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Lecture PDF
General Relativity
Christian G. Böhmer∗
Department of Mathematics, University College London,
Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
AF October 2, 2008
Abstract
These lecture notes are based on my handwritten notes used in the
academic year 2007/2008. The first chapters mainly follow Mitchell
Berger’s lecture notes who taught this class for many years in the
past. From him I took the idea of introducing the geodesic equa-
tions as early as possible and let students work out Christoffel symbol
components and solve geodesic equations to find improved coordinate
systems. By this I mean writing a flat two dimensional metric in some
funny coordinates and solving the geodesic equations which will reveal
the geodesics to be straight lines etc. Chapter 4–6 cover the standard
material covered by an introductory course on general relativity.
As can be seen in the structure of the course, I am following the
“mathematics first – physics second” (i.e. mathematical physics) school
when introducing differential geometry and general relativity. How-
ever, I do prefer concrete examples and worked out calculations over
abstract concepts only.
DR
Note that figures are still missing in these notes. Please inform me
about typos, flaws or inaccuracies as this is not yet the final version.
∗
c.boehmer@ucl.ac.uk
1
Contents
1 Manifolds 5
1.1 Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Coordinate transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Notation and conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4 Curvature 30
4.1 Covariant derivative ad parallel transport . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.2 Riemann curvature tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.3 Ricci, Weyl and Einstein tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.4 Geodesics II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.5 Einstein’s field equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
use.eps
µ : U → Rn
τ : U → Rn
µ = µ(X 1 , X 2 , . . . , X n )
τ = τ (Y 1 , Y 2 , . . . , Y n )
use.eps
Note that the two lines φ = −π and φ = π are identified (this means are in
fact equal) and likewise for the angle θ.
The torus T2 is described by two independent circles. This is expressed
by the notation
T2 = S1 × S1 (1.2)
use.eps
X = (X 1 , . . . , X n ), Y = (Y 1 , . . . , Y n ) (1.3)
Y 1 = Y 1 (X 1 , . . . , X n ) (1.4)
2 2 1 n
Y = Y (X , . . . , X ) (1.5)
..
. (1.6)
Y n = Y n (X 1 , . . . , X n ) (1.7)
2.1 Definitions
Definition 2.1 Scalar fields. Scalar fields are functions that assign numbers
to points on the manifold. More precisely, a scalar field is a function f which
maps a manifold M to the set of real numbers (scalars do not transform
under coordinate transformations)
f :M →R (2.1)
∂X ′a b
V ′a = V (2.2)
∂X b
Definition 2.3 1-form or covariant vector. A covariant vector is an ob-
ject with one subscript that transforms under coordinate transformations as
follows
∂X c
Wb′ = Wc (2.3)
∂X ′b
Ra b c + S a b c = T a b c (2.7)
but not Aa + Ba .
Example 2.2
1
Va =
Wa = 2 3 , (2.8)
2
2 3
M ab a
= V Wb = (2.9)
4 6
10
Example 2.3
M aa = M 11 + M 22 = 2 + 6 = 8 (2.11)
1
Definition 2.8 Trace. Let M a b be a rank 2 tensor of type
1 . The trace
is defined by
tr M = M a a (2.12)
T ab = T ba ⇔ T ab = T (ab) (2.15)
T ab = −T ba ⇔ T ab = T [ab] (2.16)
Note that according to definition 2.9 any tensor T ab cab always be written
such that
11
where in the summation only the non-vanishing terms were taken into ac-
count. Similarly for the other two components.
Many of the well-known 3-vector identities can easily be proved in index
notation.
12
s2 = x2 + y 2 (2.22)
13
x = r cos ϕ (2.28)
dx = cos ϕdr + r(− sin ϕ)dϕ (2.29)
2 2 2 2 2 2
dx = cos ϕdr + r sin ϕdϕ − 2r sin ϕ cos ϕdrdϕ (2.30)
y = r sin ϕ (2.31)
dy = sin ϕdr + r cos ϕdϕ (2.32)
dy 2 = sin2ϕdr2 + r2 cos2ϕdϕ2 + 2r sin ϕ cos ϕdrdϕ (2.33)
Definition 2.14 Signature of the metric. Using results from linear algebra,
one can show that at any point p ∈ M the metric can be diagonalised. In
general one can the diagonal elements ±1 in a suitable basis. However, the
number of + signs and the number of − signs are independent of that choice.
Hence, we call the number of + and − signs occurring the signature of the
metric. Often their sum is used as the signature.
14
with coordinate ranges −∞ < t < ∞ and 0 < x < ∞. This metric has
signature (−, +) or signature 0.
since V a is non-vanishing.
15
Definition 2.18 Curve. A curve is a mapping of the real line (or parts of
the real line, or a circle) into the manifold M
γ:R→M (2.40)
ds(λ)
Z Z Z q
ds = dλ = gab Ẋ a Ẋ b dλ (2.43)
dλ
16
d2 X a b
a dX dX
c
+ Γ bc (2.46)
dλ2 dλ dλ
where
1
Γabc = g ad (gdb,c + gcd,b − gbc,d ) (2.47)
2
Proof Consider the Lagrangian
∂L ∂gab a b
c
= Ẋ Ẋ = gab,c Ẋ a Ẋ b (2.50)
∂X ∂X c
∂L
= gab Ẋ a δcb + gab δca Ẋ b = gac Ẋ a + gcb Ẋ b = 2gca Ẋ a (2.51)
∂ Ẋ c
d ∂L
= 2gca,b Ẋ b Ẋ a + 2gca Ẍ a (2.52)
dλ ∂ Ẋ c
Hence, we find the following equations of motion
17
Ẍ a + Γabc Ẋ b Ẋ c = 0 (2.57)
d2 xi ∂Φ
2
=− i (2.60)
dt ∂x
Since the Christoffel symbol contain first derivatives of the metric tensor, we
can suspect that the metric will contain the gravitational potential. More-
over, there should be a well-defined procedure to obtain the Newton’s equa-
tions from the geometrical equations.
18
(X 0 , X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ) = (t, x, y, z) (3.2)
i since space and time should be measured using the same units we have
either X 0 = ct or X 1 = x/c, X 2 = y/c and X 3 = z/c. In order to
avoid factors of c we set c = 1
19
20
use.eps
21
In a spacetime diagram the expanding sphere traces out a cone, the light
cone.
Definition 3.7 Let p and q be two events. The interval pq is called light-
like if ∆τ 2 = 0, q is on the past light cone of p. The interval pq is space-like
is ∆τ 2 < 0 and time-like if ∆τ 2 > 0.
Since all massive objects move slower than c, they travel within the
future light cone. They can only reach time-like parts.
A particle with 3-velocity v = (dx/dt, dy/dt, dz/dt) satisfies
22
There exit coordinate transformation that leave the line element invariant
X ′a = La b X b + Aa (3.13)
23
the right moving photon passes through (t, x) = (t, t) while the left moving
photon passes through (t, x) = (t, −t).
Suppose in the Earth frome a photon passes through the event
t t
= 0 (3.17)
x E t0 E
This must also hold for the left moving photons and hence
t t γ δ t0
= (3.20)
x S −t µ ν −t0 E
⇒γ−δ =ν−µ (3.21)
24
25
f b = mab (3.32)
dT b d2 X b
ab = = (3.33)
dτ dτ 2
Lemma 3.1
ab T b = 0 (3.34)
Proof
dT b c 1 d b c 1 d 1 d
ab T b = ηbc ab T c = ηbc T = ηbc (T T ) = (ηbc T b T c ) = (1) = 0
dτ 2 dτ 2 dτ 2 dτ
(3.35)
Note that for massless particles |p|2 = m2 . The 3-vector v is now a unit
vector determining the direction of the travelling photon.
Important: The world line of a photon cannot be parametrised by
proper time τ since proper time down not exits for a photon. Along the
path of a photon dτ = 0. However, other parameters can be used, for
example the coordinate time t is some reference frame.
∇·B=0 (3.37)
∇ × E + ∂t B = 0 (3.38)
26
∇ · E = 4πρ (3.39)
∇ × B − ∂t E = J (3.40)
F = q(E + v × B) (3.41)
Recall the electric potential φ and the vector potential A can be used to
define the electric and magnetic fields respectively
E = −∇φ − ∂t A (3.42)
B=∇×A (3.43)
∂b F ab = j a (3.46)
where
a ρ
j = (3.47)
J
27
∂a ∂b F ab = 0 = ∂a j a (3.48)
f a = qub F ba (3.49)
ua f a = qua ub T ba = 0 (3.50)
Note that there are two different conventions, the other being
Fab = ∂a Ab − ∂b Aa (3.53)
Ab 7→ Ab + ∂ b ψ (3.54)
28
Tab V a V b (3.56)
is interpreted as the energy density. For normal matter this quantity will
be non-negative
Tab V a V b ≥ 0 (3.57)
−Tab V a W b (3.58)
∂ a Tab = 0 (3.60)
∂ a ∂a φ + m2 φ = 0 (3.61)
29
ua ∂a ρ + (ρ + p)∂ a ua = 0 (3.64)
The terms that vanish after multiplication are orthogonal to the other terms
and hence must vanish separately
ua ∂a ρ + ρ∂ a ua = ∂t ρ + v · ∇ρ + 0 + ρ∇ · v = ∂t ρ + ∇ · (ρv) = 0 (3.67)
Since the last two terms are of higher order, we are left with
4 Curvature
4.1 Covariant derivative ad parallel transport
Definition 4.1 Covariant derivative. A covariant derivative ∇a (sometimes
called derivative operator) on a manifold M is a map which takes a type pq
p
tensor to a type q+1 tensor. It satisfies the following properties:
30
∇c (αAa1 ...am b1...bn + βB a1 ...am b1...bn ) = α∇c Aa1 ...am b1...bn + β∇c B a1 ...am b1...bn
(4.1)
ii Leibnitz rule:
∇c (A... ... B ... ... ) = B ... ... ∇c A... ... + A... ... ∇c B ... ... (4.2)
∇a ∇b f = ∇ b ∇a f (4.4)
∇a f = ∂a f = f,a (4.5)
∇a Ab (4.6)
∇a Ab − ∂a Ab = Cac
b
Ac (4.7)
b is symmetric in
Property (iv) of the covariant derivative implies that Cac
the lower pair of indices
b b
Cac = Cca (4.8)
31
∇a Ab = ∂a Ab + Cbac Ac (4.9)
implies that the right-hand side must transform like a tensor. The inhomo-
geneous parts of the individual transformations must cancel each other.
Since ∇a when acting on scalars equals the partial derivative, let us
consider the scalar Ab Ab
∇a (Ab Ab ) = Ab ∇a Ab + ∇a Ab Ab
= Ab (∂a Ab + Cbac Ac ) + ∇a Ab Ab = ∂a (Ab Ab ) = Ab ∂a Ab + ∂a Ab Ab (4.10)
Theorem 4.1 Let M be a manifold and gab be a metric. Then there exists
a unique covariant derivative operator satisfying
∇a gbc = 0 (4.16)
32
T a ∇a V b = 0 (4.23)
p
is satisfied along the curve. Parallel transport of an arbitrary type q tensor
is defined by
T a ∂a V b + T a Γbac V c = 0 (4.25)
33
∇a ∇b Ac = ∇a (∂b Ac + Γcbd Ad )
= ∂ab Ac − Γdab ∂d Ac + Γcad ∂b Ad
+ ∂a (Γcbd Ad ) − Γeab Γced Ad + Γcae Γebd Ad (4.32)
34
Terms 1 and 6 cancel each other and so do terms 3 and 4, hence we have
(∇a ∇b − ∇b ∇a )Ac = (∂a Γcbd − ∂b Γcad + Γcae Γebd − Γcbe Γead )Ad
= (Γcbd,a − Γcad,b + Γebd Γcea − Γead Γceb )Ad (4.35)
and we define
To calculate Rabc d starting from the metric gab , we first calculate the
Christoffel symbol components Γcab , and from there one computed the the
Riemann curvature tensor. Before further discussing the Riemann curvature
tensor, we show its geometrical significance.
Let us consider a parallelly displaced vector Y c along a curve γ
35
The second term vanished because of our parallel transport assumption and
hence
δY c = Y(q)
c c
− Y(p) = −dX a Γcab Y b (4.40)
use.eps
36
Next, parallel transport of the transported vector to p̄, along the direction
dX̄ a
δ Āb = −dX̄ a Γbac (p1 ) (Ac + δAc ) ≃ −dX̄ a (Γbac + Γbac,d dX d )(Ac + δAc )
≃ −dX̄ a Γbac Ac − dX̄ a Γbac,d dX d Ac + dX̄ a dX d Γbac Γcde Ae (4.42)
where we kept terms to second order only. If we now consider the other way
to reach the point p̄ we obtain
The term in the square bracket is again the Riemann curvature tensor and
therefore we can write
Assume we transport dX a along dX̄ a and vice versa. Then for the term we
find
!
dX a Γbac dX̄ c − dX̄ a Γbac dX c = dX a dX̄ c (Γbac − Γbca ) = 0 (4.46)
37
Lemma 4.2 The Riemann curvature tensor has the following properties:
i Rabcd = −Rbacd ,
iv ∇e Rabcd +∇d Rabec +∇c Rabde = 0. This is the famous Bianchi identity.
i trivial by definition
∇a ∇b Wc − ∇b ∇a Wc = Rabc d Wd (4.48)
d
∇c ∇a Wb − ∇a ∇c Wb = Rcab Wd (4.49)
d
∇b ∇c Wa − ∇c ∇b Wa = Rbca Wd (4.50)
∇a ∇b Wc − ∇a ∇c Wb = ∇a (∂b Wc − ∂c Wb ) (4.51)
Due to the skew-symmetry of Tab the Christoffel symbols drop out the
the covariant derivative become partial derivative. As these commute,
we find that the left-hand side vanished and so the identity follows.
38
Note that the symmetry properties of the Riemann tensor imply that the
Ricci tensor is symmetric.
Definition 4.4 Scalar curvature. The trace of the Ricci tensor is the scalar
curvature or the Ricci scalar
R = Ra a (4.56)
Definition 4.5 Weyl tensor. The ‘trace-free part’ of the Riemann tensor if
the so called Weyl tensor. For manifold of dimension n ≥ 3 it is defined by
2 2
Cabcd = Rabcd − (ga[c Rd]b − gb[c Rd]a ) + Rg g
n−2 (n − 1)(n − 2) a[c d]b
(4.57)
The Weyl tensor is also called conformal tensor because it is invariant under
conformal transformations of the metric gab 7→ Ω2 (X a ) gab
39
∇ a Rc a + ∇ b Rc b − ∇ c R = 0 (4.59)
a
2∇a Rc − ∇c R = 0 (4.60)
1
∇a Rca − ∇b gbc R = 0 (4.61)
2
1
∇a (Rca − Rgca ) = 0 (4.62)
2
Definition 4.6 Einstein tensor. The tensor Gab defined by
1
Gab = Rab − gab R (4.63)
2
is called the Einstein tensor. Its covariant derivative vanishes.
Using the definition of the Riemann and Ricci tensors, the Ricci tensor
can be calculated directly from the Christoffel symbols
4.4 Geodesics II
As already discussed in Subsection 2.3, geodesics are the ‘straightest pos-
sible’ line, they ‘curve as little as possible.’ Using the notion of parallel
transport, we can give a very geometrical definition of geodesics.
T a ∇a T b = 0 (4.65)
∇a T b = ∂a T b + Γbac T c (4.66)
∂T b ∂X a ∂T b ∂T b ∂2X b
T a ∂a T b = T a = = = (4.67)
∂X a ∂λ ∂X a ∂λ ∂λ2
40
use.eps
41
aa = U c ∇c (U b ∇b N a ) = U c ∇c (N b ∇b U a ) (4.73)
= U c ∇c N b ∇b U a + U c N b ∇c ∇b U a (4.74)
c b a b c a a b c d
= N ∇c U ∇b U + N U ∇b ∇c U − Rcbd N U U (4.75)
= N c ∇c (U b ∇b U a ) − Rcbd a N b U c U d (4.76)
The first term vanishes as we are dealing with geodesics and hence
aa = −Rcbd a N b U c U d (4.77)
Rcbd a U c U d ↔ ∂b ∂ a Φ (4.79)
∆Φ = 4πρ (4.80)
Tab U a U b = ρ (4.81)
42
∇a Tab = 0 (4.84)
This is equivalent to saying that world liner of test bodies are geodesics. It
is also a direct consequence of the field equations.
From now on we study the field equations.
Taking the trace of the Einstein equations (apply g ab ) yields
1 1
g ab (Rab − Rgab ) = R − · 4R = −R (4.85)
2 2
g ab Tab = T (4.86)
Rab = 0 (4.89)
Manifolds satisfying the vacuum field equations are often called Ricci flat.
This is very different from Riemann flat, where the full Riemann tensor van-
ishes. In general, solutions of the vacuum field equations are not Riemann
flat.
As stated above, the field equations imply that test bodies follows geodesics
d2 X a b
a dX dX
c
+ Γ bc =0 (4.90)
dλ2 dλ dλ
43
dX a dX b
L = gab (4.91)
dλ dλ
Note that for massive particles the affine parametrisation means we can
choose
dX a dX b
L = gab = ±1 (4.92)
dλ dλ
For massless particles moving with the speed of light we have L = 0 (null
geodesics or null curves). In summary we have
(
±1 m 6= 0
L= (4.93)
0 m=0
±1: the sign depends on the signature of the metric one works with
which contains two unknown quantities ν and λ that are functions of the
radial coordinate r.
44
∂L ∂L
q=t: =0 = −2eν ṫ (5.4)
∂t ∂ ṫ
d ∂L
= −2ν ′ eν ṙṫ − 2eν ẗ (5.5)
dλ ∂ ṫ
⇒ ẗ + ν ′ ṙṫ = 0 (5.6)
1
⇒ Γttr = ν ′ (5.7)
2
and all other components of the form Γtab vanish. The prime denote differ-
entiation of the function with respect to its argument, so ν ′ = dν/dr.
∂L ∂L
q=φ: =0 = 2r2 sin2θφ̇ (5.8)
∂φ ∂ φ̇
d ∂L
= 4rṙ sin2θφ̇ + 2r2 2 sin θ cos θθ̇φ̇ + 2r2 sin2θφ̈ (5.9)
dλ ∂ ṫ
2
⇒ φ̈ + 2 cot θθ̇φ̇ + ṙφ̇ = 0 (5.10)
r
φ 1 φ
⇒ Γφr = Γθφ = cot θ (5.11)
r
all other components of the form Γφab vanish.
∂L ∂L
q=θ: = r2 2 sin θ cos θφ̇2 = 2r2 θ̇ (5.12)
∂φ ∂ φ̇
d ∂L
= 4rṙθ̇ + 2r2 θ̈ (5.13)
dλ ∂ θ̇
2
⇒ θ̈ + ṙθ̇ − sin θ cos θφ̇2 = 0 (5.14)
r
1
⇒ Γθθr = Γθφφ = − sin θ cos θ (5.15)
r
45
1 1
Γntt,n = Γrtt,r = (ν ′ eν−λ /2),r = ν ′′ eν−λ + ν ′ (ν ′ − λ′ )eν−λ (5.28)
2 2
Γnnt,t = 0 (5.29)
1 2
Γm n
tt Γmn = Γrtt Γnrn = ν ′ eν−λ ′
+ (ν + λ )/2 ′
(5.30)
2 r
1
Γm n
tn Γmt = Γttn Γntt + Γrtn Γnrt = Γttr Γrtt + Γrtt Γtrt = (ν ′ )2 eν−λ (5.31)
2
46
47
C −1 2
C
ds2 = − 1 − dt2 + 1 − dr + r2 dΩ2 (5.46)
r r
GC −1 2
2 GC 2
ds = − 1 − 2 dt + 1 − 2 dr + r2 dΩ2 (5.47)
c r c r
and compute the non-vanishing Christoffel symbol components. Next, con-
sider the limit c2 → ∞ or 1/c2 → 0. Only one of the non-vanishing Christof-
fel symbol components contains the constant C, namely
GC
lim Γrtt = (5.48)
c2 →∞ 2r2
48
2M −1 2
2 2M 2
ds = − 1 − dt + 1 − dr + r2 dΩ2 (5.50)
r r
|hab | ≪ 1 (5.54)
g ab = η ab + hab (5.55)
To see this:
49
50
Using g ab = η ab + hab and its inverse one can in principle compute the
linearised Ricci and Einstein tensor and consequently one can study the
linearised field equations. This is for instance important when gravitational
waves are discussed.
51
where ρ and p are functions of r only. Note the sign difference to Section 3.7
because we now work with signature (−, +, +, +).
The static and spherically symmetric metric reads
ut = e−ν/2 (5.75)
52
and therefore
53
54
Collecting results:
1 (4πpr3 + m)(ρ + p)
p′ = − (5.104)
r2 1 − 2m
r
m′ = 4πρr2 (5.105)
2m
e−λ = 1 − (5.106)
r
2p′
ν′ = − (5.107)
ρ+p
55
4πp + (4π
3 ρ0 )(ρ0 + p)
p′ = −r (5.110)
1 − 8π3 ρ0 r
2
dp 9 dp 3 dp
Z Z Z
= −
(p + ρ0 /3)(p + ρ0 ) 2ρ0 ρ0 + 3p 2ρ0 ρ0 + p
3 3
= log(2ρ0 (ρ0 + p)) − log(ρ0 + p) (5.112)
2ρ0 2ρ0
while the right-hand side gives
4πrdr 3 8π
Z
2
− = log 3(1 − ρ0 r ) (5.113)
1 − 8π
3 ρ0 r
2 4ρ0 3
56
57
2m(r′ ) −1/2 ′
Z r
′ ′2
mp (r) = 4πρ(r )r 1− dr (5.129)
0 r′
58
ρ(r)m(r)
p′ = − (5.131)
r2
m = 4πρ(r)r2
′
(5.132)
2M −1 2
2M 2
L=− 1− ṫ + 1 − ṙ + r2 φ̇2 (6.1)
r r
with
(
−1 m 6= 0 time-like geodesics
L= (6.2)
0 m = 0 null geodesics
d ∂L ∂L ∂L
= =0 ⇒ = const. (6.3)
dλ ∂ ṫ ∂t ∂ ṫ
and we write
2M
−2 1 − ṫ = −2E (6.4)
r
2M
E = 1− ṫ (6.5)
r
Likewise
d ∂L ∂L ∂L
= =0 ⇒ = const. (6.6)
dλ ∂ φ̇ ∂φ ∂ φ̇
59
60
use.eps
dr
(r = r0 ) = 0 (6.21)
dφ
2M ℓ2
2
E = 1− (6.22)
r0 r02
Therefore
r −1/2
2M ℓ2 2M ℓ2
ℓ
Z
φ(r) = 1− − 1 − dr′ (6.23)
r0 r′2 r0 r02 r′ r′2
Note that all ℓ cancel. To find the deflection angle, we need to find φ(∞),
and therefore we have to evaluate
Z ∞
dr′
φ(∞) = r (6.24)
r0 2M r ′4
1 − r0 r2 − (r′2 − 2M r′ )
0
61
To first order in the mass M one can use the following trick to evaluate
this integral (like a Taylor expansion)
∂φ(0)
φ(0) = φ(0)[M = 0] + [M = 0] · M + O(M 2 ) (6.26)
∂M
1/r0
du π
Z
φ(0)[M = 0] = p = (6.27)
0
2
1/r0 − u 2 2
1/r0
∂φ(0) 1/r03 − u3
Z
[M = 0] = du
∂M 0 1/r02 − u2
1/r0
2 + r0 u p 2
2
=− 1/r0 − u = (6.28)
1 + r0 u 0 r0
which leads to
4M 4M
∆φ = 2φ(∞) − π = π + − π + O(M 2 ) ≃ (6.29)
r0 r0
For a light ray passing nearby the Sun we have
r0 ≃ R⊙ ≃ 7 × 105 km (6.30)
GM⊙
M= ≃ 1.5 km (6.31)
c2
Using that π = 180 · 3600′′ we find
∆φ1.75′′ (6.32)
The deflection or bending of light has been observed during solar eclipses
beginning with the 1919 expedition of Eddington. This confirmed an im-
portant prediction of general relativity.
Newtonian theory predicts an angle of
2M 1
∆φN = = ∆φGR (6.33)
r0 2
and hence experiments rule out Newtonian gravity.
Modern experiments analyse radio waves emitted by quasars; there is no
need to wait for solar eclipses using radio signals.
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