22θ 100
'
− cc 2 e22θ 100
'
− cc 3 e22θ 100
'
− cc 4 e22θ 100
'
+ cc1b4 e2φ100
'
− cc 2 b4 e2φ100
'
+ cc 3 b5 e2φ100
'
− cc 4 b5 e2φ100
'
(2-24)
∂R
= c s d1 w106
'
− c s d 1 w104
'
− c c1 d 2 w104
'
− cc 2 d 2 w104
'
+ cc 3 d 3 w104
'
+ cc 4 d 3 w104
'
+ c s d1e1θ 104
'
∂φ104
'
− cc1 d 2 e2θ 104

'
+ cc 2 d 2 e2θ 104
'
+ cc 3 d 3 e2θ 104
'
− cc 4 d 3 e2θ 104
'
+ c s d12φ104
'
+ c c1 d 22φ104
'
+ cc 2 d 22φ104
'
+ cc 3 d 32φ104
'
+ cc 4 d 32φ104
'
+ c c1 d 2 w100
'
+ cc 2 d 2 w100
'
− cc 3 d 3 w100
'
− cc 4 d 3 w100
'
+ cc1 d 2 e2θ 100

'
− cc 2 d 2 e2θ 100
'
− cc 3 d 3 e2θ 100
'
+ cc 4 d 3 e2θ 100
'
− cc1b4 d 2φ100
'
− c c 2 b4 d 2φ100
'
+ cc 3b5 d 3φ100
'
+ cc 4 b5 d 3φ100
'
(2-25)
35
∂R
= −c c1 w104
'
− c c 2 w104
'
− c c 3 w104
'
− c c 4 w104
'
− c c1e2θ104
'
+ c c 2 e2θ 104
'
− c c 3 e2θ 104
'
+ c c 4 e2θ 104
'
∂w100
'
+ c c1 d 2φ104
'
+ c c 2 d 2φ104
'
− c c 3 d 3φ104
'
− c c 4 d 3φ104
'
+ c c1 w100
'
+ c c 2 w100
'
+ c c 3 w100
'
+ c c 4 w100
'
2 2 2 2
l l l l
+ c1 w '
100 + c2 w '
100 + c3 2 w100
'
+ c 4 2 w100
'
+ c5 2 w100
'
+ c 6 2 w100
'
+ c c1e2θ 100
'
l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2
l l
−c e θ '
c 2 2 100 +c e θ '
c 3 2 100 −c e θ '
c 4 2 100 +c aθ '
1 1 100 −c aθ '
2 1 100 + c3 2 a1θ100
'
− c 4 2 a1θ100
'
l1 l1
2 2
l2 l
+ c5 a1θ 100
'
− c 6 2 a1θ 100
'
− c c1b4φ100
'
− c c 2 b4φ100
'
− c c 3 b5φ100
'
− c c 4 b5φ100
'
− c1b1φ100
'
l1 l1
2 2 2 2
l2 l l l
− c 2 b1φ100
'
+ c3 b2φ100
'
+ c 4 2 b2φ100
'
+ c5 2 b3φ100
'
+ c 6 2 b3φ100
'
l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2 2
l l l
− c1 w '
101 − c2 w '
101 −c aθ '
1 1 101 +c aθ '
2 1 101 − c3 2 w102
'
− c 4 2 w102
'
− c3 2 a1θ 102
'
l1 l1 l1
2 2 2 2 2
l l l l l
+ c 4 2 a1θ 102
'
− c5 2 w103
'
− c 6 2 w103
'
− c5 2 a1θ 103
'
+ c 6 2 a1θ103
'
l1 l1 l1 l1 l1
(2-26)
∂R
= −c c1e2 w104
'
+ c c 2 e2 w104
'
− cc 3 e2 w104
'
+ cc 4 e2 w104
'
− cc1e22θ104
'
− c c 2 e22θ104
'
− cc 3 e22θ104
'
∂θ100
'
− c c 4 e22θ104
'
+ cc1e2 d 2φ104
'
− cc 2 e2 d 2φ104
'
− cc 3 e2 d 3φ104
'
+ cc 4 e2 d 3φ104
'
+ c c1e2 w100
'
2
l
− c c 2 e2 w '
100 + cc 3 e2 w '
100 − cc 4 e2 w '
100 + c1 a1 w '
100 − c 2 a1 w '
100 + c3 2 a1 w100
'
l1
2 2 2
l l l
− c 4 2 a1 w100
'
+ c5 2 a1 w100
'
− c6 2 a1 w100
'
+ cc1e22θ100
'
+ cc 2 e22θ100
'
+ cc 3 e22θ100
'
l1 l1 l1
2 2 2
l2 2 ' l l
+ c c 4 e22θ100
'
+ c1 a12θ100
'
+ c 2 a12θ100
'
+ c3 a1 θ100 + c 4 2 a12θ100
'
+ c5 2 a12θ100
'
l1 l1 l1
2
l
+ c 6 2 a12θ100
'
− cc1b4 e2φ100
'
+ cc 2 b4 e2φ100
'
− cc 3b5 e2φ100
'
+ c c 4 b5 e2φ100
'
− c1 a1b1φ100
'
l1
2 2 2 2
l2 l l l
+ c 2 a1b1φ100
'
+ c3 a1b2φ100
'
− c 4 2 a1b2φ100
'
+ c5 2 a1b3φ100
'
− c6 2 a1b3φ100
'
l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2
l l
− c1 a1 w '
101 + c 2 a1 w '
101 −c a θ 2 '
1 1 101 −c a θ 2 '
2 1 101 − c3 2 a1 w102
'
+ c 4 2 a1 w102
'
l1 l1
2 2 2 2
l2 2 ' l l l
− c3 a1 θ102 − c 4 2 a12θ102
'
− c5 2 a1 w103
'
+ c6 2 a1 w103
'
l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2
l l
− c5 2 a12θ103
'
− c6 2 a12θ103
'
l1 l1
(2-27)
36
∂R
= cc1b4 w104
'
+ cc 2 b4 w104
'
+ cc 3 b5 w104
'
+ cc 4 b5 w104
'
+ cc1b4 e2θ104
'
− cc 2 b4 e2θ104
'
∂φ100
'
+ cc 3 b5 e2θ104
'
− cc 4 b5 e2θ104
'
− cc1b4 d 2φ104
'
− cc 2 b4 d 2φ104
'
+ cc 3b5 d 3φ104
'
+ cc 4 b5 d 3φ104
'
− cc1b4 w100
'
− cc 2 b4 w100
'
− cc 3 b5 w100
'
− cc 4 b5 w100
'
− c1b1 w100
'
− c 2 b1 w100
'
2 2 2 2
l l l l
+ c3 2 b2 w100
'
+ c 4 2 b2 w100
'
+ c5 2 b3 w100
'
+ c6 2 b3 w100
'
l1 l1 l1 l1
− cc1b4 e2θ100
'
+ cc 2 b4 e2θ100
'
− cc 3 b5 e2θ100
'
+ cc 4 b5 e2θ100
'
− c1 a1b1θ100
'
+ c 2 a1b1θ100
'
2 2 2 2
l2 l l l
+ c3 a1b2θ100
'
− c 4 2 a1b2θ100
'
+ c5 2 a1b3θ100
'
− c6 2 a1b3θ100
'
+ cc1b42φ100
'
l1 l1 l1 l1
2
l2
+ cc 2 b42φ100 + cc 3 b52φ100 + cc 4 b52φ100 + c1b12φ100 + c 2 b12φ100 b2 φ100
2 '
' ' ' ' '
+ c3
l1
2 2 2
l l l
+ c 4 2 b2 φ100 + c5 2 b3 φ100 + c6 2 b3 φ100 + c1 a1b1θ101
2 ' 2 ' 2 '
+ c1b1 w101
'
+ c 2 b1 w101
' '
l1 l1 l1
2 2 2 2
l2 l l l
− c 2 a1b1θ101
'
− c3 '
b2 w102 − c 4 2 b2 w102
'
− c3 2 a1b2θ102
'
+ c 4 2 a1b2θ102
'
l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2 2 2
l l l l
− c5 2 b3 w103
'
− c6 2 b3 w103
'
− c5 2 a1b3θ103
'
− c6 2 a1b3θ103
'
l1 l1 l1 l1
(2-28)
∂R
= −c1 w100
'
− c 2 w100
'
− c1 a1θ 100
'
+ c 2 a1θ 100
'
+ c1b1φ100
'
+ c 2 b1φ100
'
+ c1 w101
'
+ c 2 w101
'
∂w101
'
− c1 a1θ 101
'
+ c 2 a1θ 101
'
(2-29)
∂R
= −c1 a1 w100
'
+ c 2 a1 w100
'
− c1 a12θ 100
'
− c 2 a12θ 100
'
+ c1 a1b1φ100
'
− c 2 a1b1φ100
'
+ c1 a1 w101
'
∂θ 101
'
− c 2 a1 w101
'
+ c1 a12θ 101
'
+ c 2 a12θ 101
'
(2-30)
2 2 2 2 2
∂R l l l l l
= −c3 2 w100
'
− c 4 2 w100
'
− c3 2 a1θ100
'
+ c 4 2 a1θ100
'
− c3 2 b2φ100
'
∂w102
'
l1 l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2 2 2 2
l l l l l
− c 4 2 b2φ100
'
+ c3 2 w102
'
+ c 4 2 w102
'
+ c3 2 a1θ102
'
− c 4 2 a1θ102
'
l1 l1 l1 l1 l1
(2-31)
2 2 2 2 2
∂R l l l l l
= −c3 2 a1 w100
'
+ c 4 2 a1 w100
'
− c3 2 a12θ100
'
− c 4 2 a12θ100
'
− c3 2 b2 a1φ100
'
∂θ102
'
l1 l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2 2 2 2
(2-32)
l l l l l
+ c 4 2 b2 a1φ100
'
+ c3 2 a1 w102
'
− c 4 2 a1 w102
'
+ c3 2 a12θ102
'
+ c 4 2 a12θ102
'
l1 l1 l1 l1 l1
37
2 2 2 2 2
∂R l l l l l
= −c5 2 w100
'
− c 6 2 w100
'
− c5 2 a1θ100
'
+ c 6 2 a1θ100
'
− c5 2 b2φ100
'
∂w103
'
l1 l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2 2 2 2
l l l l l
− c6 2 b2φ100
'
+ c5 2 w103
'
+ c6 2 w103
'
+ c5 2 a1θ103
'
− c6 2 a1θ103
'
l1 l1 l1 l1 l1
(2-33)
2 2 2 2 2
∂R l l l l l
= −c5 2 a1 w100
'
+ c 6 2 a1 w100
'
− c5 2 a12θ100
'
− c6 2 a12θ100
'
− c5 2 b2 a1φ100
'
∂θ103
'
l1 l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2 2 2 2
l
l l l l l
+ c6 2 b2 a1φ100
'
+ c5 2 a1 w103
'
− c6 2 a1 w103
'
+ c5 2 a12θ103
'
+ c 6 2 a12θ103
'
l1 l1 l1 l1 l1
(2-34)
Substitute Equation (2-8) to (2-34) into Equation (2-3), then the Equation (2-3) can be
re-arranged into the form as follows:
M 19W&
& + C W& + K W = 0
19 19 19 19 19 (2-35)
Where:
M19: System mass matrix of the 19 DoF truck-poster system model
C19: System damping matrix of the 19 DoF truck-poster system model
K19: System stiffness matrix of the 19 DoF truck-poster system model
W&
& : Acceleration vector of the 19 DoF truck-poster system model
19
W&19 : Velocity vector of the 19 DoF truck-poster system model
W19 : Displacement vector of the 19 DoF truck-poster system model
38
These matrices and vectors are then assembled as follows:
W&
& = [w
19
&
&106 &104 θ&
&
w & ϕ&
104
&104
&100 θ&
&
w & ϕ&
100
&
100 ...
(2-36)
&101 θ&
&
w & w
101
&&102 θ&& w
102
&&103 θ&& w
103
&
&1 w &
&2 w
&
&3 w
&
&4 w
&
&5 w
&
&6 ]T
W&19 = [ w&106 w&104 θ&104 ϕ&104 w&100 θ&100 ϕ&100 ...

(2-37)
w&101 θ&101 w&102 θ& 102 w&103 θ&103 w&1 w&2 w&3 w&4 w&5 w&6 ]T
W19 = [ w106 w104 θ 104 ϕ 104 w100 θ 100 ϕ 100 ...

(2-38)
w101 θ 101 w102 θ 102 w103 θ 103 w1 w2 w3 w4 w5 w6 ]T
39
M s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 Mc 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 I cx 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 I cy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 Mb 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 I bx 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 I by 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 M1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 I 1x 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
M 19 = M2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 I 2x 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 Symmetrical M3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 I 3x 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 M 01 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 M 02 0 0 0 0 
 M 03 0 0 0 
 
 M 04 0 0  (2-39)
 
 M 05 0 
 M 06 
40
 k1,1 k1, 2 Λ k1,19 

k k 2, 2 Λ k 2,19 
 2,1
K 19 =  (2-40)
 Μ Μ Ο Μ
k19,1 k19, 2 Λ k19,19 
 c1,1 c1, 2 Λ c1,19 

c Λ c 2,19 
 2,1 c 2, 2
C19 =   (2-41)
 Μ Μ Ο Μ
c19,1 c19, 2 Λ c19,19 
Where:
k1,1 = k s
k1, 2 = k 2,1 = −k s
k1,3 = k3,1 = k s e1
k1, 4 = k 4,1 = k s d1
k 2, 2 = k s + k c1 + k c 2 + k c 3 + k c 4
k 2,3 = k 3, 2 = −k s e1 + k c1e2 − k c 2 e2 + k c 3e2 − k c 4 e2
k 2, 4 = k 4, 2 = −k s d1 − k c1 d 2 − k c 2 d 2 + k c 3 d 3 + k c 4 d 3
k 2,5= k5, 2 = −k c1 − k c 2 − k c 3 − k c 4
k 2, 6 = k 6, 2 = −k c1e2 + k c 2 e2 − k c 3e2 + k c 4 e2
k 2, 7 = k 7 , 2 = k c1b4 + k c 2b4 + k c 3b5 + k c 4 b5
k 3,3 = k s e12 + k c1e22 + k c 2 e22 + k c 3e22 + k c 4 e22
k3, 4 = k 4,3 = k s d1e1 − k c1d 2 e2 + k c 2 d 2 e2 + k c 3 d 3e2 − k c 4 d 3e2
k 3,5 = k5,3 = −k c1e2 + k c 2 e2 − k c 3e2 + k c 4 e2
k 3,6 = k 6,3 = − k c1e22 − k c 2 e22 − k c 3e22 − k c 4 e22
k 3,7 = k 7 ,3 = k c1b4 e2 − k c 2 b4 e2 + k c 3b5 e2 − k c 4b5 e2
k 4, 4 = k s d12 + k c1d 22 + k c 2 d 22 + k c 3 d 32 + k c 4 d 32
k 4,5 = k 5, 4 = k c1d 2 + k c 2 d 2 − k c 3 d 3 − k c 4 d 3
k 4, 6 = k 6, 4 = k c1d 2 e2 − k c 2 d 2 e2 − k c 3 d 3e2 + k c 4 d 3e2

41
k 4, 7 = k 7 , 4 = −k c1b4 d 2 − k c 2b4 d 2 + k c 3b5 d 3 + k c 4b5 d 3

2 2 2 2
l l l l
k 5,5 = k c1 + k c 2 + k c 3 + k c 4 + k1 + k 2 + k 3 3 + k 4 3 + k 5 3 + k 6 3
l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2
l l
k 5, 6 = k 6, 5 = k c1e2 − k c 2 e2 + k c 3 e2 − k c 4 e2 + k1 a1 − k 2 a1 + k 3 3 a1 − k 4 3 a1
l1 l1
2 2
l3 l
+ k5 a1 − k 6 3 a1
l1 l1
2 2
l3 l
k 5£¬7 = k 7 ,5 = − k c1b4 − k c 2 b4 − k c 3 b5 − k1b1 − k 2 b1 + k 3 b2 + k 4 3 b2
l1 l1
2 2
l l
+ k 5 3 b3 + k 6 3 b3
l1 l1
k 5,8 = k8,5 = − k1 − k 2
k 5,9 = k 9,5 = − k1a1 + k 2 a1

2 2
l3 l
k 5,10 = k10,5 = −k 3 − k4 3
l1 l1
2 2
l3 l
k 5,11 = k11,5 = −k 3 a1 + k 4 3 a1
l1 l1
2 2
l3 l
k 5,12 = k12,5 = −k 5 + k6 3
l1 l1
2 2
l3 l
k 5,13 = k13,5 = −k 5 a1 + k 6 3 a1
l1 l1
2 2 2
l3 2 l l
k 6,6 = k c1e22 + k c 2 e22 + k c 3 e22 + k c 4 e22 + k1 a12 + k 2 a12 + k 3 a1 + k 4 3 a12 + k 5 3 a12
l1 l1 l1
2
l
+ k 6 3 a12
l1
k 6,7 = k 7 , 6 = − k c1b4 e2 + k c 2 b4 e2 − k c 3b5 e2 + k c 4 b5 e2 − k1 a1b1 + k 2 a1b1
2 2 2 2
l l l l
+ k 3 3 b2 a1 − k 4 3 b2 a1 + k 5 3 b3 a1 − k 6 3 b3 a1
l1 l1 l1 l1
k 6,8 = k8,6 = −k1a1 + k 2 a1
k 6,9 = k 9, 6 = − k1a12 − k 2 a12

2 2
l l
k 6,10 = k10,6 = −k 3 3 a1 + k 4 3 a1
l1 l1
42
2 2
l3 2 l
k 6,11 = k11, 6 = −k 3 a1 − k 4 3 a12
l1 l1
2 2
l3 l
k 6,12 = k12,6 = −k 5 a1 + k 6 3 a1
l1 l1
2 2
l3 2 l
k 6,13 = k13,, 6 = −k 5 a1 − k 6 3 a12
l1 l1
2
l3 2
k 7 ,7 = k c1b42 + k c 2 b42 + k c 3 b52 + k c 4 b52 + k1b12 + k 2 b12 + k 3 b2
l1
2 2
l 2 l 2
+ k 4 3 b2 + k 5 3 b3
l1 l1
2
l3 2
+ k6 b3
l1
k 7 ,8 = k8, 7 = k1b1 + k 2 b1
k 7 ,9 = k9,7 = k1a1b1 − k 2 a1b1

2 2
l3 l
k 7 ,10 = k10, 7 = −k 3 b2 − k 4 3 b2
l1 l1
2 2
l3 l
k 7 ,11 = k11, 7 = −k 3 b2 a1 + k 4 3 b2 a1
l1 l1
2 2
l l
k 7 ,12 = k12, 7 = −k 5 3 b3 − k 6 3 b3
l1 l1
2 2
l l
k 7 ,13 = k13,7 = −k 5 3 b3 a1 + k 6 3 b3 a1
l1 l1
k8,8 = k1 + k 2 + k w1 + k w 2
k8,9 = k9,8 = k1a1 − k 2 a1 + k w1a2 − k w 2 a2
k 8,14 = k14,8 = −k w1
k 8,15 = k15,8 = −k w 2
k 9,9 = k1a12 + k 2 a12 + k w1a22 − k w 2 a22
k 9,14 = k14,9 = −k w1 a 2
k 9,15 = k15,9 = k w2 a 2
43
2 2
l3 l
k10,10 = k 3 + k 4 3 + k w3 + k w 4
l1 l1
2 2
l3 l
k10,11 = k11,10 = k 3 a1 − k 4 3 a1 + k w3 a 2 − k w 4 a 2
l1 l1
k10,16 = k16,10 = −k w3
k10,17 = k17,10 = −k w 4
2 2
l3 2 l
k11,11 = k 3 a1 + k 4 3 a12 + k w3 a 22 + k w 4 a 22
l1 l1
k11,16 = k16,11 = −k w3 a 2
k11,17 = k17 ,11 = k w4 a 2

2 2
l3 l
k12,12 = k 5 + k 6 3 + k w5 + k w 6
l1 l1
2 2
l l
k12,13 = k13,12 = k 5 3 a1 − k 6 3 a1 + k w5 a 2 − k w6 a 2
l1 l1
k12,18 = k18,12 = −k w5
k12,19 = k19,12 = −k w6
2 2
l l
k13,13 = k 5 3 a12 + k 6 3 a12 + k w5 a 22 + k w6 a 22
l1 l1
k13,18 = k18,13 = −k w5 a 2
k13,19 = k19,13 = k w6
c1,1 = c s
c1, 2 = c 2,1 = −c s
c1,3 = c3,1 = c s e1
c1, 4 = c 4,1 = c s d1
c 2, 2 = c s + cc1 + cc 2 + cc 3 + cc 4
c 2,3 = c3, 2 = −c s e1 + cc1e2 − cc 2 e2 + cc 3 e2 − cc 4 e2
c 2, 4 = c 4, 2 = −c s d1 − cc1 d 2 − c 4 c 2 d 2 + cc 3 d 3 + cc 4 d 3
c 2,5 = c5, 2 = −cc1 − cc 2 − cc 3 − c c 4
44
c 2, 6 = c 6, 2 = −cc1e2 + cc 2 e2 − cc 3 e2 + cc 4 e2
c 2, 7 = c 7 , 2 = c c1b4 + cc 2 b4 + c c 3 b5 + c c 4 b5
c3,3 = c s e12 + c c1e22 + c c 2 e22 + c c 3 e22 + cc 4 e22
c3, 4 = c 4,3 = c s d1e1 − cc1 d 2 e2 + cc 2 d 2 e2 + cc 3 d 3 e2 − cc 4 d 3 e2
c3,5 = c5,3 = −cc1e2 + cc 2 e2 − cc 3 e2 + cc 4 e2
c3, 6 = c6,3 = −cc1e22 − c c 2 e22 −c c 3 e22 − cc 4 e22
c3, 7 = c7 ,3 = cc1b4 e2 − cc 2 b4 e2 + cc 3b5 e2 − cc 4 b5 e2
c 4, 4 = c s d12 + c c1 d 22 + cc 2 d 22 + cc 3 d 32 + cc 4 d 32
c 4,5 = c5, 4 = cc1 d 2 + cc 2 d 2 − cc 3 d 3 − cc 4 d 3
c 4, 6 = c6, 4 = cc1 d 2 e2 − cc 2 d 2 e2 − cc 3 d 3 e2 + cc 4 d 3 e2
c 4,7 = c 7 , 4 = −cc1b4 d 2 − cc 2 b4 d 2 + cc 3 b5 d 3 + c c 4 b5 d 3
2 2 2 2
l2 l l l
c5,5 = cc1 + cc 2 + cc 3 + cc 4 + c1 + c 2 + c3 + c 4 2 + c5 2 + c 6 2
l1 l1 l1 l1
2 2
l2 l
c5, 6 = c6,5 = cc1e2 − c c 2 e2 + cc 3 e2 − cc 4 e2 + c1 a1 − c 2 a1 + c3 a1 − c 4 2 a1
l1 l1
2 2
l l
+ c5 2 a1 − c 6 2 a1
l1 l1
2 2
l l
c 5, 7 = c 7 , 5 = −cc1b4 − c c 2 b4 − cc 3 b5 − c1b1 − c 2 b1 + c3 2 b2 + c 4 2 b2
l1 l1
2 2
l2 l
+ c5 b3 + c6 2 b3
l1 l1
c5,8 = c8,5 = −c1 − c 2
c5,9 = c9,5 = −c1 a1 + c 2 a1

2 2
l l
c5,10 = c10,5 = −c 3 2 − c 4 2
l1 l1
2 2
l l
c5,11 = c11,5 = −c3 2 a1 + c 4 2 a1
l1 l1
2 2
l l
c5,12 = c12,5 = −c 5 2 + c 6 2
l1 l1
45
2 2
l2 l
c5,13 = c13,5 = −c5 a1 + c6 2 a1
l1 l1
2 2 2
l2 2 l l
c6, 6 = cc1e22 + cc 2 e22 + cc 3 e22 + c c 4 e22 + c1 a12 + c 2 a12 + c3 a1 + c 4 2 a12 + c5 2 a12
l1 l1 l1
2
l
+ c6 2 a12
l1
c6, 7 = c7 ,6 = −cc1b4 e2 + cc 2 b4 e2 − cc 3b5 e2 + cc 4 b5 e2 − c1 a1b1 + c 2 a1b1
2 2 2 2
l2 l l l
+ c3 b2 a1 − c 4 2 b2 a1 + c5 2 a1 − c 6 2 a1
l1 l1 l1 l1
c6,8 = c8, 6 = −c1 a1 + c 2 a1
c6,9 = c9, 6 = −c1 a12 − c 2 a12

2 2
l2 l
c6,10 = c10, 6 = −c3 a1 + c 4 2 a1
l1 l1
2 2
l2 2 l
c6,11 = c11,6 = −c3 a1 − c 4 2 a12
l1 l1
2 2
l2 l
c6,12 = c12, 6 = −c5 a1 + c6 2 a1
l1 l1
2 2
l2 2 l
c6,13 = c13,,6 = −c5 a1 − c6 2 a12
l1 l1
2 2
l2 2 l 2
c7 , 7 = c c1b42 + cc 2 b42 + cc 3 b52 + cc 4 b52 + c1b12 + c 2 b12 + c3 b2 + c 4 2 b2
l1 l1
2 2
l 2 l 2
+ c5 2 b3 + c6 2 b3
l1 l1
c7 ,8 = c8,7 = c1b1 + c 2 b1
c7 ,9 = c9, 7 = c1 a1b1 − c 2 a1b1

2 2
l2 l
c7 ,10 = c10, 7 = −c3 b2 − c 4 2 b2
l1 l1
2 2
l2 l
c7 ,11 = c11,7 = −c3 b2 a1 + c 4 2 b2 a1
l1 l1
2 2
l2 l
c7 ,12 = c12, 7 = −c5 b3 − c6 2 b3
l1 l1
46
2 2
l2 l
c7 ,13 = c13,7 = −c5 b3 a1 + c6 2 b3 a1
l1 l1
c8,8 = c1 + c 2
c8,9 = c9,8 = c1 a1 − c 2 a1
c9,9 = c1 a12 + c 2 a12

2 2
l l
c10,10 = c3 2 + c 4 2
l1 l1
2 2
l l
c10,11 = c11,10 = c3 2 a1 − c 4 2 a1
l1 l1
2 2
l l
c11,11 = c3 2 a12 + c 4 2 a12
l1 l1
2 2
l l
c12,12 = c5 2 + c 6 2
l1 l1
2 2
l l
c12,13 = c13,12 = c5 2 a1 − c6 2 a1
l1 l1
2 2
l l
c13,13 = c5 2 a12 + c6 2 a12
l1 l1
All other elements in K19 and C19 equal 0.
2.7 Calculation of the Suspension Static Deflection and the Reaction Force on Each
Wheel
Since the system initial position is chosen as the equilibrium position, there is no gravity
term appearing in the motion equation. However, if the gravity term is considered,
which will be seen as the loads applied on the system, then in the static state there is:
K 19W19 = G (2-42)
Where:
G is the gravity vector, which is in the form of:
47
G = [− M s g − Mcg 0 0 − Mbg 0 0 − M1g 0 ...

− M2g 0 − M3g 0 − M w1 g − M w2 g − M w3 g − M w4 g − M w5 g − M w6 g ]T
(2-43)
Application of the boundary conditions yields:
W1 = 0
W2 = 0
W3 = 0
(2-44)
W4 = 0
W5 = 0
W6 = 0
Therefore the stiffness matrix K19 is rewritten as Ks:
 k1,1 k1, 2 Λ k1,13 k1,14 k1,15 k1,16 k1,17 k1,18 k1,19 

k Λ k 2,19 
 2,1 k 2, 2 k 2,13 k 2,14 k 2,15 k 2,16 k 2,17 k 2,18
 Μ Μ Ο Μ Μ Μ Μ Μ Μ Μ
 
k13,1 k13, 2 Λ k13,13 k13,14 k13,15 k13,16 k13,17 k13,18 k13,19 
 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 
Ks =  
 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 
(2-45)
Thus, the displacement of all degrees of freedom can be calculated by:
Ws = K s \ G (2-46)
Where:
Ws is the static deflection vector
Therefore,
48
Ws = {w106 w104 θ104 φ104 w100 θ100 φ100 w101 θ101 w102 θ102 w103 θ103 Λ
w1 w2 w3 w4 w5 w6 }T
= {− 0.3443 − 0.2661 0.0201 0.0162 − 0.1578 0.0038 0.0164 Λ
− 0.0340 0.0001 − 0.0331 0.0001 − 0.0285 0.0001 Λ
0 0 0 0 0 0}T
(2-47)
It can be seen from the above result that both the cab and the chassis of the vehicle lean
slightly to the right and pitch downwards. This effect results from the offset position of
the driver seat. Similarly, all three axles roll slightly to the right due to the same reason.
This is reasonable according to industry experience.
On the other hand, it should be noted that the displacement of these degrees of freedom
is not the suspension static deflection. However, the suspension static displacement
should be the relative displacement of the two ends of the suspension which can be
obtained by:
49
u s = w106 − w105 = w106 − ( w104 − d1θ104 − e1φ104 )

u c1 = w45 − w31 = ( w104 + e2θ104 − d 2φ104 ) − ( w100 + e2θ100 − b4φ100 )
u c 2 = w46 − w32 = ( w104 − e2θ104 − d 2φ104 ) − ( w100 − e2θ100 − b4φ100 )
u c 3 = w47 − w35 = ( w104 + e2θ104 + d 3φ104 ) − ( w100 + e2θ100 − b5φ100 )
u c 4 = w48 − w36 = ( w104 − e2θ104 + d 3φ104 ) − ( w100 − e2θ100 − b5φ100 )
u1 = w33 − w13 = ( w100 + a1θ100 − b1φ100 ) − ( w101 + a1θ101 )
u 2 = w34 − w14 = ( w100 − a1θ100 − b1φ100 ) − ( w101 − a1θ101 )
l3
u 3 = w39 − w21 = ( w17 − w15 )
l1
l3
= [( w102 + a1θ102 ) − ( w100 + a1θ100 + (b2 − l1 )φ100 )]
l1
l3
u 4 = w40 − w22 = ( w18 − w16 )
l1
l3
= [( w102 − a1θ102 ) − ( w100 − a1θ100 + (b2 − l1 )φ100 )]
l1
l3
u 5 = w43 − w29 = ( w25 − w23 )
l1
l3
= [( w103 + a1θ103 ) − ( w100 + a1θ100 + (b3 − l1 )φ100 )]
l1
l3
u 6 = w44 − w30 = ( w26 − w24 )
l1
l3
= [( w103 − a1θ103 ) − ( w100 − a1θ100 + (b3 − l1 )φ100 )]
l1
u w1 = w7 − w1 = w101 + a 2θ101
u w 2 = w8 − w2 = w101 − a 2θ101
u w3 = w9 − w3 = w102 + a 2θ102
u w 4 = w10 − w4 = w102 − a 2θ102
u w5 = w11 − w5 = w103 + a 2θ103
u w6 = w12 − w6 = w103 − a 2θ103
(2-48)
Where:
u s – Seat suspension static deflection, m
u c1 – Cab front left suspension static deflection, m
u c 2 – Cab front right suspension static deflection, m
u c 3 – Cab rear left suspension static deflection, m

50
u c 4 – Cab rear right suspension static deflection, m
u 1 – Steer axle left suspension static deflection, m
u 2 – Steer axle right suspension static deflection, m

u 3 – Centre axle left suspension static deflection, m
u 4 – Centre axle right suspension static deflection, m

u 5 – Rear axle left suspension static deflection, m
u 6 – Rear axle right suspension static deflection, m
u w1 – Left steer tyre static deflection, m
u w 2 – Right steer tyre static deflection, m
u w3 – Left centre tyre static deflection, m
u w 4 – Right centre tyre static deflection, m
u w5 –Left rear tyre static deflection, m
u w6 – Right rear tyre static deflection, m
Hence, the static deflection of each suspension spring member is listed in the following
table:
51
Table (2-2): Static deflections of some critical components

Cab,
Cab, left Cab, left Cab,
Seat right
front rear right rear
front
Static
Deflection -0.0612 -0.0088 -0.0212 -0.0092 -0.0216
(m)
Main, Main, Main,
Main, Main, Main,
steer centre centre
steer left rear left rear right
right left right
Static
Deflection -0.2072 -0.2101 -0.1999 -0.2046 -0.1714 -0.1761
(m)
Tyre, Tyre, Tyre,
Tyre, Tyre, Tyre,
steer centre centre
steer left rear left rear right
right left right
Static
Deflection -0.0340 -0.0341 -0.0329 -0.0332 -0.0284 -0.0287
(m)
The reaction force on each wheel can be obtained by:
F = K 19Ws (2-49)
Here the K19 is the original 19 × 19 truck-poster system model stiffness matrix. The
result for the reaction force calculation is listed in the following table:
52
Table (2-3): Reaction forces on wheels

Right Left Right Right
Left front Left rear
front centre centre rear
wheel wheel
wheel wheel wheel wheel
Reaction
23430 23550 45420 45830 39180 39590
force (N)
It is clearly seen that wheels on the right side are subject to slightly greater loads than
those on the left side consistent with the chassis and cab lean.
53
Chapter 3: Numerical Simulation of the Model
Chapter 3: Model Numerical Simulation
3.1 Reduction of the 19 DoF truck-poster model to the 13 DoF truck model
The dynamic model developed in the previous chapter is of 19 DoF which includes both
the truck and a 6-channel poster excitation rig. However, in this chapter, the truck will
be placed on the road. In this case, the motions of the 6 wheels correspond to the
pavement surface excitations. As a consequence the 19 DoF model stiffness matrix and
the model proper simplifies to a 13 degrees of freedom system.
Let the road surface profile excitations, applied to the wheels, be the sinusoid inputs:
w1 = Ar sin(ω dr t + ϕ 1 )
(3-1)
w4 = A r sin(ω dr t + ϕ 4 )
Where:
Ar – Road roughness magnitude, m
ω dr - Drive frequency, rad/s; ω dr = 2πv / L
ϕ n - The phase angle of the nth wheel, rad
The motion equation is:
M ⋅ W&
&+ C ⋅ W&+ K ⋅ W = f (t ) (3-2)
Where:
M – System mass matrix of the 13 DoF truck model
C – System damping matrix of the 13 DoF truck model
54
K – System stiffness matrix of the 13 DoF truck model

W&
&– Acceleration vector of the 13 DoF truck model
W&– Velocity vector of the 13 DoF truck model

W – Displacement vector of the 13 DoF truck model
f(t) – Road excitation vector, which has the form of:
 0 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 0 
 
f (t ) =  0  (3-3)
 k A sin(ω t + ϕ ) + k A sin(ω t + ϕ ) 
 w1 r dr 1 w2 r dr 2

 k w1 a 2 Ar sin(ω dr t + ϕ 1 ) − k w 2 a 2 Ar sin(ω dr t + ϕ 2 ) 
 k A sin(ω t + ϕ ) + k A sin(ω t + ϕ ) 
 w3 r dr 3 w4 r dr 4 
k w3 a 2 Ar sin(ω dr t + ϕ 3 ) − k w 4 a 2 Ar sin(ω dr t + ϕ 4 )
 
 k w5 Ar sin(ω dr t + ϕ 5 ) + k w6 Ar sin(ω dr t + ϕ 6 ) 
k w5 a 2 Ar sin(ω dr t + ϕ 5 ) − k w6 a 2 Ar sin(ω dr t + ϕ 6 )
Compared to Equation (2-35), the system matrices in Equation (3-2) is 13 × 13 while the
vectors contain 13 rows. The vector G does not appear because the initial positions are
chosen as the system equilibrium positions.
3.2 Calculation of eigenvalues and eigenvectors in state-space
The general form of the motion equation of a multi-degree of freedom damped vibration
model can be described as:
M ⋅ W&
&+ C ⋅ W&+ K ⋅ W = f (t ) (3-4)
In the state space, the state vector is:
55
W 
Y =  & (3-5)
W 
The Equation (3-4) now can be re-written as:
C M  W&  K 0  W   f (t )
M  & +   =  (3-6)
 0  W& 0 − M  W&  0 
or
A ⋅ Y&+ B ⋅ Y = f (t ) (3-7)
Where:
C M
A= 
M 0 
K 0 
B=  (3-8)
0 −M
 f (t )
f = 
 0 
A and B are 2n by 2n square matrices and f is a 2n by 1 vector. Here it should be noted

that for A to be symmetrical, M and C must be symmetrical.
3.3 Complex eigenvalues, complex eigenvectors and the complex modal matrix
Let f(t) = 0, the system free vibration state space equation is:
AY&+ BY = 0 (3-9)
Assume that the solutions of the system are:
56
W = φe λt
(3-10)
W&= λφe λt
Thus,
W   φe λt   φ  λt
Y =  & =  λt 
=  e = ϕe λt (3-11)
W  λφe  λφ 
W&  λφe λt   λφ 
Y&=   =  2 λt  =  2 e λt = λϕe λt (3-12)
&
&
W  λ φe  λ φ 
Where:
φ 
ϕ =  (3-13)
λφ 
Substitution of Equation (3-11) and Equation (3-12) into Equation (3-9) yields:
(λA + B)ϕ = 0 (3-14)
Applying left multiplication on both sides by A-1, yields:
(λI + A −1 B)ϕ = 0 (3-15)
Let H = -A-1B, Equation (3-15) is then re-written as:
(λI − H )ϕ = 0 (3-16)
Thus, the characteristic equation is:
λI − H = 0 (3-17)
Solving Equation (3-17) gives n pairs of complex conjugate roots, which are the
eigenvalues:
57
λi = −ω niζ i + jω ni 1 − ζ i2
λ i = −ω niζ i − jω ni 1 − ζ i2 (3-18)
(i = 1,2,Λ , n)
The corresponding eigenvectors, which are complex eigenvectors with 2n dimensions,

can be obtained by substituting each eigenvalues into Equation (3-16):
φ 
ϕi =  i 
λiφ i 
φ 
ϕi =  i  (3-19)
λi φ i 
(i = 1,2, Λ , n)
The eigenvalue matrix is:
λ1 0 0 
0 Ο 0 0 
 
Λ 0   0 0 λn 
Ω= = (3-20)
 0 Λ  λ1 0 0 
 0 0 Ο 0
 
 0 0 λn 
The 2n by 2n eigenvector matrix Ω is:
Φ = [ϕ ϕ ] = [ϕ1 ϕ 2 Λ ϕn ϕ1 ϕ 2 Λ ϕn]
φ1 φ2 φ φ1 φ2 φn
=[ Λ n Λ ] (3-21)
λ1φ1 λ2φ 2 λnφ n λ1 φ1 λ2 φ 2 λn φ n
φ φ
=[ ]
φΛ φ Λ
Where:
58
ϕ is a 2n× n matrix comprised by eigenvector ϕ i (i = 1,2,Λ , n) ;
ϕ is a 2n × n matrix comprised by eigenvector ϕ i (i = 1,2,Λ , n) ;

φ is an n × n matrix comprised by φ i (i = 1,2,Λ , n) ;
φ is an n × n matrix comprised by φ i (i = 1,2,Λ , n) ;

Λ is an n × n matrix comprised by eigenvalues λi (i = 1,2,⋅ ⋅ ⋅, n) ;
Λ is an n × n matrix comprised by eigenvalues λ i (i = 1,2,⋅ ⋅ ⋅, n) ;
3.4 Some system characteristics obtained by eigenvalues and eigenvectors
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors provide some valuable information describing paramount

system inherited characteristics.
On letting φ = a + bi and λ = α + βi , Equation (3-10) can be written as:
W = (a + bi )e (α + βi ) tj (3-22)
According to Equation (3-18):
| λ |= ω (3-23)
Thus, the system natural frequency can be calculated by:
ω = α2 + β2 (3-24)
Furthermore,
φ = a + bi = a 2 + b 2 e jδ (3-25)
Substituting Equation (3-25) into Equation (3-22) yields
59
α 2 + β 2 t +δ ) j
W = a 2 + b2 e(
(3-26)
= Amp ⋅ e j (ωt +δ )
Where:
Amp = a 2 + b 2 , - Amplitude, m
ω = α 2 + β 2 , - System natural frequency, rad/s
b
δ = arctan  , - Phase angle, rad
a
However, because the eigenvectors exhibit imaginary parts, it is difficult to visualize the
“mode shapes” by traditional method due to the phase lags between real and imaginary
parts. Nevertheless, the dominant motion of each mode can still be distinguished by
examining the amplitude of each part of a particular eigenvector. Obviously the largest
part represents the dominant motion component.
Therefore, the paramount system characteristics of the different inherent modes are
listed in the following table, Table (3-1). The corresponding phase angles of the
eigenvectors are listed in the Table (3-2).
60
Table (3-1): Some system characteristics of different modes

Undamped Undamped Damped Damped
Dominant Natural Natural Natural Natural
Eigenvalue
Motion Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency
(rad/s) (Hz) (rad/s) (Hz)
Mode 1 -0.7004 ± 5.5198i Chassis, B 5.5640 0.8855 5.4751 0.8714
Mode 2 -1.3817 ± 7.1441i Chassis, R 7.2765 1.1581 7.0092 1.1156
Mode 3 -1.5701 ± 9.3577i Chassis, P 9.4885 1.5101 9.2251 1.4682
Mode 4 -0.9275 ± 11.5985i Seat, B 11.6356 1.8519 11.5614 1.8401
Mode 5 -2.1380 ± 22.4880i Cab, R 22.5894 3.5952 22.3861 3.5629
Mode 6 -4.3147 ± 32.1243i Cab, B 32.4128 5.1587 31.8332 5.0664
Mode 7 -16.3339 ± 55.0837i Cab, P 57.4544 9.1442 52.6062 8.3725
Mode 8 -16.1014 ± 55.7729i 2 & 3A, B, ip 58.0506 9.2390 53.3982 8.4986
2 & 3A, B,
Mode 9 -15.3372 ± 56.1921i 58.2476 9.2704 54.0585 8.6037
op
Mode 10 -16.6777 ± 64.5149i 1A, B 66.6357 10.6054 62.3219 9.9188
Mode 11 -4.0230 ± 70.8998i 1A, R 71.0139 11.3022 70.7856 11.2659
Mode 12 -4.9621 ± 74.8254i 2 & 3A, R, ip 74.9897 11.9350 74.6607 11.8826
2 & 3A, R,
Mode 13 -4.9137 ± 74.9003i 75.0613 11.9464 74.7389 11.8951
op
B – Bounce; R – Roll; P – Pitch; 1A – Steer Axle; 2A – Centre Axle; 3A – Rear Axle; ip – In Phase; op – Out of Phase
61
Table (3-2): Phase angles of the eigenvectors in degrees
Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 4 Mode 5 Mode 6 Mode 7 Mode 8 Mode 9 Mode 10 Mode 11 Mode 12 Mode 13
Seat -7.2319 -10.9459 -9.5244 -4.5723 -1.8430 -3.3094 -29.5234 15.8718 -84.0679 -4.9455 -51.0416 -55.8569 80.8185
Bounce
Cab -11.3856 -21.9226 -36.1481 40.1570 -13.3330 -7.6498 13.6667 44.7386 -58.6361 -11.5445 -44.5356 -50.0417 38.1239
Bounce
Cab Roll -9.6614 22.0836 11.4048 1.2926 -5.4310 -4.0736 -30.5212 15.0242 -84.7038 -4.9495 -82.8763 -88.2044 -80.3237
Cab -12.0449 -26.9947 -41.9219 39.4917 -88.4962 -4.0001 51.4476 82.4094 -34.0509 -14.4942 25.3413 6.3113 54.1629
Pitch
Chassis -14.5495 -16.1905 -46.9366 -53.8969 0.9579 -3.7332 48.0888 30.1446 -52.5458 -13.7667 -13.5346 -19.3630 12.6762
Bounce
Chassis -11.6808 -12.0452 -2.0966 3.9467 -3.3331 -3.2533 -37.2242 9.3855 -88.6328 -3.8102 72.1551 66.6643 -71.5104
Roll
Chassis -15.0962 -27.5811 -43.5665 28.2099 5.8400 -2.1197 29.3132 63.5820 -50.7060 -3.4710 5.6688 -3.2348 33.6905
Pitch
Steer
Axle 4.1016 1.3477 -9.7060 59.2234 54.9056 53.0593 -44.9138 -16.1032 24.8058 79.3178 -49.2082 -66.2636 -21.6981
Bounce
Steer 9.6840 16.0717 33.2415 43.5999 56.7753 69.4009 86.9704 -45.8388 34.6756 -34.0465 -3.2476 -44.5793 -25.9595
Axle Roll
Centre
Axle -2.8643 2.5029 -26.7478 80.8154 -72.7747 19.5431 -11.2180 -13.1830 -15.2666 75.5226 16.9698 -8.1440 27.2613
Bounce
Centre 1.9690 6.0166 21.2094 31.0997 42.9219 56.5713 71.1853 -61.8645 18.5479 -55.3461 -44.7557 -3.7940 -3.7534
Axle Roll
Rear
Axle -6.7289 30.1260 -25.8934 60.3442 43.7735 41.5500 -16.5167 -70.0562 -7.7822 72.2012 -48.7318 -66.7880 -49.4457
Bounce
Rear 1.9690 6.0166 21.2094 31.0997 42.9219 56.5713 71.1853 -61.8645 18.5479 -55.3461 -44.7557 -3.7940 -3.7534
Axle Roll
62
3.5 System Simulation
3.5.1 The central difference method
The central difference method is used in this thesis to conduct dynamic simulation. The
central difference method is a numerical method which has the form of:
wt + ∆t − 2 wt + wt − ∆t
&
&t ≈
w
(∆t ) 2
(3-27)
w − wt − ∆t
w&t ≈ t + ∆t
2∆t
Where ∆t is the sampling time which must comply to:
1
∆t ≤ Tmin (3-28)
10
Where Tmin is the minimal period possessed in all modes. In this thesis, the sampling
time ∆t is set to 0.005 second which is sufficiently less than 0.1Tmin.
3.5.2 Road roughness excitation
The road profile adopted in the simulation has continuous sinusoidal variation as
depicted in Figure (3-1) following:
Vehicle Running
Direction
Figure (3-1): Road Profile
63
As described in Equation (3-1), this particular road profile generates road roughness
excitation such that:
w1 = Ar sin(ω dr t + ϕ1 )
Where:
Ar – Road roughness amplitude, m
ω dr - Drive frequency, rad/s; ω dr = 2πv / L
In this thesis, two drive frequencies will be used to simulate two typical road conditions.
The higher drive frequency is chosen to be close to the typical unsprung mass natural
frequency and fall within the 10-12 Hz region. In comparison the lower drive frequency,
which is close to the typical air suspension natural frequency is selected to fall the 1-2
Hz region. The corresponding difference between the road roughness excitations
induced by these two different drive frequencies is depicted in Figure (3-2) following:
64
Figure (3-2): High and low frequency road excitations cases examined
The phase angle ϕ is selected for 2 cases. The first case is that the left steer wheel and
the right steer wheel have no phase difference (here ϕ12 = 0 ) and the second case is that
where there is 90 degrees phase lag for the right steer wheel compared to the left one
π
(here ϕ12 = ). The two phase angle cases are depicted in Figure (3-3), over page, for
2
comparison:
65
The right track has

Pi/2 phase lag to
the left track
Vehicle Running Direction
No phase difference
between left and right
tracks
Figure (3-3): Excitation phase angle between the left and the right steering wheel
Subject to the assumed two phase angle cases the phase angle of the nth wheel ϕ n is
mathematically described by:
ϕ1 = 0
ϕ 2 = ϕ 1 − ϕ12
ϕ 3 = ϕ1 − ϕ 13
ϕ 4 = ϕ 2 − ϕ 24 = ϕ 1 − ϕ12 − ϕ 24 = ϕ 1 − ϕ12 − ϕ 13
ϕ 5 = ϕ1 − ϕ 15
ϕ 6 = ϕ 2 − ϕ 26 = ϕ 1 − ϕ12 − ϕ 26 = ϕ 1 − ϕ12 − ϕ 15
ϕ13 = 2π (b1 + b2 ) / L
ϕ15 = 2π (b1 + b3 ) / L
ϕ 24 = ϕ 13
ϕ 26 = ϕ 15
Where ϕ12 , ϕ13 , … are the phase angle difference between wheel 1 and 2, wheel 1 and 3,
etc.
It should be noted that the drive frequency can be interpreted in two ways. For a
particular road with constant wave length L, the higher drive frequency means the
vehicle is running at higher speed while the lower drive frequency, on the contrary,
66
means the vehicle is running at lower speed. Alternatively, if the vehicle speed is
constant, the higher drive frequency means the pavement possesses short wavelength
characteristics while the lower drive frequency means the pavement possesses long
wavelength characteristics. Therefore, the interpretation of the simulation results is
strongly related to the simulated conditions and assumptions.
In this thesis, the road wave length is fixed and the vehicle speed is set to either the low
and high values of 15km/h and 100km/h, respectively. Thus, combined with the 2
different ϕ n settings, this gives four cases in total:
z Case 1: High drive frequency case, Ar = 0.05m, ω dr = 11.11Hz, ϕ12 = 0
π
z Case 2: High drive frequency case, Ar = 0.05m, ω dr = 11.11Hz, ϕ12 =
2
z Case 3: Low drive frequency case, Ar = 0.05m, ω dr = 1.67Hz, ϕ12 = 0
π
z Case 4: Low drive frequency case, Ar = 0.05m, ω dr = 1.67Hz, ϕ12 =
2
The simulation is conducted by programming using MATLAB script and the detailed
codes are listed in Appendix (2). The simulation results are depicted in Appendix (3) in
time response form.
3.5.3 Time response predictions
The following figures provide a quick look of the system time responses under the
different cases.
67
z Case 1:
Seat bounce
Cab bounce
Cab roll
Cab pitch
Chassis
Chassis roll
Chassis pitch
Figure (3-4a): System time response, 1st – 7th DoF, high drive frequency, ϕ12 = 0
Steer axle
b
Steer axle
ll
Centre
l
Centre
l
Rear axle
b
Rear axle
ll
Figure (3-4b): System time response, 8th – 13th DoF, high drive frequency, ϕ12 = 0
68
In this case, the seat bounce as well as all roll DoFs take a relatively long time to settle
to steady-state and hence exhibit long transient state. This indicates insufficient
damping especially about the roll axis. However, the actual amplitudes of the roll
motions are minimal.
z Case 2:
Seat bounce
Cab bounce
Cab roll
Cab pitch
Chassis
Chassis roll
Chassis pitch
π
Figure (3-5a): System time response, 1st – 7th DoF, high drive frequency, ϕ12 =
2
69
Steer axle
b
Steer axle
ll
Centre
l
Centre
l
Rear axle
b
Rear axle
ll
π
Figure (3-5b): System time response, 8th – 13th DoF, high drive frequency, ϕ12 =
2
In this case, the transient states of the seat bounce, cab roll and chassis roll are still
relatively long. However, the roll motions of the unsprung masses and the 3 axles
rapidly stabilized to the steady-state. It is also observed that there are significant roll
motions of the unsprung mass due to the asymmetric road excitations.
70
z Case 3:
Seat bounce
Cab bounce
Cab roll
Cab pitch
Chassis
Chassis roll
Chassis pitch
Figure (3-6a): System time response, 1st – 7th DoF, low drive frequency, ϕ12 = 0
Steer axle
b
Steer axle
ll
Centre
l
Centre
l
Rear axle
b
Rear axle
ll
Figure (3-6b): System time response, 8th – 13th DoF, low drive frequency, ϕ12 = 0
71
In this case significant roll motion of the cab is observed. It should be noted that
although the road excitations are symmetrical, the weight distribution of the truck in the
transverse cross section plane, due to the offset of the driver-seat system, is not. Thus,
the responses of the left side and the right side differ slightly. This differential effect
may be further magnified through the cab suspension system causing notable roll
motion of the cab. However, the duration of the transient states for all DoF motions are
short.
z Case 4:
Seat bounce
Cab bounce
Cab roll
Cab pitch
Chassis
Chassis roll
Chassis pitch
π
Figure (3-7a): System time response, 1st – 7th DoF, low drive frequency, ϕ12 =
2
72
Steer axle
b
Steer axle
ll
Centre
l
Centre
l
Rear axle
b
Rear axle
ll
π
Figure (3-7b): System time response, 8th – 13th DoF, low drive frequency, ϕ12 =
2
In this case, all DoFs exhibit short transient state except the chassis roll. The significant
cab roll may be largely attributed to the asymmetric excitations as well as the possible
effect of the asymmetrical weight distribution discussed in Case 3.
It should be noted that the seat bounce and cab bounce displacements are in the global
coordinate system domain, which are the displacements relative to the ground. However,
it is more conventional to measure the bounces of the seat and the cab relative to the cab
floor and the chassis, respectively. Thus, the seat bounce and the cab bounce relative to
the cab floor and the chassis, respectively are separately plotted as follows:
73
z Case 1:
ϕ12 = 0
ϕ12 = 0
74
Case 2:
π
ϕ12 =
2
π
ϕ12 =
2
75
z Case 3:
ϕ12 = 0
ϕ12 = 0
76
z Case 4:
π
ϕ12 =
2
π
ϕ12 =
2
77
Examination of Figure (3-8) to Figure (3-11) reveals that the seat exhibits acceptable
vibration isolation performance under high frequency excitations. However, under
relatively lower frequency excitations, the vibration level is extremely high and is
greatly magnified.
78
Chapter 4: Several Case Studies
Chapter 4: Case Studies
The time response of the model provides a basis for further studies. Applying some
deduction, the displacement amplitude obtained from the time response can represent
some very important characteristics of the vehicle dynamics. Among these
characteristics, the dynamic tyre force, the maximum dynamic suspension deflection
and the maximum seat vertical acceleration receive special attention in this thesis due to
their significance in terms of safety, ride quality and vehicle and infrastructure durability.
Since this truck model is assumed operating on a road with continuous sinusoidal
profile non steady state conditions are ignored. Therefore, all simulations in this chapter
are based on the steady-state.
4.1 Dynamic tyre force
The dynamic tyre force is important because it is crucial for both vehicle safety and
pavement protection. In particular high dynamic tyre forces are harmful to both
pavement and vehicle components. Such forces may be generated by harsh shock
absorbers which can cause pavement degradation and component failure. Even worse,
high dynamic tyre forces may make it possible the wheel loses ground contact due to
excessive rebound. This excessive rebound can seriously affect the running safety and
the traction effort of the vehicle. [45][47][48]
The dynamic tyre force is defined mathematically as:
Fd 1 = k w1 ( w7 − w1 ) = k w1 ( w101 + a 2θ 101 − A sin(ω dr t + ϕ1 ))

Fd 2 = k w 2 ( w8 − w2 ) = k w 2 ( w101 − a 2θ 101 − A sin(ω dr t + ϕ 2 ))
Fd 3 = k w3 ( w9 − w3 ) = k w3 ( w102 + a 2θ 102 − A sin(ω dr t + ϕ 3 ))
(4-1)
Fd 4 = k w 4 ( w10 − w4 ) = k w 4 ( w102 − a 2θ 102 − A sin(ω dr t + ϕ 4 ))
79
The maximum dynamic tyre force coefficient is defined as:
Fd max
α= (4-2)
Fs
Where:
α – The dynamic tyre force coefficient, dimensionless
Fdmax – Maximum dynamic tyre force, N
Fs – Static tyre force, N
The tyre contact force Fw is calculated as:
Fw = Fs − Fd (4-3)
The road holding performance can be determined by the dynamic tyre force
coefficient α . If α < 1 , which means Fdmax<Fs, the tyre will maintain contact with the
road. However; if α ≥ 1 , the tyre will hop off the ground and lose traction.
On the other hand, the dynamic tyre force coefficient α can also be used to evaluate the
load applied on the road surface, which contributes to the potential pavement damage.
Namely if α >0, the pressure on the road surface decreases and in the extreme case it
may equal 0 indicating the tyre leaves the ground. If α <0, the load on the road surface
increases which may cause extra damage to the road surface after a certain number of
cycles. The maximum load exerted on the road can be determined by the following
equation:
Fw max = Fs − Fd min (4-4)
Where Fdmin<0
Therefore, the maximum dynamic road load coefficient can be defined as:
Fw max Fs − Fd min F
β= = = 1 − d min (4-5)
Fs Fs Fs
80
Obviously, when the vehicle is static, β equals 1. However, as long as the vehicle
moves, even at very low speed, β will always be larger than unity.
Since this thesis examines 4 cases with different drive frequencies and/or phase shifts,
there are correspondingly 4 off dynamic tyre force simulation case studies. These results
are depicted as follows:
z Case1: High drive frequency case, ω dr = 11.11Hz, A = 0.05m, V=27.78m/s
(100km/h), ϕ12 = 0 - refer Figure (4-1) and Table (4-1):
Figure (4-1): Dynamic tyre force time response, V=27.78m/s, ϕ12 = 0
81
Table (4-1): The maximum dynamic tyre force and dynamic road load coefficients,
V=27.78m/s, ϕ12 = 0
Left Right
Left Steer Right Steer Left Rear Right Rear
Centre Centre
Tyre Tyre Tyre Tyre
Tyre Tyre
Maximum
Dynamic
88286.583 87368.145 83813.526 81854.904 77004.372 75727.752
Tyre Force
(N)
α 3.7681 3.7099 1.8453 1.7998 1.9654 1.9128
β 4.7681 4.7099 2.8453 2.7998 2.9654 2.9129
In this case, all 6 tyres jump off the ground. Furthermore, Figure (4-1) reveals that the
dynamic tyre forces of the left and right sides are symmetrical about the vehicle
longitudinal axis.
z Case 2: High drive frequency case, ω dr = 11.11Hz, A = 0.05m, V=27.78m/s
π
(100km/h), ϕ12 = - refer Figure (4-2) and Table (4-2):
2
82
Figure (4-2): Dynamic tyre force time response, V=27.78m/s, ϕ12 = 0.5π
V=27.78m/s, ϕ12 = 0.5π
Right Left Right

Left Steer Left Rear Right Rear
Steer Centre Centre
Tyre Tyre Tyre
Tyre Tyre Tyre
Maximum
Dynamic
224649.183 342591.27 85153.416 194154.12 79942.872 179952.386
Tyre
Force (N)
α 9.5881 14.5474 1.8748 4.2690 2.0404 4.5454
β 10.5878 15.5480 2.8748 5.2698 3.0404 5.5456
In this case, all 6 wheels jump off the ground with very high acceleration, which is not
only dangerous for the vehicle handling but also associates with possible damage to
both the vehicle suspension components and pavement surface. It also reveals that the
dynamic tyre forces of the right side wheels are much worse. The maximum dynamic
tyre force coefficients α of the right centre and rear tyres are approximately double the
83
values of those of the corresponding left centre and rear tyres.
z Case 3: Low drive frequency case, ω dr = 1.67Hz, A = 0.05m, V=4.17m/s (15km/h),
ϕ12 = 0 - refer Figure (4-3) and Table (4-3):
Figure (4-3): Dynamic tyre force time response, V=4.17m/s, ϕ12 = 0

V=4.17m/s, ϕ12 = 0
Left Right Left Right Right

Left Rear
Steer Steer Centre Centre Rear
Tyre
Tyre Tyre Tyre Tyre Tyre
Maximum
Dynamic
9749.223 9603.69 9401.94 9414.36 26266.272 25820.598
Tyre Force
(N)
α 0.4161 0.4078 0.2070 0.2070 0.6704 0.6522
β 1.4161 1.4078 1.2070 1.2036 1.6754 1.6522
84
In this case the tyres remain in contact with the road surface, although the tyre contact
forces vary between each other. It should be noted that the corresponding dynamic tyre
forces of the left side and right side wheels result in the superposition of the traces of
the left and right wheels in Figure (4-3), hence only 3 traces are clearly visible.
π
ϕ12 = - refer Figure (4-4) and Table (4-4):
2
Figure (4-4): Dynamic tyre force time response, V=4.17m/s, ϕ12 = 0.5π
85
Table (4-4): The maximum dynamic tyre force and dynamic road load, V=4.17m/s,
ϕ12 = 0.5π
Left Right Left Right Right
Left Rear
Steer Steer Centre Centre Rear
Tyre
Tyre Tyre Tyre Tyre Tyre
Maximum
Dynamic
8043.519 5696.745 7467.048 6399.036 20444.124 16441.727
Tyre Force
(N)
α 0.3433 0.2419 0.1644 0.1407 0.5218 0.4153
β 1.3434 1.2419 1.1645 1.1406 1.5220 1.4151
Again in this case the tyres remain in contact with the ground.
Two conclusions can be obtained after studying these 4 cases. First, if ϕ12 = 0 , which
means there is no phase difference between the left and the right side tyres, the dynamic
tyre forces and the dynamic road loads of both the left and the right side tyres are almost
identical. Second, the dynamic tyre force increases as the vehicle speed increases. In
other words, high frequency excitations magnify the dynamic tyre forces. On the other
hand, the values of α and β are closely related. Generally speaking, the higher the α ,
the higher the β . A possible reason for this may be that the higher α value implies the
tyres jump off the road. However, when the tyre rebounds, it will hit the road surface
like a hammer contributing to generate the associated high β value.
The above 4 cases cover only 2 different speeds. In the 2 high speed cases (100km/h) all
tyres lose contact with the road. In comparison in the 2 low speed cases (15km/h) all
tyres remain contact with the road. Yet in the latter cases individual contact forces are
not identical. It is interesting to determine that at what speed a particular tyre will began
to lose contact with the road. This can be achieved by simulating the speed dependent
dynamic tyre force frequency response and plotting the predicted maximum dynamic
tyre force versus speed. The static tyre force and the 70% of the static tyre force of this
86
particular wheel can then be combined into the plot as benchmarks for comparison. The
traces of the static tyre force (the red trace) and 70% of the static tyre force (the green
trace) are two horizontal lines. Therefore, if at a particular speed, the point of the
corresponding maximum dynamic tyre force on the dynamic tyre force trace is above
the static tyre force line, the tyre will lose contact with the road at this speed. If it is
above the 70% static tyre force line but below the static tyre force line, this tyre may
still hold on the road. However, the tyre contact force is less than 30% of the static tyre
force, which may cause some handling problems. Here only the ϕ12 = 0.5π case will be
studied using this method as an example. Details of the plots of the 6 wheels are
depicted in the following figures (4-5) to (4-10) inclusive:
Figure (4-5): Left steer wheel maximum dynamic tyre force versus speed
87
Figure (4-6): Right steer wheel maximum dynamic tyre force versus speed
Figure (4-7): Left centre wheel maximum dynamic tyre force versus speed
88
Figure (4-8): Right centre wheel maximum dynamic tyre force versus speed
Figure (4-9): Left rear wheel maximum dynamic tyre force versus speed
89
Figure (4-10): Right rear wheel maximum dynamic tyre force versus speed
Examination of Figures (4-5) to (4-10) reveals that subject to the ϕ12 = 0.5π case,
different tyres will lose contact with the road at different speeds. Furthermore with
increasing speed the road holding performance of all tyres decreases. It is also apparent
that in general, the tyres on the left side appear to exhibit better road holding
performance than those on the right side. In particular the critical speeds for the left side
tyres are around 80~90km/h, whereas the critical speeds on the right side tyres are
around 50~60km/h. This variation is summarized in the Table (4-5):
Table (4-5): Speeds at which the tyres lose contact with the road
Right Left Right Right
Left Steer Left Rear
Steer Centre Centre Rear
Tyre Tyre
Tyre Tyre Tyre Tyre
V0 <90 >50 <90 <60 >80 >50 <60
V30% >80 <50 >80 >50 ≈80 ≈50
Where:
90
V0 – Critical speed that the tyre begins to lose contact with the road, km/h
V30% – Critical Speed that the tyre contact force begins to be less than 30% of the static
tyre force, km/h
4.2 Maximum dynamic suspension deflection
Although large suspension dynamic deflection is useful to overcome various terrains

and increase the maximum off-road speed, it does affect both the suspension durability
and the ride quality. Notably excessive dynamic deflection can greatly reduce the
suspension useful life and increase the risk of the suspension reaching its suspension
travel limits. The latter will cause the suspension to contact the suspension rubber stops
(if fitted). This impact, in turn, will significantly deteriorate the ride quality [45] [48]
The mathematical definitions of the main suspension dynamic deflections have exactly
the same forms as Equation (2-48), defined to calculate the static deflections. These
equations are repeated, for convenience, as follows:
u1 = w33 − w13 = ( w100 + a1θ 100 − b1φ100 ) − ( w101 + a1θ 101 )
u 2 = w34 − w14 = ( w100 − a1θ 100 − b1φ100 ) − ( w101 − a1θ 101 )
l3
u 3 = w39 − w21 = ( w17 − w15 )
l1
l3
= [( w102 + a1θ 102 ) − ( w100 + a1θ 100 + (b2 − l1 )φ100 )]
l1
l3
u 4 = w40 − w22 = ( w18 − w16 )
l1
l3
= [( w102 − a1θ 102 ) − ( w100 − a1θ 100 + (b2 − l1 )φ100 )]
l1
l3
u 5 = w43 − w29 = ( w25 − w23 )
l1
l3
= [( w103 + a1θ 103 ) − ( w100 + a1θ 100 + (b3 − l1 )φ100 )]
l1
l3
u 6 = w44 − w30 = ( w26 − w24 )
l1
l3
= [( w103 + a1θ 103 ) − ( w100 − a1θ 100 + (b3 − l1 )φ100 )]
l1
91
(2-48)
The simulation results are depicted as follows, according to 4 different cases:
(100km/h), ϕ12 = 0 - refer Figure (4-11) and Table (4-6).

ϕ12 = 0

ϕ12 = 0
Steer Steer Centre Centre Rear Rear
Axle, Axle, Axle, Axle, Axle, Axle,
Left Right Left Right Left Right
Maximum
dynamic
0.0602 0.602 0.0631 0.0631 0.0638 0.0638
deflection,
m
92
π
(100km/h), ϕ12 = - refer Figure (4-121) and Table (4-7).
2

ϕ12 = 0.5π

ϕ12 = 0.5π
Maximum
dynamic
0.0889 0.1528 0.0537 0.1291 0.0548 0.1293
deflection,
m
93
ϕ12 = 0 - refer Figure (4-13) and Table (4-8).
Figure (4-13): Main suspension dynamic deflection time response, V=4.17m/s, ϕ12 = 0

ϕ12 = 0
Maximum
dynamic
0.0651 0.0645 0.0320 0.0323 0.0876 0.0875
deflection,
m
Because the dynamic deflections of the left and rear suspensions are almost identical,
superposition of the traces of the left and right suspensions occurs.
94
z Case 4: Low drive frequency case, ω dr =1.67Hz, A = 0.05m, V=4.17m/s
π
(15km/h), ϕ12 = - refer Figure (4-14) and Table (4-9).
2

ϕ12 = 0.5π

ϕ12 = 0.5π
Maximum
dynamic
0.0485 0.0474 0.0250 0.0370 0.0691 0.0620
deflection,
m
95
Examination of the foregoing 4 cases reveals that, as for the dynamic tyre force, the
suspension dynamic deflections of the wheels on both sides are almost identical if ϕ12
equals 0. Furthermore, the dynamic deflections from the high frequency cases are not
proportionally larger than those found on the low frequency cases, except in the case 2.
Notably in case 2 the right side suspension of the steer axle and the centre axle exhibit
very large deflections. Here it is highly probable the air springs hit the internal rubber
stops and compress them by a large margin. This will transmit large forces to the chassis
causing possible serious damage. On the other hand, if the suspension were mechanical
such a large deflection may exceed the leaf spring’s deflection limit and so cause it to
break. Even for air spring suspensions, which posses much larger deformation limits
relative to the leaf spring, they too may not tolerate such a large deflection. However,
one point which must be kept in mind is that the deflection of the centre and the rear
axle suspension is magnified by the geometry of the trailing arm type suspension. This
magnification factor is known as the “leverage effect”[21]. Furthermore, the model used
in this thesis is a purely linear model. In reality, suspensions, especially air suspensions,
exhibit strong nonlinear characteristics in the range close to their deflection limits. This
nonlinear behavior would greatly reduce the dynamic deflections and bottoming of the
air springs against their internal suspension rubber stops. Such nonlinear spring designs
exhibit large dynamic energy storage capacity. This energy is the work done in one
compression cycle, rather than energy associated with a single large dynamic deflection
exertion. [48]
4.3 Maximum seat bounce acceleration
The maximum seat bounce acceleration is a vital factor to evaluate the ride quality.
Human beings are highly sensitive to vertical acceleration and acceleration in general
[14]. Exposure to such an environment for an extended period may cause premature
fatigue and is harmful to the human vertebra. Because the seat is the place where the
driver directly contacts the vehicle, the seat bounce acceleration possesses extreme
importance.
The seat bounce acceleration can be calculated directly applying Equation (3-27), which
is repeated, for convenience, as follows:
96
wt + ∆t − 2 wt + wt − ∆t
&
&t ≈
w (3-27)
(∆t ) 2
The maximum seat acceleration is evaluated relative to the gravity acceleration for
better understanding:
&
&t max
w
a max = (4-6)
9.81
Where:
a max - Maximum relative seat acceleration, g
&
&t max - Maximum absolute seat acceleration, m/s2
w
Again, 4 results according to the 4 case studies are obtained:
(100km/h), ϕ12 = 0 - refer Figure (4-15) following:
In this case, a max = 0.0279 g (steady-state value)
97
π
(100km/h), ϕ12 = - refer Figure (4-16) following:
2
π
2
98
z Case 3: Low drive frequency case, ω dr = 1.67Hz, A = 0.05m, V=4.17m/s
(15km/h), ϕ12 = 0 - refer Figure (4-17) following:
99
π
ϕ12 = - refer Figure (4-18) following:
2
π
2
From the above simulation results, it can be seen that the seat vertical acceleration in the
low frequency range is much larger than that in the high frequency range. Furthermore,
if the drive frequency is constant, the acceleration subject to the condition of ϕ12 = 0 is
π
larger than that under condition of ϕ12 = .
2
The increased vertical acceleration in the low frequency band can be explained as
follows:
At a certain speed, the spatial-domain PSD has the relationship with the time-domain
100
PSD in the form of:
1 1 σ q ~ ∆n
2
Gq ( f ) = Gq (n) = lim
v v ∆n ~ 0 ∆n (4-7)
∆f = v∆n
Where:
Gq ( f ) - Power spectrum density in the time domain
Gq (n) - Power spectrum density in the spatial domain
v - Vehicle forward speed, m/s2

∆f - Frequency bandwidth in the time domain, Hz
n - Spatial frequency, m-1
∆n - Frequency bandwidth in the spatial domain
σ q2~ ∆n - The power of the road unevenness in the bandwidth of ∆n
Equation (4-7) is best interpreted in accord with the information depicted in Figure (4-
19):
Figure (4-19): Relationships between Gq(f), Gq(n) and v
Equation (4-7) and Figure (4-19) indicate that at different speed, the shadowed area of
∆f remains constant. Therefore, the higher the speed, the broader the time domain
101
frequency bandwidth, and hence the lower the amplitude of the PSD in the time domain.
In other words, if the PSD in the spatial domain is constant, the PSD in the time domain
is inversely proportional to the speed. Due to this reason, in the previous simulation for
the maximum seat vertical acceleration, the acceleration at low speed is larger than that
at high speed.
π
Furthermore, in regard the effect of the phase angle the phase angle ϕ12 = essentially
2
has the effect of doubling the road undulation excitation forcing frequency.
102
Chapter 5: Simulation of the 13 DoF Truck Model Using ADAMS/View
Chapter 5: Simulation of the 13 DoF Truck Model Using
ADAMS/View
5.1 ADAMS Modeling
For rigid body dynamics, MSC Adams is the most widely used commercial software for
modeling and simulation. ADAMS has been used successfully in many industry areas
and has been proven as a reliable and repeatable virtual product development tool. Its
sophisticated numerical solver is a powerful tool suitable for large DoF problems with
relatively high accuracy and acceptable solution speed. Therefore, in this thesis
ADAMS/View is used as a comparison and validation tool for the previous 13 DoF
model simulated by the centre-difference method using MATLAB script. On the other
hand, some advanced simulations, which are not previously done by the centre-
difference method, are also performed by ADAMS/View.
5.2 Preprocessing of the ADAMS/View Model
5.2.1 Adaptation of the 13 DoF Model to the ADAMS/View Model
The most important rule to build the ADAMS/View model is that it should be equivalent
to the 13 DoF model in Chapter 2 as much as possible. However, the 13 DoF truck
model used in previous chapters has some simplifications which are not compatible with
the ADAMS/View requirement. For example, it is assumed that all suspension
components can only move in 2-D planes. Notably there is no suspension compliance
considered, which means there is no bump steer, roll steer, axle lateral shifting, or any
change of camber and caster occurring. However, it is impossible to achieve this in
ADAMS/View since there is no way to build such a 13 DoF model, including these
suspension details, without adding additional DoFs or adding suspension bushing or
compliant connecting suspension linkage joints as those used on real vehicles.
103
To address this problem, an alternative way is adopted in the modeling process. To this
end a simplified suspension system similar to the one depicted in Figure (2-6) is used to
replace the detailed suspension structure. This simplified suspension system has
calculated parameters so that it is equivalent to the detailed suspension and possesses
the same functions and effects as the detailed suspension structure. Since no detailed
suspension structure is needed, there are no compliance problems as well. As the result,
the assumption of no suspension compliance is successfully satisfied in ADAMS/View.
To calculate the equivalent parameters of the simplified suspension, Equation (2-2) is

used since the rear suspension of the truck is of the trailing arm type.
5.2.2 Modeling of the Suspension Force
ADAMS main toolbox provides spring-damper system for convenient modeling of such
a system. However, in the ADAMS model used in this thesis, all spring and damper
forces are modeled by the Six-Component General Force Vectors rather than the spring-
damper system. One of the advantages of using the General Force Vector is that it can
define 6 force components (i.e. 3 orthogonal spring components and three orthogonal
damper components) simultaneously. In comparison using spring-damper systems it
requires 6 independent elements to achieve the same suspension modeling accuracy.
Furthermore, in ADAMS, the force of the spring-damper system is always acting along
the spring-damper axis, but in the 13 DoF model it requires all forces to act space-fixed
except for the seat suspension force. However, both the space-fixed force and the body-
moving force can be defined in the General Force Vector by simply changing the
settings or parameters. Thus, general force vectors are universally defined in the
ADAMS model to simulate the equivalent cab suspension, main suspension and the seat
suspension forces.
5.2.3 Joints of the ADAMS/View Model
4 Joints are used in the ADAMS/View model. Their types, numbers and functions are
summarized in Table (5-1). In this table, B, Lo, La, P, R, Y are the abbreviations for
bounce, longitudinal movement, lateral movement, pitch, roll and yaw, respectively.
104
Table (5-1): Joints types, numbers and functions

Relevant Rigid DoF of Relevant
Joints Type Joints No.
Body Name Rigid Body
Seat Translational 1 1 (Bounce)
Cab / 0 6 (B, Lo, La, P, R, Y)
Sprung Mass
/ 0 6 (B, Lo, La, P, R, Y)
(Chassis)
Unsprung Masses
Planar 3 9 (3 B, 3 La, 3 R)
(Axles), 3 in total
5.2.4 Motion Constraints
In ADAMS, every rigid body without constraint has 6 degrees of freedom in space.
Although there may be no excitations in the direction of a particular DoF with the
expectation of no motion occurring during simulation a tiny disturbance may cause
large unexpected motions to an extent which may attain unstable status. In the previous
13 DoF model, such a situation can never occur because only 13 important DoFs are
included in the system matrices and there are no meaningless or redundant DoFs in the
model such as chassis yaw, chassis longitudinal movement and chassis lateral
movement. On the other hand, in Table (5-1), the total number of the DoFs of the
ADAMS/View model is 22, possessing 9 extra DoFs than the previous 13 DoF model.
To prevent disturbance generated motions in the ADAMS/View model and also to
achieve coherence with the 13 DoF model, general motion constraints have to be added
on relevant rigid bodies. The latter is possible when using ADAMS C++ Solver instead
of the default ADAMS FORTRAN Solver.
Therefore, the extra 9 redundant DoFs which are constrained include:

z Longitudinal movement of the cab
z Lateral movement of the cab
z Yaw of the cab
z Longitudinal movement of the chassis
z Lateral movement of the chassis
z Yaw of the chassis
105
z Lateral movement of the steer axle

z Lateral movement of the centre axle
z Lateral movement of the rear axle
Thus, utilizing the joints defined in 5.2.2, the whole model possesses only 13 degrees of
freedom, exactly the same as the 13DoF model presented in Chapter 2.
5.2.5 Modeling of the Vibrating Actuators
To simulate the ADAMS/View model, 6 vibrating actuators are modeled as the truck
running on a 6-channel poster type excitation rigs. Every actuator has only one vertical
DoF and generates displacement excitations by vertical motion definition. Therefore,
complicated excitations such as sweep sine function can be applied on the ADAMS
model. This is equivalent to the 19 DoF truck-poster excitation rig system model in
Section 2.6.
The complete ADAMS model with 6 actuators (posters) is illustrated in Figure (5-1a)
and (5-1b) following.
Figure (5-1a): The ADAMS/View model of the 3-axle truck in wireframe mode
106
Figure (5-1b): The ADAMS/View model of the 3-axle truck in rendered mode
5.3 Simulation of the ADAMS Model
5.3.1 ADAMS Solver Settings
The ADAMS Solver is set as follows:

Solver Type: C++
Dynamical Integrator: GSTIFF
Dynamical Formulation: I3
Dynamical Error: 1.0E-003
Kinematics Error: 1.0E-004
Equilibrium Type: Static
Equilibrium Error: 1.0E-004
The above settings are all default settings except for the Solver Type. The C++ solver
replaces the default FORTRAN solver, which is essential for the model with general
motion constraints. In some earlier ADAMS edition, the ADAMS C++ Solver had
problems evaluating modal analysis because it did not support the “Linear” command.
107
However, this bug has been addressed in the ADAMS 2005 r2 edition.
The default dynamical integrator is the GSTIFF integrator, a stiff, multi-step integrator
based on Backward Difference Formulae (BDF). When taking a new step, the integrator
fits a polynomial of a given order through the past values of each system state, and then
extrapolates them to the current time to perform a prediction. For GSTIFF integrator,
Taylor's series are used to perform the prediction.
The default dynamical formulation is I3. Compared with the more accurate I2
formulation, it has faster solution speed while maintaining reasonable accuracy.
5.3.2 Simulation Types
6 different kinds of simulation will be performed in this chapter:

z Static Simulation
z Dynamic Simulation
z Modal Simulation
z Extreme Operational Condition Simulations
z 0-20Hz Sweep Sine Simulation
z Standard Triangular Bump Excitation Simulation
The static simulation, dynamic simulation and the modal simulation are used as
comparison and validation of the previous 13 DoF model. Results of all these
simulations will be compared to those obtained from the 13 DoF model using the
central-difference method. Parameters such as static tyre forces, static suspension
deflections maximum dynamic tyre forces, modal frequencies and the dominant
motion of each mode will be examined.
The extreme operational condition simulation cases include the following 5 extreme
operation conditions:
z 0.5g cornering in both left and right directions
z 0.6g emergency braking or deceleration
z 0.4g acceleration
z 5g bouncing
108
Steady-state seat accelerations in all 3 directions will be examined.
During the 0-20Hz sweep sine simulation, a 50 mm amplitude sinusoid excitation will
be applied with a sampling frequency of 100 Hz. A PSD of the seat vertical acceleration
will be examined.
The standard triangular bump excitation simulation will follow the procedure quoted
from the Chinese National Standards GB 5902-86 “Method of Pulse Input Running Test
– Automobile Ride Comfort”. The maximum vertical acceleration of the seat will be
examined.
5.3.3 Static Simulation
The static simulation focuses on the prediction of the static tyre forces and suspension
static deflections. In ADAMS/View, static simulation can be simply conducted by
pressing the screen displayed “Equilibrium” button. The simulation result can be viewed
in the ADAMS Postprocessor. The static tyre forces predicted by ADAMS simulation
are listed in the Table (5-2):
Table (5-2): ADAMS/View truck model predicted static tyre forces

Tyre Position Static tyre force (N)
Steer Left 23949.1121
Steer Right 24096.3474
Centre Left 43223.587
Centre Right 43608.237
Rear Left 40824.8027
Rear Right 41221.0119
From the results, it can be seen that all tyres on the right side sustain larger forces than
the corresponding tyres on the left side. This is consistent with the asymmetrical driver
seat position.
The ADAMS predicted suspension static deflection, defined as the travel distance of the
109
spring from its free position to its preload position, are listed in Table (5-3) following:
Table (5-3): ADAMS/View truck model predicted suspension static deflections

Suspension Static Suspension Static
Suspension Position Deflection – Simplified Deflection – Realistic
Suspension (mm) Suspension (mm)
Steer Left -212.2428 -212.2428
Steer Right -215.4919 -215.4919
Centre Left -195.2314 -315.3738
Centre Right -198.6512 -320.8981
Rear Left -183.1835 -295.9118
Rear Right -186.6033 -301.4361
In Table (5-3), the simplified suspension static deflection is the deflection of the
equivalent suspension spring used in the ADAMS/View model, while the realistic
suspension static deflection is the calculated deflection of the real spring member by
considering the trailing arm suspension geometry as a lever system.
5.3.4 Dynamic Simulation
The dynamic simulation is performed in this section only to find the maximum dynamic
tyre force on each tyre. The simulation conditions are same as those in Section 4.1, in
which 4 cases are studied covering high/low speed and in phase/out of phase wheel
motions. The simulation results are summarized in Table (5-4).
110
Table (5-4): ADAMS/View truck model predicted maximum dynamic tyre forces
Case1: Case2: Case3: Case4:
ω dr = 11.11Hz, ω dr = 11.11Hz, ω dr = 1.67Hz, ω dr = 1.67Hz,
V=27.78m/s V=27.78m/s V=4.17m/s V=4.17m/s
ϕ12 = 0 ϕ12 = pi / 2 ϕ12 = 0 ϕ12 = pi / 2
Steer Left (N) 90485.7393 230734.5358 10103.3124 8278.4259
Steer Right (N) 89028.8327 348953.3276 9942.7833 5795.2473
Centre Left (N) 82039.5322 83975.3686 9203.8314 7401.6316
Centre Right (N) 80289.2834 191853.5217 9125.2568 6145.3490
Rear Left (N) 78453.7467 81053.6442 27421.2341 21170.1347
Rear Right (N) 77198.4736 182065.2175 26365.7396 17145.4321
5.3.5 Modal Simulation
For a multi DOF rigid model including the complete vehicle model, it is more
convenient to use ADAMS/View to conduct modal analysis compared to the traditional
numerical method. The latter requires complicated script to be coded. In comparison
ADAMS simply uses the build-in “Linear/Eigensol” function to do modal simulation.
In this thesis, the detailed operation needed to perform the simulation will not be fully
explained. Only the general process and the results will be presented.
In case of this 13 DOF truck model with general constraints, the ADAMS C++ Solver is
selected. It uses 2 commands to do the modal simulation after the model validation
process is successful. First, the “Simulate/Static” command is executed to make sure the
model is in equilibrium when gravity is applied. Then, the “Linear/Eigensol,
kinetic=i1,i2” command is executed, with i1 and i2 being the user defined start mode
No. and the end mode No. arranged in ascending order. This command does 3 tasks.
First, it linearizes the model. Then, it computes the system eigenvalues and eigenvectors
and returns all modal parameters such as damped and undamped modal frequencies,
damping ratios and mode shapes. Finally, it gives the kinetic energy distribution table of
each mode to help the user to identify the principal motion of each mode.
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The modal analysis results of the 13 DOF truck model is given in Table (5-5) as follows:
Table (5-5): ADAMS/View truck model predicted modal parameters

Damped Modal Modal Shape
Mode No. Damping Ratio
Frequency (Hz) (Principal Motion)
1 1.0662 Chassis, B 19.82%
2 1.1268 Chassis, R 34.91%
3 1.2417 Chassis, P 23.32%
4 1.7323 Seat, B 7.81%
5 2.8388 Cab, R 8.22%
6 5.0762 Cab, B 13.13%
7 7.4141 Cab, P 17.92%
Centre & Rear Axles
8 8.4035 28.79%
in Phase, B
Centre & Rear Axles
9 8.5765 27.41%
out of Phase, B
10 8.8992 Front Axle, B 27.81%
11 11.4129 Front Axle, R 22.01%
Centre & Rear Axles
12 11.7657 25.90%
in Phase, R
Centre & Rear Axles
13 11.9704 25.28%
out of Phase, R
In Table (5-5), B, P, R are abbreviations of bounce, pitch and roll, respectively. The 13
mode shapes are presented in the Appendices (4). The principal motion of each mode is
determined by the kinetic distribution table as presented in Table (5-6). The motion with
the most kinetic energy is the principal (or dominant) motion.
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Table (5-6): ADAMS/View truck model predicted mode principal motions

Modal Shape
Kinematic Energy Distribution
Mode No. (Principal
(The principal motions are marked as red)
Motion)
Chassis Bounce 66.25%, Chassis Pitch 14.43%, Cab Bounce
1 Chassis, B
11.15%, Seat Bounce 6.43%, Others 1.74%
Chassis Roll 57.51%, Seat Bounce 19.59%, Cab Roll 16.79%,
2 Chassis, R
Others 6.11%
3 Chassis, P Chassis Pitch, 52.98%, Chassis Bounce 29.08%, Others 17.94%
Seat Bounce 72.81%, Cab Roll, 13.03%, Chassis Pitch 4.03%,
4 Seat, B
Others 10.13%
Cab Roll 43.64%, Seat Bounce 20.89%, Chassis Pitch 1.55%,
5 Cab, R
Chassis Roll 1.53%, Others 32.39%
6 Cab, B Cab Bounce 79.11%, Chassis Pitch 16.03%, Others 4.86%
7 Cab, P Cab Pitch 49.32%, Others 50.68%
Centre & Rear
Rear Axle Bounce 69.09%, Centre Axle Bounce 33.17%, Others
8 Axles in Phase,
0.74%
B
Centre & Rear
Centre Axle Bounce 68.04%, Rear Axle Bounce 31.92%, Others
9 Axles out of
0.04%
Phase, B
Steer Axle Bounce 99.45%, Rear Axle Bounce 0.55%, Others
10 Steer Axle, B
0%
11 Steer Axle, R Steer Axle Roll 100%, Others 0%
Centre & Rear
12 Axles in Phase, Rear Axle Roll 52.70%, Centre Axle Roll 47.30%, Others 0%
R
Centre & Rear
13 Axles out of Centre Axle Roll, 50.45%, Rear Axle Roll 49.55%, Others 0%
Phase, R
From Table (5-6) above it can be seen in most mode motions of the different DOF the
motions are not fully decoupled except for the front steer axle bump and roll modes.
Motions with highest kinetic energy are marked as red, which are determined as
principal motions. It should be noted that in the 12th and 13th mode, because the energy
is almost equally distributed on the centre and rear axle roll motions, these two motions
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are both considered as principal motions.
ADAMS also generates mode shape animations for visualization purpose. However,
these mode shapes have been converted into real modes and there are no phase
differences between different parts. Therefore, figures captured from these mode shape
animations are presented in Appendix (4) for the purpose of identifying the principal
motions only.
5.3.6 Comparison of the ADAMS Simulation Results with the Previous 13 DoF
Model
The comparison of the ADAMS simulation results for static, maximum dynamic tyre
forces and modal simulation with those predicted by the numerical method presented in
Sections 2.6 and 3.4 is now conducted. Firstly the comparison of the static tyre forces is
presented in Table (5-7). An examination of this table confirms the two methods predict
the vehicle tends to lean to the right and to pitch downwards slightly. Furthermore the
actual numerical magnitude difference between each corresponding value is relatively
small.
Table (5-7): Predicted static tyre force comparison

Static Tyre Force
Error of ADAMS
Static Tyre Force by Central
Tyre Position to Central
by ADAMS (N) Difference Method
Difference Method
(N)
Steer Left Tyre 23949.1121 23430 2.2%
Steer Right Tyre 24096.3474 23550 2.3%
Centre Left Tyre 43223.587 45420 -4.8%
Centre Right Tyre 43608.237 45830 -4.8%
Rear Left Tyre 40824.8027 39180 4.2%
Rear Right Tyre 41221.0119 39590 4.1%
Similarly, the maximum dynamic tyre forces obtained from the two methods for the 4
different cases are compared, as shown, in Table (5-8):
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Table (5-8): Predicted maximum dynamic tyre force comparison

Maximum
Error of
Dynamic Tyre Maximum
ADAMS to
Forces by Dynamic Tyre
Tyre Position Central
Central Forces by
Difference
Difference ADAMS (N)
Method
Method (N)
Steer Left Tyre 88286.583 90485.7393 2.49%
Case 1: Steer Right Tyre 87368.145 89028.8327 1.90%
ω dr = 11.11Hz, Centre Left Tyre 83813.526 82039.5322 -2.12%
V=27.78m/s Centre Right Tyre 81854.904 80289.2834 -1.91%
ϕ12 = 0 Rear Left Tyre 77004.372 78453.7467 1.88%
Rear Right Tyre 75727.752 77198.4736 1.94%
Steer Left Tyre 224649.183 230734.5358 2.71%
ϕ12 = pi / 2 Rear Left Tyre 79942.872 81053.6442 1.39%
Rear Right Tyre 179952.386 182065.2175 1.17%
Steer Left Tyre 9749.223 10103.3124 3.63%
ϕ12 = 0 Rear Left Tyre 26266.272 27421.2341 4.40%
Rear Right Tyre 25820.598 26365.7396 2.11%
Steer Left Tyre 8043.519 8278.4259 2.92%
ϕ12 = pi / 2 Rear Left Tyre 20444.124 21170.1347 3.55%
Rear Right Tyre 16441.727 17145.4321 4.28%
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Suspension static deflections are compared in Table (5-9):
Table (5-9): Predicted static suspension deflection comparison

Static Deflection
Error of ADAMS
Suspension Static Deflection by Central
to Central
Position by ADAMS (mm) Difference Method
Difference Method
(mm)
Steer Left -212.2428 -207.2 2.43%
Steer Right -215.4919 -210.1 2.57%
Centre Left -195.2314 -199.9 -2.39%
Centre Right -198.6512 -204.6 -2.99%
Rear Left -183.1835 -171.4 6.87%
Rear Right -186.6033 -176.1 5.63%
From Table (5-8) and (5-9), it can be seen that for dynamic tyre forces and static
suspension deflections, most results from two methods are very close.
Damped natural frequencies of all modes obtained from ADAMS and the central
difference method are compared in Table (5-10).
Table (5-10): Predicted damped natural frequency comparison

Damped Natural
Damped Natural Error of ADAMS
Frequency by
Mode Description Frequency by to Central
Central difference
ADAMS (Hz) difference Method
Method (Hz)
Chassis, B 1.0662 0.8714 22.4%
Chassis, R 1.1268 1.1156 1%
Chassis, P 1.2417 1.4682 -15.4%
Seat, B 1.7323 1.8401 -5.8%
Cab, R 2.8388 3.5629 -20.3%
Cab, B 5.0762 5.0664 0.19%
Cab, P 7.4141 8.3725 -11.4%
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Centre & Rear Axles

8.4035 8.4986 -1.1%
in Phase, B
Centre & Rear Axles
8.5765 8.6037 -0.32%
out of Phase, B
Steer Axle, B 8.8992 9.9188 -10.3%
Steer Axle, R 11.4129 11.2659 1.2%
Centre & Rear Axles
11.7657 11.8826 -0.98%
in Phase, R
Centre & Rear Axles
11.9704 11.8951 0.63%
out of Phase, R
Note: B – Bounce; R – Roll; P – Pitch
From Table (5-10) it can be seen that for some modes, especially the chassis bounce,
chassis pitch, cab roll, cab pitch, and steer axle bounce, the errors between the
prediction from the two methods are relatively large. Here it should be noted that most
of these modes are concentrated in the relatively low frequency band (0.5 - 10 Hz)
where many modes are closely distributed. That is in absolute value terms the
differences between the two predictions for some low frequency modes are actually not
large. However the % error is, on the contrary, large because in the low frequency band
a small variation or difference generates significant relative error. This sensitivity is
most apparent for the chassis pitch mode, in which a 0.23 Hz difference associates with
a 15% error. On the other hand, in this relatively narrow frequency band containing
many modes, it is difficult to distinguish the modes from each other. In this case, the
result from ADAMS is considered more accurate due to the more complicated
numerical method utilized.
In general, although for some modes, relatively large errors between two the methods
exist, the absolute values of natural frequencies are close. Furthermore, predictions of
mode distribution for two methods are identical. Therefore, the two models used in this
thesis, the one built by using the Lagrange’s equation and simulated by the central
difference method and the one built and simulated by ADAMS/View, are considered
strongly comparable.
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5.3.7 Extreme Operational Condition Simulation
The extreme condition simulations in this thesis are quasi-static simulations. The
acceleration is applied by adding a global acceleration field on the model, and the
maximum seat accelerations in the 3 orthogonal directions recorded. In total, 5 extreme
conditions are simulated including:
z 0.4g acceleration
z 0.6g deceleration
z 0.5g left turn
z 0.5g right turn
z 5g bounce
For passenger cars, the lateral acceleration in extreme conditions can be as high as 0.7-
0.9g. However, for commercial vehicles, the upper limit lateral acceleration typically
falls in the 0.3-0.5g range.[30] The reason to set up 2 symmetrical cornering conditions
is that the truck model itself is not symmetrical due to the offset of the seat and driver
mass. There is no 5g falling condition either, because this model does not have the
suspension travel stop feature, without which unstable motion will occur during the
compression of the suspension.
The simulation results for the 5 extreme conditions are listed in Table (5-11). The X, Y,
Z directions are axes of the vehicle coordinate frame.
Table (5-11): Predicted seat accelerations for various extreme operational conditions
Max. Seat ACCX Max. Seat ACCY Max. Seat ACCZ
0.4g Acceleration +0.118g/-0.084g +0.028g/-0.032g +0.084g/-0.085g
0.6g Deceleration +0.125g/-0.177g +0.050g/-0.046g +0.132g/-0.133g
0.5g Left Turn +0.007g/-0.007g +0.109g/-0.159g +0.143g/-0.110g
0.5g Right Turn +0.007g/-0.008g +0.159g/-0.104g +0.101g/-0.150g
5g Bounce +0.370g/-0.253g +2.327g/-2.561g +6.417g/-8.770g
It should be noted that the 5g bounce condition is an idealized condition intended to

discover the seat vertical acceleration under such a severe condition. In reality, the
suspension may already have been destroyed before the seat vertical acceleration can
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reach its peak value.
Figure (5-2) to Figure (5-8) give the time response curves of the seat accelerations in 3
orthogonal directions for the 5 extreme conditions.
Figure (5-2): Seat acceleration for the 0.4g acceleration condition
Figure (5-3): Seat acceleration for the0.6g deceleration condition
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Figure (5-4): Seat acceleration for the 0.5g left cornering condition
Figure (5-5): Seat acceleration for the 0.5g right cornering condition
Figure (5-6): Seat acceleration for the 5g bounce condition

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5.3.8 Sweep Sine Simulation
The sweep sine simulation is a fast way to simulate the vehicle running under different
excitation frequencies. The sweep sine excitation can be applied on the wheels by a 6-
channel vibration poster rig, but in ADAMS it can also be generated by the “sweep”
command.
In this truck model, 6 parts with defined translational joints and motions are established
as the “virtual posters”. A unified sweep sine excitation will be applied on each wheel
simultaneously. The parameters of the sweep sine excitation are listed as follows:
z Frequency range: 0-20Hz
z Peak-peak amplitude: 50mm
z Simulation time: 20 s
z Sampling frequency: 100Hz
The resulting time responses that are of interest are the seat acceleration in all 3
orthogonal directions, the vertical acceleration of the cab and the vertical acceleration of
the chassis. The simulation time responses are then be converted into PSD form using
the Welch’s averaged, modified periodgram method available in MATLAB. The settings
of the Welch method are:
z WINDOW: 2000 (Hamming window length)
z NOVERLAP: 400 (No. of overlap sections)
z NFFT: 2000 (No. of FFT points)
z Fs: 100 (Sampling frequency)
As the result, the PSDs of the seat acceleration in all 3 orthogonal directions are
depicted in Figure (5-7):
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Figure (5-7): Comparison of the seat acceleration PSD for the sweep sine simulation
An examination of Figure (5-7) reveals the acceleration PSD of the seat in the Z
direction exhibits a much higher peak relative to the other component directions. This
clearly indicates most vibration energy is distributed in the Z direction. Furthermore, the
peak of acceleration PSD in the Z direction occurs at around 1.8Hz, while for the X and
Y directions, peaks occur at around 8Hz and 2.5Hz, respectively. Recalling the seat in
the truck model has only the vertical DoF or Z direction motion, its accelerations in the
X and Y directions are the result of cab pitch and roll. Examination of the modal
frequency table in Table (5-4) it is observed these frequencies are close to the
frequencies of the seat bounce mode, the cab pitch mode and the cab roll mode,
respectively. The same indicates resonances occur at these particular frequencies.
The PSDs of the vertical accelerations of the seat, cab and chassis is depicted in Figure
(5-8):
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Figure (5-8): Comparison of the seat, cab and chassis vertical acceleration PSD for the
sweep sine simulation
An examination of Figure (5-8) suggests, in the range above 5Hz, the cab and the
chassis exhibit sustained peaks over a relatively broad frequency band range.
The transferabilities of the seat, cab and chassis vertical acceleration PSDs to the
excitation vertical acceleration PSD are depicted in Figure (5-9):
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Figure (5-9): Comparison of the vertical acceleration PSD transferability for the sweep
sine simulation
An examination of Figure (5-9) reveals at frequencies above 15Hz, the seat, cab and
chassis exhibit relatively better isolation performances compared to that applying sub
15Hz. At around 2Hz and in the range between 5 and 10Hz, the isolation performances
of seat, cab and chassis are deficient.
5.3.9 Standard Triangular Bump Excitation Simulation
The standard triangular bump excitation is a type of pulse input. In this thesis the
triangular bump is that based on the requirement stated in the Chinese National
Standard GB 5902-86 “Method of Pulse Input Running Test – Automobile Ride
Comfort”.[4]
In GB 5902-86, for trucks with laden mass larger than 20 tonne, the triangular bump
should have the sectional shape as shown in Figure (5-10):
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Figure (5-10): Chinese standard triangular bump as pulse excitation for heavy trucks
The left and the right steer wheel of the vehicle should hit the bump simultaneously and
the maximum seat vertical acceleration under different speeds is recorded. Based on this
measurement, a curve of the maximum seat vertical seat acceleration (in both positive
and negative Z directions) versus frequency is obtained. In this thesis, running speeds of
5, 10, 20, 40, 60, 80 km/h are simulated ranging from the minimum sustainable speed to
a relatively high yet typical highway speed.
The resultant simulation predictions are listed in Table (5-12):
Table (5-12): Triangular bump pulse excited maximum seat vertical accelerations at
various speeds.
Max. Seat ACCZ
5 km/h +1.116g/-1.429g
10 km/h +0.851g/-1.082g
20 km/h +0.522g/-0.626g
40 km/h +0.275g/-0.326g
60km/h +0.185g/-0.219g
80 km/h +0.139g/-0.165g
The maximum vertical frequency (in both positive and negative Z directions) of the seat
versus frequency, based on the information presented in Table (5-12), is depicted
graphically in Figure (5-11):
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Figure (5-11): Triangular bump pulse excitation seat vertical acceleration magnitude
frequency response
From the simulated results, as depicted in Figure (5-11), it is evident that when the
vehicle’s speed is slow, the vertical acceleration is very large. However, at high
frequency or speed, the seat vertical acceleration becomes insensitive to the excitation,
even though the vertical acceleration of the excitation is extremely large. The reason for
this phenomenon is same as that interpreted in Section 4.3. Hence the results from the
ADAMS simulation confirms the previous results obtained by the numerical method.
5.3.10 Contribution Analysis
The truck model used in this thesis, if neglecting the tyre stiffness, exhibits 3 levels of
suspensions from the seat to the ground; namely the seat suspension, the cab suspension
and the main suspension. The purpose of the contribution analysis is to find out which
suspension component stiffness has the most significant contribution to the seat vertical
acceleration.
126
In this thesis, the contribution analysis is performed using ADAMS/Insight module. The
simulation condition is similar to the standard triangular bump excitation simulation but
with a fixed speed of 20 km/h. Some essential settings are:
z Design objective: Seat vertical acceleration
z Factors included: K1 (Front suspension stiffness), K2 (Centre and rear suspension
equivalent stiffness), Kc (Cab suspension stiffness), Ks (Seat suspension stiffness)
z Investigation Strategy: DOE (Design of Experiments) screening (2 levels) – linear
z DOE design type: Full factorial
z Factor type: Continuous
z Factor delta type: Relative
The screening method identifies the factors and combinations of factors that most affect
the system behavior. Every factor is considered that may potentially affect the response,
and the screening analysis is used to determine how much each contributes to the
response. A 2-level DOE screening method only picks high and low values for a setting
range. That is the technique assists narrow down experimentation to identification and
consideration of important factors and ensures that significant factors or effects are not
omitted.
The selected ranges for the influential or candidate factors are listed in Table (5-13)
following:
Table (5-13): Candidate factor settings
Factors Meaning Units Delta Min. Nominal Max.

Front Sus.
K1 N/mm +/-50 5.2000e+01 1.0200e+02 1.5200e+02
Stiffness
Rear Sus.
K2 N/mm +/-100 1.3200e+02 2.3200e+02 3.3200e+02
Stiffness
Cab Sus.
Kc N/mm +/-50 5.0000e+01 1.0000e+02 1.5000e+02
Stiffness
Seat Sus.
Ks N/mm +/-10 1.0000e+01 2.0000e+01 3.0000e+01
Stiffness
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For the foregoing settings, 16 trials are performed, with the combinations of factors
listed in Table (5-14):
Table (5-14): Factor combination trail list

K1 K2 Kc Ks
Trail 1 5.2000e+01 1.3200e+02 5.0000e+01 1.0000e+01
Trail 2 5.2000e+01 1.3200e+02 5.0000e+01 3.0000e+01
Trail 3 5.2000e+01 1.3200e+02 1.5000e+02 1.0000e+01
Trail 4 5.2000e+01 1.3200e+02 1.5000e+02 3.0000e+01
Trail 5 5.2000e+01 3.3200e+02 5.0000e+01 1.0000e+01
Trail 6 5.2000e+01 3.3200e+02 5.0000e+01 3.0000e+01
Trail 7 5.2000e+01 3.3200e+02 1.5000e+02 1.0000e+01
Trail 8 5.2000e+01 3.3200e+02 1.5000e+02 3.0000e+01
Trail 9 1.5200e+02 1.3200e+02 5.0000e+01 1.0000e+01
Trail 10 1.5200e+02 1.3200e+02 5.0000e+01 3.0000e+01
Trail 11 1.5200e+02 1.3200e+02 1.5000e+02 1.0000e+01
Trail 12 1.5200e+02 1.3200e+02 1.5000e+02 3.0000e+01
Trail 13 1.5200e+02 3.3200e+02 5.0000e+01 1.0000e+01
Trail 14 1.5200e+02 3.3200e+02 5.0000e+01 3.0000e+01
Trail 15 1.5200e+02 3.3200e+02 1.5000e+02 1.0000e+01
Trail 16 1.5200e+02 3.3200e+02 1.5000e+02 3.0000e+01
The result of the contribution analysis is the main effect of each factor to the design
objective expressed as a percentage. The main effect of a factor is the difference
between the response at the factor maximum value and the response at the factor
minimum value, while all other factors are held at their average values. Effects may be
positive (response increases with larger factor value) or negative (response decreases
with larger response value).
The effect % is the ratio of the effect value to the response value with all other factors
held at their average values. An effect % greater than 100% means that the variation in
the response value is larger than the average response value. Subsequently the effects
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are sorted largest to least absolute value in bar chart form, refer Figure (5-12). The
longest bar has the full length while the other bars are proportional to the largest based
on the effect value relative to that of the largest value. All positive effects are marked by
dark blue bars while negative effect are marked by a light blue line. The resultant effects
chart of this model is shown in Figure (5-12):
Figure (5-12): Seat vertical vibration factor contribution chart
An examination of Figure (5-12) reveals the front suspension stiffness has the most
significant contribution to the seat vertical acceleration, with the effect up to 143.38%.
The cab suspension stiffness has the secondary significant contribution to the seat
vertical acceleration which is just a little bit more significant than the rear suspension
stiffness. Surprisingly the seat vertical acceleration is least sensitive to the seat
suspension stiffness. On the other hand, all factors are positive except for the seat
suspension stiffness, which causes the seat vertical acceleration to decrease when the
seat suspension spring stiffness increases.
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Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations
6.1 Conclusions
This thesis contains initial research achievements associated with modeling and
simulating a multi-degree of freedom rigid truck model. Although this is a linear model,
it does have some unique features including the suspension geometry, the cab
suspension and the seat suspension which are vital for heavy vehicle ride modeling but
are often overlooked. Therefore, several practical conclusions are drawn. Although
some of them may only be effective to this particular truck model, they do help to better
understand the characteristics of this kind of vehicle and assist to understand the
development of a more realistic nonlinear model in the future. These conclusions are
listed as follows:
1. The whole vehicle model can be successfully built by converting trailing arm or
levered suspension geometries to equivalent, simplified linear suspensions
components. Because the driver and his seat are offset to the right of the centreline,
the weight distribution is not even. The predicted static-state simulation output
faithfully confirms this feature. Notably the reaction forces on each tyre are not
equal and the right side tyres have slightly larger reaction forces than those on the
left side. Furthermore, the cab and the chassis slightly lean to the right side due to
the same reason. The chassis also possesses a pitch downward although the pitch
angle is very small. The simulation predicted values appear realistic and consistent.
2. The Central Difference Method used to simulate the model is an effective way to
obtain the simulation results. The programming process is straightforward
compared to the 4th Runge-Kutta Method and the accuracy is reasonable compared
to the Euler’s Method. If the time interval is further reduced, the accuracy of the
predictions are further improved. However, such accurate predictions require access
to high performance computers to accommodate the extremely large matrix size
involved in solving the problem.
130
3. The model built in ADAMS/View compares favourably with the mathematic model
developed using Lagrange’s equation. Compared to the Lagrange’s equation,
ADAMS/View is not only a simpler but also a much more straightforward method
to model a complicated dynamic system. It can integrate more features into the
model than the traditional method without assembling large matrices. Thus, more
attentions can be paid to simulation rather than to modeling. As far as the accuracy
is concerned, if the model is carefully formulated, the ADAMS’s built-in solver
proves a powerful numerical tool to return sufficiently accurate results.
4. For this particular truck model, the truck exhibits extremely high level of bounce
acceleration in the low frequency range. This is even worse if the wheels on both
sides have no phase difference. The bounce acceleration in the high frequency
range is greatly reduced but still not ideal. This is the result of the fact that the PSD
of the road unevenness in the time domain is inversely proportional to the vehicle
speed, should the PSD of the road unevenness in the spatial domain be invariant.
This frequency response is also confirmed by the standard triangular bump
excitation simulation response predicted using ADAMS.
5. For the wheels on the same axle, the dynamic tyre forces and road loads are almost
symmetric about the vehicle centre line provided there is no phase difference
between the same. Furthermore, for the same road profile, the higher the vehicle
speed (which associates with a higher driven or excitation frequency), the higher
the dynamic tyre forces and road loads. This is consistent with expectation. In this
thesis, the dynamic tyre forces for the high frequency case (associated with a
typical highway speed (100 km/h)) are very high causing all tyres to jump off the
road surface. It should be noted that, in reality, for the road profile used in this
thesis, the vehicle speed of 100km/h is obviously excessive. The same would be
consistent with an actual vehicle sustaining damage under such conditions.
6. Consistent with the predicted dynamic tyre force, the predicted maximum dynamic
suspension deflection increases as the vehicle speed increases but not in direct
proportion. At high speed the large deflection level is not realistic because linear
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springs are used throughout this thesis. It is expected the deflection on a nonlinear
suspension would be significantly reduced due to the large dynamic capacities of
such suspensions. [48]
7. When subjected to 5g bounce, the seat exhibits very large vertical acceleration. This
is an extreme condition which would, hopefully in reality, be rarely encountered.
On the other hand, the sweep sine simulation shows the acceleration PSD peaks for
the seat are close to certain critical modal frequencies, which concurs with
expectation.
8. The contribution analysis reveals that among the seat suspension stiffness, cab
suspension stiffness and main suspension stiffnesses, the front suspension stiffness
has the largest influence on the seat vertical acceleration. All effects of these
candidate factors are positive except for the seat suspension stiffness.
6.2 Special Considerations for Vehicle Roll Mechanics
Many vehicle dynamic models, including the models developed in this thesis, assume
the roll axis and the pitch axis intersect at the CG position. However for actual vehicles,
the roll axis and pitch axis are determined by the suspension geometries and hence,
most likely, not pass through the CG.
Because the CG position is generally not on the roll axis, the truck body will roll around
the roll axis rather than the CG. This is depicted in the Figure (6-1) on the next page:
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Figure (6-1): Position of the roll centre and the CG
The general procedure to determine the roll axis of a solid axle rear suspension, using
the typical AirLiner series trailing arm suspension, refer Figure (6-2) again on the next
page, is as follows: [9][36][37]
1. In the top view of the suspension determine the suspension side force action
lines. In the AirLiner case, these are the centre lines of the Panhard rods. Find
the points where the leading and trailing Panhard rods intersect the vehicle
longitudinal centre line.
2. Find the suspension motion instantaneous centres. The parallel arrangement of

the left and right trailing arm results in the suspension motion instantaneous
centre located in infinity ahead of the vehicle. Connect the instantaneous centres
with the side force action line and extend it to intersect with the axle centre line.
Since the instantaneous centre is in infinity, this line is actually parallel with
each axle trailing arm or lever arm.
133
3. The point where the axle centre line intersects with the instantaneous side force
connecting line is the individual roll centre of the leading or trailing axle.
4. As far as the bogie suspension is concerned, the roll axis is determined by

connecting the individual roll centres of the leading and trailing axles.
According to these 4 rules, the roll axis of this particular suspension is close to the
bottom surface of the chassis rail as depicted in Figure (6-2) following.
Figure (6-2): Location of the roll axis
Therefore, the previous models used in this thesis may have some slight errors
compared with the dynamic behaviour of an actual vehicle. On the other hand, if the
realistic roll axis and the pitch axis are considered, several changes have to be made to
the system matrices.
First, due to the shift of the CG during body roll, the system is no longer linear due to
the need to introduce the sin ϕ term in the stiffness matrix. However, if the roll angle is
134
small, the model can be easily linearized by replacing the sin ϕ term with ϕ .
Second, the product of the inertia terms of the vehicle components should be considered.
This makes the system mass matrix no longer a diagonal matrix.
Since roll mechanics are paramount for handling model development and studies, it is
recommended this important feature be included in the future to make the model more
realistic and accurate.
6.3 Further Research Recommendations
This thesis contains some initial achievements for modeling and simulation of a multi-
degree of freedom rigid truck. Should the project continue, a refined model with some
new features should be included. These new features will be relatively difficult to
incorporate into the current analytical model, so some fresh ideas are required to
represent them. However, if these important features can be properly included in the
model, it will be a leap forward to obtain a significantly more realistic and accurate
model.. The suggested improvements are listed as follows:
1. Intermediate frequency cases should be incorporated. In this thesis, only 2

frequencies are covered located at the practical operation frequency extremes. It is
suggested that some intermediate frequencies be added to reveal the tendency of the
response transiting from the low frequency to the high frequency bounding values.
2. For bogie drive suspensions, there are some kinds of load sharing systems existing
which exhibit vastly improved dynamic load distribution between the leading and
trailing axles. For mechanical suspension, the crude load sharing mechanism is
called an “equilibrium or rocker beam”. In comparison for multi axle air
suspensions, the equivalent component is the large diameter orifice biased flow
controlled pneumatic transmission line. Subject to dynamic load sharing the
motions of the leading and trailing axles are not independent, so are the suspension
characteristics such as the stiffness. This dependence is unique to multi axle air
suspended heavy vehicles and, to date, is usually omitted in modeling. This work
135
could be extrapolated back to examine the adverse characteristics of general small

diameter or capillary pneumatic lines between connected axles. Systems employing
such transmission lines currently exhibit numerous problems [19] [20] [21]. Hence
it is most worthwhile to develop a refined model including the effect of
transmission line to fully understand the load sharing characteristics. Inclusion of
the dynamic load sharing would be best incorporated using SIMULINK to model
the pneumatic sub system and use ADAMS to model the mechanical or vehicle
system. These two systems should then be combined to perform so called “Joint
Simulation” during which simulation data generated by two software are exchanged
in real time.
3. For most trucks equipped with the trailing arm suspension, the trailing arm is
flexible. This is originally designed to improve roll stability by increasing roll
stiffness, but it also acts to reduce the action of the chaotic “linkage effect” [19]
[20] [21]. Therefore, a model with flexible trailing arms is necessary to represent
the actual trailing arm suspension. However, this is not easy because the inclusion
of flexible trailing arm would be extremely complicated. The suggested technique
to incorporate flexible trailing arms would be to use the Finite Element Method to
obtain a so called “Modal Neutral File” containing essential modal information.
This file should then be imported into ADAMS to perform the required system
simulation.
4. For those trucks equipped with air suspensions, linear models are no longer suitable.
Air springs exhibit large nonlinearity which require very different solution. It is
difficult to build a nonlinear mathematic model and simulate it, but this no longer
poses a problem for ADAMS. In particular to include a nonlinear air spring into the
model, it is only necessary to conduct physical testing to obtain the static or the
dynamic stiffness characteristics. Once known ADAMS uses spline interpolation to
define the former and uses transfer function and state variable techniques to define
the latter. All this analysis and subsequent simulation can be quickly and
conveniently conducted once the element dynamic test results are known. The same
technique could be used to incorporate the action of the ride height control
mechanism / sub system used on air suspended vehicles.
136
5. The rigid truck model should be extended, initially, to a flexible framed rigid truck
model, and then to the articulated flexible framed prime move model. Several new
degrees of freedom are required to complete these model improvements. Flexible
framed vehicles, will be relatively simple to model if a modal neutral file can be
obtained from other FEA software, just like the suggested process to model the
flexible trailing arm sub system. In the case of the articulated truck, the yaw motion
of the semi-trailer relative to the prime mover also presents challenges on handling
and safety issues in addition to the modeling complexity. Again, it is complicated to
include this feature in a mathematic model but is relatively easily included when
using ADAMS.
6. Suspensions which utilize parallelogram linkages both rigid and flexible should be
examined.
7. The mechanics of the drive line and torsional vibrations of the same should also be
eventually included. Inclusion of the drive line torsional vibrations would also
effectively utilize modal neutral files especially when the dynamics of the drive line
universal joints are taken into account.
In brief, accurate simulation of actual truck behaviour requires huge research effect. The
dynamics of modern trucks is extremely complicated and therefore it is very difficult to
obtain dynamic models and solutions. Fortunately, the availability of ADAMS provides
researchers and the industry a powerful modeling tool which can significantly simplify
the necessary effort. Should the research continue, ADAMS will be the appropriate and
convenient modeling and simulation tool.
137
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141
Appendices
Appendix 1: Static Deflection and Reaction Force -

MATLAB Programming Code
% This program is used to calculate the static deflections and reaction forces
digits=4;
% Basic parameters input
Ms=120;
Mc=500;
Icx=150;
Icy=100;
Mb=19000;
Ibx=7800;
Iby=78000;
M1=450;
I1x=280;
M2=1025;
I2x=510;
M3=1025;
I3x=510;
ks=20e3;
kc1=100e3;
kc2=100e3;
kc3=100e3;
kc4=100e3;
k1=10.2e4;
k2=10.2e4;
k3=20.9e4;
k4=20.9e4;
k5=20.9e4;
k6=20.9e4;
kw1=0.69e6;
kw2=0.69e6;
kw3=1.38e6;
kw4=1.38e6;
kw5=1.38e6;
kw6=1.38e6;
cs=0.2e3;
cc1=0.75e3;
cc2=0.75e3;
cc3=0.75e3;
cc4=0.75e3;
c1=7028.5;
142
Appendices
c2=7028.5;
c3=14090.78;
c4=14090.78;
c5=14090.78;
c6=14090.78;
a1=0.4;
a2=1;
b1=5.18;
b2=0.62;
b3=1.97;
b4=6.78;
b5=4.68;
d1=0.2;
d2=1.1;
d3=1;
e1=0.8;
e2=0.38;
l1=0.65;
l2=0.85;
l3=1.05;
h=1.25;
%The model is of 19 DoF

Kc=[ks -ks ks*e1 ks*d1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-ks ks+kc1+kc2+kc3+kc4 -ks*e1+kc1*e2-kc2*e2+kc3*e2-kc4*e2 ...
-ks*d1-kc1*d2-kc2*d2+kc3*d3+kc4*d3 -kc1-kc2-kc3-kc4 -kc1*e2+kc2*e2-
kc3*e2+kc4*e2 ...
kc1*b4+kc2*b4+kc3*b5+kc4*b5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ks*e1 -ks*e1+kc1*e2-kc2*e2+kc3*e2-kc4*e2
ks*e1^2+kc1*e2^2+kc2*e2^2+kc3*e2^2+kc4*e2^2 ...
ks*d1*e1-kc1*d2*e2+kc2*d2*e2+kc3*d3*e2-kc4*d3*e2 -kc1*e2+kc2*e2-
kc3*e2+kc4*e2 ...
-kc1*e2^2-kc2*e2^2-kc3*e2^2-kc4*e2^2 kc1*b4*e2-kc2*b4*e2+kc3*b5*e2-
kc4*b5*e2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ks*d1 -ks*d1-kc1*d2-kc2*d2+kc3*d3+kc4*d3 ks*d1*e1-

kc1*d2*e2+kc2*d2*e2+kc3*d3*e2-kc4*d3*e2 ...
ks*d1^2+kc1*d2^2+kc2*d2^2+kc3*d3^2+kc4*d3^2 kc1*d2+kc2*d2-kc3*d3-kc4*d3 ...
kc1*d2*e2-kc2*d2*e2-kc3*d3*e2+kc4*d3*e2 -kc1*b4*d2-
kc2*b4*d2+kc3*b5*d3+kc4*b5*d3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 -kc1-kc2-kc3-kc4 -kc1*e2+kc2*e2-kc3*e2+kc4*e2 kc1*d2+kc2*d2-kc3*d3-

kc4*d3
kc1+kc2+kc3+kc4+k1+k2+k3*(l3/l1)^2+k4*(l3/l1)^2+k5*(l3/l1)^2+k6*(l3/l1)^2
143
Appendices
kc1*e2-kc2*e2+kc3*e2-kc4*e2+k1*a1-k2*a1+k3*(l3^2/l1)*a1-
k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1-k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1 ... -kc1*b4-kc2*b4-kc3*b5-
kc4*b5-k1*b1-
k2*b1+k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2+k4*(l3/l1)^2*b2+k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3+k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3 ...
-k1-k2 -k1*a1+k2*a1 -k3*(l3/l1)^2-k4*(l3/l1)^2 ...
-k3*(l3^2/l1)*a1+k4*(l3^2/l1)*a1 ...
-k5*(l3/l1)^2-k6*(l3/l1)^2 -k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 -kc1*e2+kc2*e2-kc3*e2+kc4*e2 -kc1*e2^2-kc2*e2^2-kc3*e2^2-kc4*e2^2
kc1*d2*e2-kc2*d2*e2-kc3*d3*e2+kc4*d3*e2 ...
kc1*e2-kc2*e2+kc3*e2-kc4*e2+k1*a1-k2*a1+k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1-
k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1-k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1 ...
kc1*e2^2+kc2*e2^2+kc3*e2^2+kc4*e2^2+k1*a1^2+k2*a1^2+k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2+k4*(l3
/l1)^2*a1^2+k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2+k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2 ...
-kc1*b4*e2+kc2*b4*e2-kc3*b5*e2+kc4*b5*e2-
k1*a1*b1+k2*a1*b1+k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1-k4*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1+k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1-
k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1 -k1*a1+k2*a1 -k1*a1^2-k2*a1^2 -
k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1 -k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2-k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2 -
k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1 -k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2-k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2 0 0 0 0
0 0
0 kc1*b4+kc2*b4+kc3*b5+kc4*b5 kc1*b4*e2-kc2*b4*e2+kc3*b5*e2-kc4*b5*e2 -
kc1*b4*d2-kc2*b4*d2+kc3*b5*d3+kc4*b5*d3 ... -kc1*b4-kc2*b4-kc3*b5-kc4*b5-
k1*b1-
k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1 ...
kc1*b4^2+kc2*b4^2+kc3*b5^2+kc4*b5^2+k1*b1^2+k2*b1^2+k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2^2+k4*(l
3/l1)^2*b2^2+k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3^2+k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3^2 ...
k1*b1+k2*b1 k1*a1*b1-k2*a1*b1 -k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2-k4*(l3/l1)^2*b2 ...
-k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1+k4*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1 ...
-k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3-k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3 ...
-k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1+k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 -k1-k2 -k1*a1+k2*a1 k1*b1+k2*b1 k1+k2+kw1+kw2 k1*a1-k2*a1+kw1*a2-

kw2*a2 0 0 0 0 -kw1 -kw2 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 -k1*a1+k2*a1 -k1*a1^2-k2*a1^2 k1*a1*b1-k2*a1*b1 k1*a1-

k2*a1+kw1*a2-kw2*a2 k1*a1^2+k2*a1^2+kw1*a2^2+kw2*a2^2 ...
0 0 0 0 -kw1*a2 kw2*a2 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 -k3*(l3/l1)^2-k4*(l3/l1)^2 -k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1 ...

-k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2-k4*(l3/l1)^2*b2 0 0 k3*(l3/l1)^2+k4*(l3/l1)^2+kw3+kw4 ...
k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1-k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1+kw3*a2-kw4*a2 0 0 0 0 -kw3 -kw4 0 0
144
Appendices
0 0 0 0 -k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1 -k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2-
k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2 ...
-k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1+k4*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1 0 0 ...
k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1-k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1+kw3*a2-kw4*a2
k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2+k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2+kw3*a2^2+kw4*a2^2 0 0 0 0 -kw3*a2
kw4*a2 0 0
0 0 0 0 -k5*(l3/l1)^2-k6*(l3/l1)^2 -k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1 ...

-k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3-k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3 0 0 0 0 ...
k5*(l3/l1)^2+k6*(l3/l1)^2+kw5+kw6 k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1-k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1+kw5*a2-
kw6*a2 0 0 0 0 -kw5 -kw6
0 0 0 0 -k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1 -k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2-
k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2 ...
-k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1+k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1 0 0 0 0 ...
k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1-k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1+kw5*a2-kw6*a2
k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2+k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2+kw5*a2^2+kw6*a2^2 0 0 0 0 -kw5*a2 kw6*a2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1];
K=[ks -ks ks*e1 ks*d1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

-ks*d1-kc1*d2-kc2*d2+kc3*d3+kc4*d3 -kc1-kc2-kc3-kc4 -kc1*e2+kc2*e2-
kc3*e2+kc4*e2 ...
kc1*b4+kc2*b4+kc3*b5+kc4*b5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
kc3*e2+kc4*e2 ...
-kc1*e2^2-kc2*e2^2-kc3*e2^2-kc4*e2^2 kc1*b4*e2-kc2*b4*e2+kc3*b5*e2-kc4*b5*e2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

145
Appendices
kc2*b4*d2+kc3*b5*d3+kc4*b5*d3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

kc4*d3 ...
kc1+kc2+kc3+kc4+k1+k2+k3*(l3/l1)^2+k4*(l3/l1)^2+k5*(l3/l1)^2+k6*(l3/l1)^2 ...
k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1-k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1 ...
-kc1*b4-kc2*b4-kc3*b5-kc4*b5-k1*b1-
-k1-k2 -k1*a1+k2*a1 -k3*(l3/l1)^2-k4*(l3/l1)^2
-k3*(l3/l1)^2^2*a1+k4*(l3/l1)^2^2*a1 -k5*(l3/l1)^2-k6*(l3/l1)^2
-k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1 0 0 0 0 0 0
kc1*d2*e2-kc2*d2*e2-kc3*d3*e2+kc4*d3*e2 ... kc1*e2-kc2*e2+kc3*e2-
kc4*e2+k1*a1-k2*a1+k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1-k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1-
k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1 ...
kc1*e2^2+kc2*e2^2+kc3*e2^2+kc4*e2^2+k1*a1^2+k2*a1^2+k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2+k4*(l3/
l1)^2*a1^2+k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2+k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2 ...
-kc1*b4*e2+kc2*b4*e2-kc3*b5*e2+kc4*b5*e2-k1*a1*b1+k2*a1*b1+k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1-
k4*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1+k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1-k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1
-k1*a1+k2*a1 -k1*a1^2-k2*a1^2 -k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1 -
k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2-k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2 ...
-k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1 -k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2-k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2 0 0 0
0 0 0
kc1*b4*d2-kc2*b4*d2+kc3*b5*d3+kc4*b5*d3 -kc1*b4-kc2*b4-kc3*b5-kc4*b5-k1*b1-
k2*b1+k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2+k4*(l3/l1)^2*b2+k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3+k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3 -
kc1*b4*e2+kc2*b4*e2-kc3*b5*e2+kc4*b5*e2-k1*a1*b1+k2*a1*b1+k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1-
k4*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1+k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1-k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1
kc1*b4^2+kc2*b4^2+kc3*b5^2+kc4*b5^2+k1*b1^2+k2*b1^2+k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2^2+k4*(l3/
l1)^2*b2^2+k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3^2+k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3^2 ...
-k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1+k4*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1 ...
-k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3-k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3 ...
-k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1+k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 -k1-k2 -k1*a1+k2*a1 k1*b1+k2*b1 k1+k2+kw1+kw2 k1*a1-k2*a1+kw1*a2-

kw2*a2 0 0 0 0 -kw1 -kw2 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 -k1*a1+k2*a1 -k1*a1^2-k2*a1^2 k1*a1*b1-k2*a1*b1 k1*a1-k2*a1+kw1*a2-

kw2*a2 k1*a1^2+k2*a1^2+kw1*a2^2+kw2*a2^2 0 0 0 0 -kw1*a2 kw2*a2 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 -k3*(l3/l1)^2-k4*(l3/l1)^2 -k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1 ...
146
Appendices
-k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2-k4*(l3/l1)^2*b2 0 0 k3*(l3/l1)^2+k4*(l3/l1)^2+kw3+kw4 ...

k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1-k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1+kw3*a2-kw4*a2 0 0 0 0 -kw3 -kw4 0 0
0 0 0 0 -k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1 -k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2-
k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2 ...
-k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1+k4*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1 0 0 ...
k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1-k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1+kw3*a2-kw4*a2
0 0
0 0 0 0 -k5*(l3/l1)^2-k6*(l3/l1)^2 -k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1 ...

-k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3-k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3 0 0 0 0 ...
kw6*a2 0 0 0 0 -kw5 -kw6
0 0 0 0 -k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1 -k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2-
k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2 ...
-k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1+k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1 0 0 0 0 ...
k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1-k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1+kw5*a2-kw6*a2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -kw1 -kw1*a2 0 0 0 0 kw1 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -kw2 kw2*a2 0 0 0 0 0 kw2 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -kw3 -kw3*a2 0 0 0 0 kw3 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -kw4 kw4*a2 0 0 0 0 0 kw4 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -kw5 -kw5*a2 0 0 0 0 kw5 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -kw6 kw6*a2 0 0 0 0 0 kw6];
% Calculation of the static deflections and the reaction forces

Pc=[-Ms*g -Mc*g 0 0 -Mb*g 0 0 -M1*g 0 -M2*g 0 -M3*g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0]';% Gravity
vector
x=Kc\Pc % Static deflections
p=K*x % Reaction forces
% Calculation of suspension static deflections
us=x(1,1)-(x(2,1)-d1*x(3,1)-e1*x(4,1));
uc1=(x(2,1)+e2*x(3,1)-d2*x(4,1))-(x(5,1)+e2*x(6,1)-b4*x(7,1));
uc2=(x(2,1)-e2*x(3,1)-d2*x(4,1))-(x(5,1)-e2*x(6,1)-b4*x(7,1));
uc3=(x(2,1)+e2*x(3,1)+d3*x(4,1))-(x(5,1)+e2*x(6,1)-b5*x(7,1));
uc4=(x(2,1)-e2*x(3,1)+d3*x(4,1))-(x(5,1)-e2*x(6,1)-b5*x(7,1));
u1=(x(5,1)+a1*x(6,1)-b1*x(7,1))-(x(8,1)+a1*x(9,1));
u2=(x(5,1)-a1*x(6,1)-b1*x(7,1))-(x(8,1)-a1*x(9,1));
u3=l3/l1*((x(5,1)+a1*x(6,1)+(b2-l1)*x(7,1))-(x(10,1)+a1*x(11,1)));
u4=l3/l1*((x(5,1)-a1*x(6,1)+(b2-l1)*x(7,1))-(x(10,1)-a1*x(11,1)));
u5=l3/l1*((x(5,1)+a1*x(6,1)+(b3-l1)*x(7,1))-(x(12,1)+a1*x(13,1)));
u6=l3/l1*((x(5,1)-a1*x(6,1)+(b3-l1)*x(7,1))-(x(12,1)-a1*x(13,1)));
147
Appendices
uw1=x(8,1)+a2*x(9,1);
uw2=x(8,1)-a2*x(9,1);
uw3=x(10,1)+a2*x(11,1);
uw4=x(10,1)-a2*x(11,1);
uw5=x(12,1)+a2*x(13,1);
uw6=x(12,1)-a2*x(13,1);
u=[us;uc1;uc2;uc3;uc4;u1;u2;u3;u4;u5;u6;uw1;uw2;uw3;uw4;uw5;uw6];
148
Appendices
Appendix 2: MATLAB Programming Simulation Code
% This program is used to conduct modal analysis and various operational

% simulations
% The following program codes are based on the case 2:
% Drive frequency is 11.11 Hz; fi1_2 is pi/2
% Excitations variants input

g=9.81;
A=0.05;
V=27.78;
L=2.5;
wdr=2*pi*V/L;
fi1_2=pi/2;
fi1_3=2*pi*(b1+b2)/L;
fi1_5=2*pi*(b1+b3)/L;
fi1=0;
fi2=fi1-fi1_2;
fi3=fi1-fi1_3;
fi4=fi1-fi1_2-fi1_3;
fi5=fi1-fi1_5;
fi6=fi1-fi1_2-fi1_5;
% The model is of 13 DoF
% Matrices input
M=[Ms 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 Mc 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 Icx 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 Icy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 Mb 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 Ibx 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 Iby 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I1x 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M2 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I2x 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M3 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I3x];
K=[ks -ks ks*e1 ks*d1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

-ks*d1-kc1*d2-kc2*d2+kc3*d3+kc4*d3
149
Appendices
-kc1-kc2-kc3-kc4 -kc1*e2+kc2*e2-kc3*e2+kc4*e2 ...

kc1*b4+kc2*b4+kc3*b5+kc4*b5 0 0 0 0 0 0
kc3*e2+kc4*e2 ...
-kc1*e2^2-kc2*e2^2-kc3*e2^2-kc4*e2^2 kc1*b4*e2-kc2*b4*e2+kc3*b5*e2-kc4*b5*e2
0 0 0 0 0 0

kc2*b4*d2+kc3*b5*d3+kc4*b5*d3 0 0 0 0 0 0

kc4*d3 ...
kc1+kc2+kc3+kc4+k1+k2+k3*(l3/l1)^2+k4*(l3/l1)^2+k5*(l3/l1)^2+k6*(l3/l1)^2 ...
k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1-k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1 ... -kc1*b4-kc2*b4-kc3*b5-
kc4*b5-k1*b1-
-k1-k2 -k1*a1+k2*a1 -k3*(l3/l1)^2-k4*(l3/l1)^2 -
k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1 ...
-k5*(l3/l1)^2-k6*(l3/l1)^2 -k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1
kc1*d2*e2-kc2*d2*e2-kc3*d3*e2+kc4*d3*e2 ... kc1*e2-kc2*e2+kc3*e2-
kc4*e2+k1*a1-k2*a1+k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1-k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1-
k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1 ...
kc1*e2^2+kc2*e2^2+kc3*e2^2+kc4*e2^2+k1*a1^2+k2*a1^2+k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2+k4*(l3/
l1)^2*a1^2+k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2+k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2 ...
k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1 ...
-k1*a1+k2*a1 -k1*a1^2-k2*a1^2 -k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1 -
k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2-k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2 ...
-k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1 -k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2-k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2
kc1*b4*d2-kc2*b4*d2+kc3*b5*d3+kc4*b5*d3 ... -kc1*b4-kc2*b4-kc3*b5-kc4*b5-
k1*b1-
k2*b1+k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2+k4*(l3/l1)^2*b2+k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3+k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3 ... -
kc1*b4*e2+kc2*b4*e2-kc3*b5*e2+kc4*b5*e2-k1*a1*b1+k2*a1*b1+k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1-
150
Appendices
k4*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1+k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1-k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1 ...
kc1*b4^2+kc2*b4^2+kc3*b5^2+kc4*b5^2+k1*b1^2+k2*b1^2+k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2^2+k4*(l3/
l1)^2*(l3/l1)^2+k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3^2+k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3^2 ...
-k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1+k4*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1 ...
-k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3-k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3 ...
-k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1+k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1
0 0 0 0 -k1-k2 -k1*a1+k2*a1 k1*b1+k2*b1 k1+k2+kw1+kw2 -k1*a1+k2*a1+kw1*a2-

kw2*a2 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 -k1*a1+k2*a1 -k1*a1^2-k2*a1^2 k1*a1*b1-k2*a1*b1 -k1*a1+k2*a1+kw1*a2-

kw2*a2 k1*a1^2+k2*a1^2+kw1*a2^2+kw2*a2^2 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 -k3*(l3/l1)^2-k4*(l3/l1)^2 -k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1 ...

-k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2-k4*(l3/l1)^2*b2 0 0
k3*(l3/l1)^2+k4*(l3/l1)^2+kw3+kw4 ...
k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1-k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1+kw3*a2-kw4*a2 0 0
0 0 0 0 -k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1 -k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2-
k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2 ...
-k3*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1+k4*(l3/l1)^2*b2*a1 0 0 ...
k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1-k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1+kw3*a2-kw4*a2
k3*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2+k4*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2+kw3*a2^2+kw4*a2^2 0 0
0 0 0 0 -k5*(l3/l1)^2-k6*(l3/l1)^2 -k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1 ...

-k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3-k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3 0 0 0 0 ...
kw6*a2
0 0 0 0 -k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1+k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1 -k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2-
k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2 ...
-k5*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1+k6*(l3/l1)^2*b3*a1 0 0 0 0 ...
k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1-k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1+kw5*a2-kw6*a2
k5*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2+k6*(l3/l1)^2*a1^2+kw5*a2^2+kw6*a2^2];
C=[cs -cs cs*e1 cs*d1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-cs cs+cc1+cc2+cc3+cc4 -cs*e1+cc1*e2-cc2*e2+cc3*e2-cc4*e2 ...

-cs*d1-cc1*d2-cc2*d2+cc3*d3+cc4*d3 -cc1-cc2-cc3-cc4 -cc1*e2+cc2*e2-
cc3*e2+cc4*e2 ...
cc1*b4+cc2*b4+cc3*b5+cc4*b5 0 0 0 0 0 0
cs*e1 -cs*e1+cc1*e2-cc2*e2+cc3*e2-cc4*e2
cs*e1^2+cc1*e2^2+cc2*e2^2+cc3*e2^2+cc4*e2^2 ...
151
Appendices
cs*d1*e1-cc1*d2*e2+cc2*d2*e2+cc3*d3*e2-cc4*d3*e2 -cc1*e2+cc2*e2-
cc3*e2+cc4*e2 ...
-cc1*e2^2-cc2*e2^2-cc3*e2^2-cc4*e2^2 cc1*b4*e2-cc2*b4*e2+cc3*b5*e2-cc4*b5*e2
0 0 0 0 0 0
cs*d1 -cs*d1-cc1*d2-cc2*d2+cc3*d3+cc4*d3 cs*d1*e1-

cc1*d2*e2+cc2*d2*e2+cc3*d3*e2-cc4*d3*e2 ...
cs*d1^2+cc1*d2^2+cc2*d2^2+cc3*d3^2+cc4*d3^2 cc1*d2+cc2*d2-cc3*d3-cc4*d3 ...
cc1*d2*e2-cc2*d2*e2-cc3*d3*e2+cc4*d3*e2 -cc1*b4*d2-
cc2*b4*d2+cc3*b5*d3+cc4*b5*d3 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 -cc1-cc2-cc3-cc4 -cc1*e2+cc2*e2-cc3*e2+cc4*e2 cc1*d2+cc2*d2-cc3*d3-

cc4*d3 ...
cc1+cc2+cc3+cc4+c1+c2+c3*(l2/l1)^2
+c4*(l2/l1)^2+c5*(l2/l1)^2+c6*(l2/l1)^2 ... cc1*e2-cc2*e2+cc3*e2-
cc4*e2+c1*a1-c2*a1+c3*(l2/l1)^2*a1-c4*(l2/l1)^2*a1+c5*(l2/l1)^2*a1-
c6*(l2/l1)^2*a1 ... -cc1*b4-cc2*b4-cc3*b5-cc4*b5-c1*b1-
c2*b1+c3*(l2/l1)^2*b2+c4*(l2/l1)^2*b2+c5*(l2/l1)^2*b3+c6*(l2/l1)^2*b3 ...
-c1-c2 -c1*a1+c2*a1 -c3*(l2/l1)^2-c4*(l2/l1)^2 -
c3*(l2/l1)^2*a1+c4*(l2/l1)^2*a1 ...
-c5*(l2/l1)^2-c6*(l2/l1)^2 -c5*(l2/l1)^2*a1+c6*(l2/l1)^2*a1
0 -cc1*e2+cc2*e2-cc3*e2+cc4*e2 -cc1*e2^2-cc2*e2^2-cc3*e2^2-cc4*e2^2
cc1*d2*e2-cc2*d2*e2-cc3*d3*e2+cc4*d3*e2 ... cc1*e2-cc2*e2+cc3*e2-
cc4*e2+c1*a1-c2*a1+c3*(l2/l1)^2*a1-c4*(l2/l1)^2*a1+c5*(l2/l1)^2*a1-
c6*(l2/l1)^2*a1 ...
cc1*e2^2+cc2*e2^2+cc3*e2^2+cc4*e2^2+c1*a1^2+c2*a1^2+c3*(l2/l1)^2*a1^2+c4*(l2/
l1)^2*a1^2+c5*(l2/l1)^2*a1^2+c6*(l2/l1)^2*a1^2 ... -cc1*b4*e2+cc2*b4*e2-
cc3*b5*e2+cc4*b5*e2-c1*a1*b1+c2*a1*b1+c3*(l2/l1)^2*b2*a1-
c4*(l2/l1)^2*b2*a1+c5*(l2/l1)^2*b3*a1-c6*(l2/l1)^2*b3*a1
-c1*a1+c2*a1 -c1*a1^2-c2*a1^2 -c3*(l2/l1)^2*a1+c4*(l2/l1)^2*a1 -
c3*(l2/l1)^2*a1^2-c4*(l2/l1)^2*a1^2 ...
-c5*(l2/l1)^2*a1+c6*(l2/l1)^2*a1 -c5*(l2/l1)^2*a1^2-c6*(l2/l1)^2*a1^2
0 cc1*b4+cc2*b4+cc3*b5+cc4*b5 cc1*b4*e2-cc2*b4*e2+cc3*b5*e2-cc4*b5*e2 -
cc1*b4*d2-cc2*b4*d2+cc3*b5*d3+cc4*b5*d3 ... -cc1*b4-cc2*b4-cc3*b5-cc4*b5-
c1*b1-
c2*b1+c3*(l2/l1)^2*b2+c4*(l2/l1)^2*b2+c5*(l2/l1)^2*b3+c6*(l2/l1)^2*b3 ... -
cc1*b4*e2+cc2*b4*e2-cc3*b5*e2+cc4*b5*e2-c1*a1*b1+c2*a1*b1+c3*(l2/l1)^2*b2*a1-
c4*(l2/l1)^2*b2*a1+c5*(l2/l1)^2*b3*a1-c6*(l2/l1)^2*b3*a1
cc1*b4^2+cc2*b4^2+cc3*b5^2+cc4*b5^2+c1*b1^2+c2*b1^2+c3*(l2/l1)^2*b2^2+c4*(l2/
l1)^2*b2^2+c5*(l2/l1)^2*b3^2+c6*(l2/l1)^2*b3^2 ...
c1*b1+c2*b1 c1*a1*b1-c2*a1*b1 -c3*(l2/l1)^2*b2-c4*(l2/l1)^2*b2 ...
-c3*(l2/l1)^2*b2*a1+c4*(l2/l1)^2*b2*a1 ...
-c5*(l2/l1)^2*b3-c6*(l2/l1)^2*b3 ...
152
Appendices
-c5*(l2/l1)^2*b3*a1+c6*(l2/l1)^2*b3*a1
0 0 0 0 -c1-c2 -c1*a1+c2*a1 c1*b1+c2*b1 c1+c2 -c1*a1+c2*a1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 -c1*a1+c2*a1 -c1*a1^2-c2*a1^2 c1*a1*b1-c2*a1*b1 -c1*a1+c2*a1

c1*a1^2+c2*a1^2 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 -c3*(l2/l1)^2-c4*(l2/l1)^2 -c3*(l2/l1)^2*a1+c4*(l2/l1)^2*a1 ...

-c3*(l2/l1)^2*b2-c4*(l2/l1)^2*b2 0 0 c3*(l2/l1)^2+c4*(l2/l1)^2 ...
c3*(l2/l1)^2*a1-c4*(l2/l1)^2*a1 0 0
0 0 0 0 -c3*(l2/l1)^2*a1+c4*(l2/l1)^2*a1 -c3*(l2/l1)^2*a1^2-
c4*(l2/l1)^2*a1^2 ...
-c3*(l2/l1)^2*b2*a1+c4*(l2/l1)^2*b2*a1 0 0 ...
c3*(l2/l1)^2*a1-c4*(l2/l1)^2*a1 c3*(l2/l1)^2*a1^2+c4*(l2/l1)^2*a1^2 0 0
0 0 0 0 -c5*(l2/l1)^2-c6*(l2/l1)^2 -c5*(l2/l1)^2*a1+c6*(l2/l1)^2*a1 ...

-c5*(l2/l1)^2*b3-c6*(l2/l1)^2*b3 0 0 0 0 ...
c5*(l2/l1)^2+c6*(l2/l1)^2 c5*(l2/l1)^2*a1-c6*(l2/l1)^2*a1
0 0 0 0 -c5*(l2/l1)^2*a1+c6*(l2/l1)^2*a1 -c5*(l2/l1)^2*a1^2-
c6*(l2/l1)^2*a1^2 ...
-c5*(l2/l1)^2*b3*a1+c6*(l2/l1)^2*b3*a1 0 0 0 0 ...
c5*(l2/l1)^2*a1-c6*(l2/l1)^2*a1 c5*(l2/l1)^2*a1^2+c6*(l2/l1)^2*a1^2];
A=[C M;M zeros(13)];

B=[K zeros(13);zeros(13) -M];
H=-A\B;
[V,D]=eig(H);
Fi=[V(( : ),1) V(( : ),3) V(( : ),5) V(( : ),7) V(( : ),9) V(( : ),11)
V(( : ),13) V(( : ),15) V(( : ),17) V(( : ),19) V(( : ),21) V(( : ),23)
V(( : ),25) V(( : ),2) V(( : ),4) V(( : ),6) V(( : ),8) V(( : ),10) V(( : ),12)
V(( : ),14) V(( : ),16) V(( : ),18) V(( : ),20) V(( : ),22) V(( : ),24)
V(( : ),26)];
a=Fi.'*A*Fi;
b=Fi.'*B*Fi;
ReD=(D+D')/2;
ImD=(D'-D)*i/2;
Q=(ReD^2+ImD^2).^0.5;
Qc=Q/2/pi;
QQ=(eye(26)-2.*W.^2).^0.5.*Q;
QQc=QQ/2/pi;
% Eigenvalues,
% undamped natrual frequency (rad/s), Undamped natural frequency (Hz),
153
Appendices
% Damped natural frequency (rad/s), damped natural frequency (Hz)

EIG=[D(1,1) Q(1,1) Qc(1,1) QQ(1,1) QQc(1,1)
D(2,2) Q(2,2) Qc(2,2) QQ(2,2) QQc(2,2)
D(3,3) Q(3,3) Qc(3,3) QQ(3,3) QQc(3,3)
D(4,4) Q(4,4) Qc(4,4) QQ(4,4) QQc(4,4)
D(5,5) Q(5,5) Qc(5,5) QQ(5,5) QQc(5,5)
D(6,6) Q(6,6) Qc(6,6) QQ(6,6) QQc(6,6)
D(7,7) Q(7,7) Qc(7,7) QQ(7,7) QQc(7,7)
D(8,8) Q(8,8) Qc(8,8) QQ(8,8) QQc(8,8)
D(9,9) Q(9,9) Qc(9,9) QQ(9,9) QQc(9,9)
D(10,10) Q(10,10) Qc(10,10) QQ(10,10) QQc(10,10)
D(11,11) Q(11,11) Qc(11,11) QQ(11,11) QQc(11,11)
D(12,12) Q(12,12) Qc(12,12) QQ(12,12) QQc(12,12)
D(13,13) Q(13,13) Qc(13,13) QQ(13,13) QQc(13,13)
D(14,14) Q(14,14) Qc(14,14) QQ(14,14) QQc(14,14)
D(15,15) Q(15,15) Qc(14,14) QQ(15,15) QQc(15,15)
D(16,16) Q(16,16) Qc(16,16) QQ(16,16) QQc(16,16)
D(17,17) Q(17,17) Qc(17,17) QQ(17,17) QQc(17,17)
D(18,18) Q(18,18) Qc(18,18) QQ(18,18) QQc(18,18)
D(19,19) Q(19,19) Qc(19,19) QQ(19,19) QQc(19,19)
D(20,20) Q(20,20) Qc(20,20) QQ(20,20) QQc(20,20)
D(21,21) Q(21,21) Qc(21,21) QQ(21,21) QQc(21,21)
D(22,22) Q(22,22) Qc(22,22) QQ(22,22) QQc(22,22)
D(23,23) Q(23,23) Qc(23,23) QQ(23,23) QQc(23,23)
D(24,24) Q(24,24) Qc(24,24) QQ(24,24) QQc(24,24)
D(25,25) Q(25,25) Qc(25,25) QQ(25,25) QQc(25,25)
D(26,26) Q(26,26) Qc(26,26) QQ(26,26) QQc(26,26)];
eigenvector=[Fi(1:13,1) Fi(1:13,2) Fi(1:13,3) Fi(1:13,4) Fi(1:13,5) Fi(1:13,6)

Fi(1:13,7) Fi(1:13,8) Fi(1:13,9) Fi(1:13,10) Fi(1:13,11) Fi(1:13,12)
Fi(1:13,13)];
eigenv_trans=[eigenvector(1,1:13);eigenvector(2,1:13);eigenvector(5,1:13);eige
nvector(8,1:13);eigenvector(10,1:13);eigenvector(12,1:13)];
eigenv_ang=[eigenvector(3,1:13);eigenvector(4,1:13);eigenvector(6,1:13);eigenv
ector(7,1:13);eigenvector(9,1:13);eigenvector(11,1:13);eigenvector(13,1:13)];
phase=atan(-real(Fi( 1:13 ,1:13))./imag(Fi( 1:13,1:13)))*180/pi;
% Phase angle of the eigenvectors
%Numeric solutions to return the time responses

sd=[-0.3426
-0.2616
0.0222
0.0217
-0.1221
0.0059
0.0219
154
Appendices
-0.0331
0.0001
-0.0355
0.0004
-0.0265
0.0004];%static deflection
t=0;n=0;dt=0.005;ex1=0;ex2=0;ex3=0;ex4=0;ex5=0;ex6=0;
x_tplusdt=zeros(13,1);
x_t=zeros(13,1);
x_tminusdt=zeros(13,1);
x_rex( : ,1)=x_tplusdt;
t_rec( : ,1)=t;
while t<=20
n=n+1;
F=[0
0
0
0
0
0
0
kw1*A*sin(wdr*t+fi1)+kw2*A*sin(wdr*t+fi2)
kw1*a2*A*sin(wdr*t+fi1)-kw2*a2*A*sin(wdr*t+fi2)
kw3*a2*A*sin(wdr*t+fi3)-kw4*a2*A*sin(wdr*t+fi4)
kw5*a2*A*sin(wdr*t+fi5)-kw6*a2*A*sin(wdr*t+fi6)];
x_tplusdt=(M./dt^2+C./(2*dt))\(F-(K-(2.*M)./dt^2)*x_t-(M./dt^2-
C./(2*dt))*x_tminusdt);
ex1=A*sin(wdr*t+fi1);%road excitation on wheel1
t=t+dt;
x_Rec( : ,n+1)=x_tplusdt;
x_rec( : ,n+1)=x_tplusdt;
x_tminusdt=x_t;
x_t=x_tplusdt;
ex1_rec( : ,n+1)=ex1;
ex2_rec( : ,n+1)=ex2;
ex3_rec( : ,n+1)=ex3;
ex4_rec( : ,n+1)=ex4;
ex5_rec( : ,n+1)=ex5;
155
Appendices
ex6_rec( : ,n+1)=ex6;
t_rec(n+1)=t;
end
%Time history plot
figure(1);
subplot(7,1,1)
plot(t_rec,x_rec(1, : ))
xlabel('time (s)')
ylabel('disp.(m)')
subplot(7,1,2)
xlabel('time (s)')
ylabel('disp.(m)')
subplot(7,1,3)
xlabel('time (s)')
ylabel('disp.(rad)')
subplot(7,1,4)
xlabel('time (s)')
subplot(7,1,5)
xlabel('time (s)')
ylabel('disp.(m)')
subplot(7,1,6)
xlabel('time (s)')
subplot(7,1,7)
xlabel('time (s)')
figure(2);
subplot(6,1,1)
xlabel('time (s)')
ylabel('disp.(m)')
subplot(6,1,2)
xlabel('time (s)')
subplot(6,1,3)
xlabel('time (s)')
156
Appendices
ylabel('disp.(m)')
subplot(6,1,4)
xlabel('time (s)')
subplot(6,1,5)
xlabel('time (s)')
ylabel('disp.(m)')
subplot(6,1,6)
xlabel('time (s)')
%Time response of the seat bounce relative to the cab floor

plot(t_rec,x_rec(1, : )-x_rec(2, : ))
xlabel('time (s)')
ylabel('disp.(m)')
title('Time response of the seat bounce relative to the cab floor')
%Time response of the cab bounce relative to the chassis
plot(t_rec,x_rec(2, : )-x_rec(5, : ))
xlabel('time (s)')
ylabel('disp.(m)')
title('Time response of the cab bounce relative to the chassis')
%Dynamic tyre force calculation and plot

fs1=15290;fs2=15530;fs3=47840;fs4=49050;fs5=44040;fs6=45250;
fd1=kw1*(x_Rec(8, : )+a2*x_Rec(9, : )-ex1_rec);
fd2=kw2*(x_Rec(8, : )-a2*x_Rec(9, : )-ex2_rec);
plot(t_rec,fd1);
hold
plot(t_rec,fd2,'g');
plot(t_rec,fd3,'r');
plot(t_rec,fd4,'c');
plot(t_rec,fd5,'m');
plot(t_rec,fd6,'y');
title('Time response of the dynamic tyre force: V=27.78m/s, fi1_2=pi/2');
xlabel('time, s');
ylabel('dynamic tyre force, N');
hold off
Alf1=max(fd1)/fs1;% Maximum dynamic tyre force coefficient
157
Appendices
Alf2=max(fd2)/fs2;
Alf3=max(fd3)/fs3;
Alf4=max(fd4)/fs4;
Alf5=max(fd5)/fs5;
Alf6=max(fd6)/fs6;
Bta1=1-min(fd1)/fs1;
% Maximum dynamic tyre forces against speed
% This program is used to plot the figures of the maximum dynamic tyre force
% against speed and compare it with the static tyre force and 70% of static
% Wheel load.
p=0;dw=0.01; % Frequency interval
wdr=0;
while wdr<=75 % Drive frequency uplimit
p=p+1;
t=0;n=0;dt=0.005; % Time interval
x_tplusdt=zeros(13,1);
x_t=zeros(13,1);
x_tminusdt=zeros(13,1);
x_rec( : ,1)=x_tplusdt;
t_rec( : ,1)=t;
% Time response of each frequency
while t<=20
n=n+1;
Ft=[0;0;0;0;0;0;0
34500*sin(wdr*t)-34500*cos(wdr*t)
34500*sin(wdr*t)+34500*cos(wdr*t)
-69000*sin(wdr*t+9/25*pi)+69000*cos(wdr*t+9/25*pi)
-69000*sin(wdr*t+9/25*pi)-69000*cos(wdr*t+9/25*pi)
69000*sin(wdr*t+7/25*pi)-69000*cos(wdr*t+7/25*pi)
69000*sin(wdr*t+7/25*pi)+69000*cos(wdr*t+7/25*pi)];
ex1_rec( : ,n+1)=ex1;
ex2_rec( : ,n+1)=ex2;
ex3_rec( : ,n+1)=ex3;
ex4_rec( : ,n+1)=ex4;
ex5_rec( : ,n+1)=ex5;
ex6_rec( : ,n+1)=ex6;
x_tplusdt=(M./dt^2+C./(2*dt))\(Ft-(K-(2.*M)./dt^2)*x_t-(M./dt^2-
C./(2*dt))*x_tminusdt);
t=t+dt;
x_rec( : ,n+1)=x_tplusdt;
x_tminusdt=x_t;
x_t=x_tplusdt;
t_rec(n+1)=t;
158
Appendices
end
fd=[kw1*(x_rec(8, : )+a2*x_rec(9, : )-ex1_rec);
kw2*(x_rec(8, : )-a2*x_rec(9, : )-ex2_rec);
kw3*(x_rec(10, : )+a2*x_rec(11, : )-ex3_rec);
kw4*(x_rec(10, : )-a2*x_rec(11, : )-ex4_rec);
kw5*(x_rec(12, : )+a2*x_rec(13, : )-ex5_rec);
kw6*(x_rec(12, : )-a2*x_rec(13, : )-ex6_rec)];
% Maximum dynamic tyre force of each frequency
FRWL(1,p)=max(fd(1, 3800:4001));
FRWL(2,p)=max(fd(2, 3800:4001));
FRWL(3,p)=max(fd(3, 3800:4001));
FRWL(4,p)=max(fd(4, 3800:4001));
FRWL(5,p)=max(fd(5, 3800:4001));
FRWL(6,p)=max(fd(6, 3800:4001));
V_rec(p)=wdr.*L/(2*pi)*3.6;
wdr=wdr+dw;
end
Fs1=15290+0*V_rec;
Fs2=15530+0*V_rec;
Fs3=47840+0*V_rec;
Fs4=49050+0*V_rec;
Fs5=44040+0*V_rec;
Fs6=45250+0*V_rec;
f1=0.7*15290+0*V_rec;
f2=0.7*15530+0*V_rec;
f3=0.7*47840+0*V_rec;
f4=0.7*49050+0*V_rec;
f5=0.7*44040+0*V_rec;
f6=0.7*45250+0*V_rec;
figure(1)
plot(V_rec,FRWL(1, : ))
hold
plot(V_rec,Fs1,'r')
plot(V_rec,f1,'g')
title('Maximum dynamic tyre force vs speed')
xlabel('Speed (km/h)')
grid
ylabel('Maximum dynamic tyre force (N)')
legend('Maximum Dynamic tyre force','Static tyre force','70% of Static
tyre force')
figure(2)
hold
plot(V_rec,Fs2,'r')
plot(V_rec,f2,'g')
title('Maximum dynamic tyre force vs. speed')
grid
tyre force')
figure(3)
hold
plot(V_rec,Fs3,'r')
plot(V_rec,f3,'g')
grid
159
Appendices

tyre force')
figure(4)
hold
plot(V_rec,Fs4,'r')
plot(V_rec,f4,'g')
grid
tyre force')
figure(5)
hold
plot(V_rec,Fs5,'r')
plot(V_rec,f5,'g')
grid
tyre force')
figure(6)
hold
plot(V_rec,Fs6,'r')
plot(V_rec,f6,'g')
grid
tyre force')
% Calculation of the suspension dynamic deflection

ud1=(x_rec(5, : )+a1.*x_rec(6, : )-b1.*x_rec(7, : ))-
(x_rec(8, : )+a1.*x_rec(9, : ));
ud2=(x_rec(5, : )-a1.*x_rec(6, : )-b1.*x_rec(7, : ))-(x_rec(8, : )-
a1.*x_rec(9, : ));
ud3=l3/l1*((x_rec(10, : )+a1.*x_rec(11, : ))-
(x_rec(5, : )+a1.*x_rec(6, : )+(b2-l1).*x_rec(7, : )));
ud4=l3/l1*((x_rec(10, : )-a1.*x_rec(11, : ))-(x_rec(5, : )-
a1.*x_rec(6, : )+(b2-l1).*x_rec(7, : )));
ud5=l3/l1*((x_rec(12, : )+a1.*x_rec(13, : ))-
(x_rec(5, : )+a1.*x_rec(6, : )+(b3-l1).*x_rec(7, : )));
ud6=l3/l1*((x_rec(12, : )-a1.*x_rec(13, : ))-(x_rec(5, : )-
a1.*x_rec(6, : )+(b3-l1).*x_rec(7, : )));
ud1max=max(ud1)% Maximum dynamic deflection
ud2max=max(ud2)
ud3max=max(ud3)
160
Appendices
ud4max=max(ud4)
ud5max=max(ud5)
ud6max=max(ud6)
plot(t_rec,ud1);
hold
plot(t_rec,ud2,'g');
plot(t_rec,ud3,'r');
plot(t_rec,ud4,'c');
plot(t_rec,ud5,'m');
plot(t_rec,ud6,'y');
title('Time response of the main suspension dynamic deflection');
xlabel('time,s');
ylabel('displacement,m');
hold off
% Calculation of seat acceleration

m=1;
a(1,1)=0;
while m<3985
m=m+1;
a(1,m)=(x_rec(1,m+1)-2*x_rec(1,m)+x_rec(1,m-1))/(dt)^2;
end
plot(t_rec(1,1:3985),a(1,1:3985))
title('Time response of the seat acceleration: V=4.17m/s, fi1_2=pi/2');
xlabel('time,s');
ylabel('acceleration,m/s^2');
gv=max(a)/g
161
Appendices
Appendix 3: System Time Responses

Case 1: High drive frequency case, Ar = 0.05m, ω dr = 11.11Hz, ϕ12 = 0
Seat bounce:
Cab bounce:
162
Appendices
Cab Roll:
Cab pitch:
163
Appendices
Chassis bounce:
Chassis roll:
164
Appendices
Chassis pitch:
Steer axle bounce:
165
Appendices
Steer axle roll:
Centre axle bounce:
166
Appendices
Centre axle roll:
Rear axle bounce:
167
Appendices
Rear axle roll:
168
Appendices
π
Case 2: High drive frequency case, Ar = 0.05m, ω dr = 11.11Hz, ϕ12 =
2
Seat bounce:
Cab bounce:
169
Appendices
Cab roll:
Cab pitch:
170
Appendices
Chassis bounce:
Chassis roll:
171
Appendices
Chassis pitch:
Steer axle bounce:
172
Appendices
Steer axle roll:
Centre axle bounce:
173
Appendices
Centre axle roll:
Rear axle bounce:
174
Appendices
Rear axle roll:
175
Appendices
Case 3: Low drive frequency case, Ar = 0.05m, ω dr = 1.67Hz, ϕ12 = 0

Seat bounce:
Cab bounce:
176
Appendices
Cab roll:
Cab pitch:
177
Appendices
Chassis bounce:
Chassis roll:
178
Appendices
Chassis pitch:
Steer axle bounce:
179
Appendices
Steer axle roll:
Centre axle bounce:
180
Appendices
Centre axle roll:
Rear axle bounce:
181
Appendices
Rear axle roll:
182
Appendices
π
Case 4: Low drive frequency case, Ar = 0.05m, ω dr = 1.67Hz, ϕ12 =
2
Seat bounce:
Cab bounce:
183
Appendices
Cab roll:
Cab pitch:
184
Appendices
Chassis bounce:
Chassis roll:
185
Appendices
Chassis pitch:
Steer axle bounce:
186
Appendices
Steer axle roll;
Centre axle bounce:
187
Appendices
Centre axle roll:
Rear axle bounce:
188
Appendices
Rear axle roll:
189
Appendices
Appendix 4: Truck Model Mode Shapes
In the following figures, the solid line and broken line vehicle depictions represent the
vehicle dynamic and static state configurations, respectively.
Mode 1: 1.0662 Hz, Chassis Bounce
Mode 2: 1.1268Hz, Chassis Roll
190
Appendices
Mode 3: 1.2417 Hz, Chassis Pitch
Mode 4: 1.7323 Hz, Seat Bounce
191
Appendices
Mode 5: 2.8388 Hz, Cab Roll
Mode 6: 5.0762 Hz, Cab Bounce
192
Appendices
Mode 7: 7.4141 Hz, Cab Pitch
Mode 8: 8.4035 Hz, Centre & Rear Axle Bounce, in Phase
193
Appendices
Mode 9: 8.5765 Hz, Centre & Rear Axle Bounce, Out of Phase
Mode 10: 8.8992 Hz, Steer Axle Bounce
194
Appendices
Mode 11: 11.4129 Hz, Steer Axle Roll
Mode 12: Centre & Rear Axle Roll, in Phase
195
Appendices
Mode 13: Centre & Rear Axle Roll, Out of Phase
196

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University of Wollongong Thesis Collections

University of Wollongong Thesis Collection

3-D dynamic modeling and simulation of

This paper is posted at Research Online.

A thesis submitted in (partial) fulfillment of the

MASTER OF ENGINEERING RESEARCH

Bohao Li, ME Prac

This thesis concentrates on the modeling and simulation of a multi-degree of freedom 3-

Ar – Road roughness amplitude, m

Gq ( f ) - Power spectrum density in the time domain

Gq (n) - Power spectrum density in the spatial domain

I1x – Inertia of the front axle unsprung mass (roll), 280kgm2

I y – Vehicle inertia around the pitch axle, kgm2

K – System stiffness matrix of the 13 DoF truck model

L f – Distance from the leading axle to CG, m

Lr – Distance from the trailing axle to CG, m

M cg – The connection mass at the position of CG, kg

M f – The concentrated mass at font axle, kg

M r – The concentrated mass at rear axle, kg

Ms – Mass of the seat and the driver, 120kg

M t – Total vehicle mass, kg

P – System potential energy

W&– Velocity vector of the 13 DoF truck model

W&19 – Velocity vector of the 19 DoF truck-poster system model

Ws – The static deflection vector of the 19 DoF truck-poster system model

a max – Maximum relative seat acceleration, g

c1, c2 – Front suspension damping coefficients, 7028.5Ns/m

cs – Seat damping coefficient, 0.2e3Ns/m

h(t − τ ) – the system unit impulse response when t = τ

k1, k2 – Front axle suspension spring stiffnesses, 10.2e4N/m

kw1, kw2 – Front tire stiffnesses, 0.69e6N/m

u 1 – Steer axle left suspension static deflection, m

u 2 – Steer axle right suspension static deflection, m

u 3 – Centre axle left suspension static deflection, m

u 4 – Centre axle right suspension static deflection, m

u 5 – Rear axle left suspension static deflection, m

u 6 – Rear axle right suspension static deflection, m

u c 2 – Cab front right suspension static deflection, m

u c 3 – Cab rear left suspension static deflection, m

u c 4 – Cab rear right suspension static deflection, m

u s – Seat suspension static deflection, m

u w1 – Left steer tyre static deflection, m

u w 2 – Right steer tyre static deflection, m

u w3 – Left centre tyre static deflection, m

u w 4 – Right centre tyre static deflection, m

u w5 – Left rear tyre static deflection, m

u w6 – Right rear tyre static deflection, m

v – Vehicle forward speed, m/s

w1 – Bounce of the left steer wheel poster type excitation rig, m

w2 – Bounce of the right steer wheel poster type excitation rig, m

w3 – Bounce of the left centre wheel poster type excitation rig, m

w4 – Bounce of the right centre wheel poster type excitation rig, m

w5 – Bounce of the left rear wheel poster type excitation rig, m

w6 – Bounce of the right rear wheel poster type excitation rig, m

w100 – Chassis bounce, m

w101 – Steer axle bounce, m

w102 – Centre axle bounce, m

w103 – Rear axle bounce, m

w106 – Driver seat bounce, m

∆f - Frequency bandwidth in the time domain, Hz

∆n - Frequency bandwidth in the spatial domain, Hz

Λ – A n × n matrix comprised of the eigenvalues λi (i = 1,2,⋅ ⋅ ⋅, n)

Λ – A n × n matrix comprised of the eigenvalues λ i (i = 1,2,⋅ ⋅ ⋅, n)