EEE 314 Lecture 3

Prepared by: Md. Itrat Bin Shams (Sanin)

Contents
1 Safety Rules 2
1.1 Laboratory safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Safety of person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Safety of equipments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Additional items related to personal and equipment safety 3
2 Sub-Stations 4
2.1 Classification of sub-stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.1 In accordance with the service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.2 In accordance with the service voltage . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.3 In accordance with mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Essential parts of a sub-station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.1 Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.2 Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.3 Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.4 Isolators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.5 circuit breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.6 Load interrupt switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.7 Power transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.8 Current transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.9 Potential transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.10 Carrier current equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.11 Control cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.12 Air break and disconnect switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.13 Switch board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.14 Control room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Advantage and disadvantage of outdoor substation as compared
to indoor substation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Design of a substation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5 Layout of substations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5.1 Single Busbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5.2 Mesh Substation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5.3 One and a half Circuit Breaker layout . . . . . . . . . 11
2.6 BBT (Bus Bar Trunking) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.6.1 Protection of BBT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

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 1 Safety Rules

1.1 Laboratory safety

While working in a laboratory, safety of a person and equipment is necessary. These
are discussed separately.

1.1.1 Safety of person

The flow of electricity can adversely effect anyone’s body in at least three ways. It
causes muscle spasms and paralysis. It can electrolyte blood in body and make
bubbles. It also can burn skin. Only 50mA current is enough for paralysis of heart.
What can be done if anyone is shocked:
1. The cause of shock must be removed first. it is necessary to use nonconducting
materials such as woods or plastic to remove live wires or substances from one’s touch.
2. If the person shocked is not breathing, artificial respiration should be given to him.
3. If the victim is conscious, he should be in comfortable situation and taken to a doctor.
Precautions to prevent shocking:
1. One should avoid become a victim. Voltages should not be allowed to come in
contact with the body.
2. No bare conductors should be touched without knowing what it really stands for.
How can a person get shocked:
1. Any person needs only one conductor and a ground to get shocked. This means if
anyone touches a live wire a circuit is formed through his body. Current can easily pass
through him.
2. There are a lot of capacitors in a house. These instruments can hold charges for a
long time. If anyone touches them he can get a surprise shock.

Skin posses a small resistance value. When a dry skin comes across a contact, shock
may be mild. But a sweaty skin can produce a larger shock. A fat person’s probability to
get shock is more than a light person as thin body has high resistance.

There are some non-electrical hazards around electrical and electronic equipments.
Like some batteries can discharge chemical materials that is harmful for health. These
batteries can produce explosive hydrogen gases. Cathode-ray tubes are used in some
electrical appliances. These tubes have high pressure inside them. Pressure is around
15 pounds per square inch. If it explodes due to some mis-operation, then it is possible
that broken glasses from tube will move with high velocity and injure people.

1.1.2 Safety of equipments

About all general electrical instruments work with constant voltage. So amount of
current passing through them depends on load resistive value. If it is small current is
large and if it is large current is small. Power consumed by any equipment thus depends
on current. Things are damaged if too much current passes through them. Fuses and
circuit breakers are provided to protect a system. But they are usually provided to
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protect transmission lines. Fuses and circuit breakers operate within fraction of a
second. A lot of damages can be done within this time to electrical equipments.

Some ways to avoid common types of troubles are:

1. Rated wires should be used so that it can carry right amount of current of necessary.
Resistor values should be maintained to that value where safe operation os possible.
2. Indicating and metering instruments should be handled according to usual procedure.
Such as a voltmeter has a high resistance and a small current will flow through it. So
voltmeters should be connected in parallel to others.
3. Ammeters must be connected in series in any circuit. As they have low resistance. To
distinguish the connection between voltmeter and ammeter, we can use the word
voltage across and current through. Ammeters can be kept in safe by using ammeter
shunt switches. If a huge current tend to flow through the ammeter shunt switch will be
off and ammeter will be safe.

1.2 Additional items related to personal and equipment safety

• Meters should be kept in their highest position before energizing a circuit.
• It is important that meters be hooked up with correct polarity.
• Resistors should have power ratings at least two times greater than expected power
dissipation.
• If it is necessary to change a certain portion of a circuit, it is recommended that all the
parts be energized.
• In all cases voltage sources should not be applies to desired point suddenly. It should
be brought up from zero value to highest value slowly.
• There should be a first aid kid box for every lab in case of minor cuts and burns.
• If fuses are blown out, correct rated fuses must be replaced in place of older one.
• All labs should have decade resistance boxes and resistor substitution boxes. Decade
resistor boxes are provided to make estimation of unknown resistor values. Resistor
substitution boxes are used in hooks up where resistances are altered.
• Ohmmeters should be turned off after use. This will make sure of linger battery life.
• Any malfunctioing instrument should not be repaired by untrained personnel.
• Fire hazards or burns can result from poor soldering equipments.
• Poor insulation can make high current to flow as well as starting fire.
• Resistors and other equipments should not be altered if circuit is energized.
• Burnt out florescent bulbs should be replaced carefully as there is a chemical coating
inside the bulb.
• Prevent dangerously high voltage, reverse winding connection of transformers must
not made.
• Commercial transformers should be properly ventilated.
• Neutralization of any acid or battery electrolyte that may get on clothing must be made.
• When acid and water is mixed, acid must be poured in water.

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 2 Sub-Stations

A sub-station can be defined as combination of apparatus that transforms the

characteristics of electrical energy from one form to other form. For example, from
alternating to DC or from one level of voltage to other.

2.1 Classification of sub-stations

Sub-stations can be classified on the basis of some features. They are:

2.1.1 In accordance with the service

Static: The instruments used to change electrical energy characteristics are static. So it
changes voltage of an a.c signal.
Converting: In this type A.C. energy is changed to D.C. energy.

2.1.2 In accordance with the service voltage

Extra high voltage: Here voltage level is changed in the range of 66kV in order to
transmit energy. It is also called transmission sub-station.
Distribution Sub-station: In this sub-station voltage is stepped down to 400 volts.
Industrial sub-station: Different industries need different voltage levels to make their
machines work. Industries take power from 11kV or 66kV feeder line and then convert
the voltage level according to their need via industrial substation.
Substation for power factor correction: Due to the presence of inductance power
factor falls at the end of the transmission line. In order to improve power factor,
synchronous condensers are used. Such installations are known as power factor
correction sub-station.
Frequency changing sub-stations: These sub-stations are used to change frequency
of one signal to another value.

2.1.3 In accordance with mounting

Indoor type substation: These sub-stations are used with open and enclosed
chambers or compartments. The chamber space in which one main bus bar connection
is mounted is called cell, cubicle or compartment. These sub-stations are built to handle
voltage up to 11000 volts but can also be used to operate in 33000 or 66000 volts.
Surrounding air in this type of installation is filled with dust, gases and fumes. According
to construction indoor type substations can be further divided into:
• Sub-stations with integrally built type: Here apparatus are installed in site. Cell
structure is constructed with concrete or brick.
• Sub-stations with composite built type: A switchgear room is provided for control.
Compartments of these sub-stations are taken from metal cabinets or enclosures, each
of which contains the equipment of one main connection cell.
• Unit type factory fabricated sub-stations: It is fully preassembled. After installation only
incoming and outgoing connections are to be provided.

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Outdoor type sub-stations: These are of two types.
• Pole mounted substation: These are installed on certain poles. They are of H-pole and
4-pole. They carry transformers of capacity up to 200kVA. These types of sub-stations
are cheap, simple and smaller.
• Foundation mounted sub-station: These sub-stations are used to handle primary and
secondary transmission. As they carry huge machineries so it is necessary to place
them in such a site where there is sufficient access of heavy transport.

2.2 Essential parts of a sub-station

2.2.1 Transformer
Transformers are mainly used in voltage conversion purposes. A transformer has
primary and secondary coils and they are insulated from each other by insulation. There
is a steel core which is made of laminations. Transformers are placed in a container and
transformer oil is placed between the container and transformer to make sure of
insulation. Transformers are divided according to two categories.

In accordance with the type of core: It is again divided into two parts.
• Core type transformer: Here low voltage winding is provided near the core. It is
because low insulation is needed for low voltage side.

• Shell type transformer: Here shell type core is provided.

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In accordance with the type of cooling: Here transformers are again subdivided in
following categories.
• Oil filled self cooled: Here a type of insulating oil is provided for cooling purposes. Oil
provided must be of high quality and it should be replaced after specific periods of time.
• Oil-filled water cooled: Here oil that is used for cooling purpose is cooled by water coils
circulating inside the container. Here convection method of heat transfer is used.
• Air blast type: It is used for transformers of capacity 33kV or above. Strong air is
directed towards the transformer coil through ducts.

2.2.2 Insulators
The porcelain insulators used in sub-station are of post and bushing type. They serve
as both support and insulation purpose.
• Post type: A post insulator consists of porcelain body, cast iron cap and flanged cast
iron body. Bus bars are bolted to the cap either directly or fixed by means of a bus bar
clamp.

Figure 3: Post type insulator

• Bushing type: It consists of porcelain shell body, upper and lower locating washers
and mounting flange. They are designed to handle currents above 2000A.

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2.2.3 Conductors
The substation buses can be of the following types:
a. Rigid buses of solid conductor or tubing.
b. Strain bus of cables.
An ideal conductor should fulfill the following requirements:
a) Should be capable of carrying the specified load currents and short time currents
b) Should be able to withstand forces on it due to its situation. These forces
comprise self weight and weight of other conductors and equipment, short circuit
forces and atmospheric forces.
c) Should be corona free at rated voltage.
d) Should have the minimum number of joints.
e) Should need the minimum number of supporting insulators.
f) Should be economical

Nowadays aluminium is used over copper wires. It is because aluminium has higher
conductivity, lower cost for equal current carrying capacity, excellent corrosion
resistance and ease of formability.

2.2.4 Isolators
Isolators are used to isolate a certain portion of a system after switching of circuit
breakers. Sometimes isolators are used to operate as a circuit breakers but their
operation as this is strictly limited due to certain conditions. Isolators are of two types,
• Single pole isolators.
• Three pole isolators.

Isolator design is considered in the following aspects:

1) Space Factor
2) Insulation Security
3) Standardization
4) Ease of Maintenance
5) Cost

2.2.5 circuit breakers

Circuit breakers are intended to perform the following tasks:
1. To carry the full load current continuously.
2. To open and close the circuit on no load.
3. To make and break the normal operating current.
4. To make and break the short circuit current of magnitude up to which it is designed
for.

2.2.6 Load interrupt switches

They are used to open and close high voltage circuits. They should be handled
carefully.

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2.2.7 Power transformers
Power transformers are used to step up voltage at generation end for transmission
purpose and step down voltage for farther distribution of power. Different types of
transformers such as, naturally cooled, oil immersed, two winding three phase
transformers, air blast cooled transformers are used. Power transformers are usually
the largest single item in a substation. Because of the large quantity of oil, it is essential
to take protection against the spread of fire. Hence, the transformer is usually located
around a sump used to collect the excess oil.

2.2.8 Current transformers

Current transformers are used in indicating and metering instruments. They are used in
ammeters, wattmeter, watt-hour meter etc. Primary coils of these transformers are
placed in the circuit where current is ti be measured. Secondary coil takes current
reading in a suitable value so that indicating instrument can show the reading.

2.2.9 Potential transformer

Potential transformers are also used in metering and indicating instruments such as
voltmeter, wattmeter, watt-hour meter. Primary coil is directly connected to busbars
where voltage is to be measured. Secondary coil converts the voltage reading to a
suitable value so that indicating instrument can show this in full scale.

2.2.10 Carrier current equipment

These are used for communication, relaying, telemetering and supervisory control.

2.2.11 Control cables

To carry different voltage levels, different cables (say 10 or 37 or 61 conductor grouped
cables) are used. It is necessary to control these cables inside a conduit. For this,
control cables are provided. Ducts are used to run from switch gear rooms to the
beginning and end of a conduit.

2.2.12 Air break and disconnect switch

For lines with 46kV or lower voltages, disconnect switches are provided with single pole
construction and hook stick operated mechanism. For 110kV or upper voltage systems
group operated mechanism is provided where all the six poles are operated with one
handle.

2.2.13 Switch board

Switch boards are consisted with meters, relays and control equipments. The essential
meters are placed at the bottom. Control equipment half way through, so as to facilitate
operation. It is shown in following figure.

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2.2.14 Control room
A control room is provided to monitor all the readings and to have an excess to all
connection points. Normally an operator is given for each control room.

2.3 Advantage and disadvantage of outdoor substation as

compared to indoor substation
The outdoor substation has following advantages:
• The construction work needed is much smaller than the indoor substation.
• Installation cost of switchgear is low.
• Adequate space between two adjoining equipment can be provided.
• Erection is made in less time.
• Whole structure is properly viewed, so that fault can be easily located.
• The scheme extension is easier.

Disadvantages of outdoor substations are,

• Dust and dirt use to formulate on contact switches. This makes maintenance cost
higher.
• In rainy or snow falling seasons switching becomes complicated.
• The installation suffers from security as unauthorized persons can easily penetrate the
structure.

2.4 Design of a substation

Following steps should be followed in designing a substation:
1. Make a single line diagram of the total system showing all the connection between
bus bars, circuit breakers and reactors.
2. Design the layout of the switchgear depending on the size, capacity of the substation.
3. Circuits should be designed in such a way that minimum amount of risk will occur in
case of its failure.
4. The layout should be such that any faulty section can be isolated without effecting the
other portions.
5. There should be provision for easy and safe excess for maintenance and repairing
purpose.
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6. Partitions should be provided in order to differentiate one part from other.
7. Reactors must be of rating that can limit the short circuit current. This makes capacity
of the circuit breaker adequate.
8. To avoid using huge circuit breakers the current per circuit breaker should be limited
to 2000A.
9. Fire extinguishing system must be provided.
10. The earth conductor should have sufficient capability to carry any amount of fault
current.
11. Automatic electric gear should be given.
12. Power cables should be separated from control cables.
13. In order to avoid fire hazard, fire proof control room and switch room have to be
provided.
14. Arrangement for oil handling must be safe.

2.5 Layout of substations

There can be different layouts of a substation. Three are given below:

2.5.1 Single Busbar

Layout is given in figure 6. Operation is very simple in this layout design. But its
reliability is very low as if bus goes out of service all the loads will be disconnected from
power supply. There is a provision to support cheap future connection of feeders. Some
features of this scheme are,
• Each circuit is protected by its own circuit breaker and hence plant outage does not
necessarily result in loss of supply.
• A fault on the feeder or transformer circuit breaker causes loss of the transformer and
feeder circuit, one of which may be restored after isolating the faulty circuit breaker.
• A fault on the bus section circuit breaker causes complete shutdown of the substation.
All circuits may be restored after isolating the faulty circuit breaker.
• Maintenance of a feeder or transformer circuit breaker involves loss of the circuit.
• Introduction of bypass isolators between busbar and circuit isolator allows circuit
breaker maintenance facilities without loss of that circuit.

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2.5.2 Mesh Substation
Layout of this scheme is given in figure 7. Some characteristics are,
• Operation of two circuit breakers is required to open or close a circuit.
• Circuit breakers may be maintained without loss of supply or protection, and no
additional bypass facilities are required.
• Breaker faults will involve the loss of a maximum of two circuits.

2.5.3 One and a half Circuit Breaker layout

The reason that such a layout is known as a 1 and 1/2 circuit breaker is due to the fact
that in the design, there are 9 circuit breakers to protect the 6 feeders. Thus, 1 and ½
circuit breakers protect 1 feeder. Some characteristics of this design are:
• Here arrangement is complex and it is also expensive.
• There is provision to operate one circuit or group of circuits.
• reliability is very high in case of loss of power.

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 2.6 BBT (Bus Bar Trunking)

Bus bar trunking is used to increase the current carrying capability of a system.
Here multiple buses are used in parallel.

This Unified Recommendation is for the test and installation of busbar trunking systems
arranged outside of switchboards for supplying section or distribution boards or
consumers, instead of cables. They are not recommended to be installed in hazardous
areas or on the exposed weather deck.

2.6.1 Protection of BBT

• General Systems should comply with the specific requirements of local electrical
codes.
• Temperatures should be in the range from 0 to 45oC.
• Nearby foreign bodies or water pipes must be placed away from bus bars to protect
them.
• The system should be designed to withstand a vibration level of 1mm amplitude in the
frequency range of 2 Hz to 13.2 Hz and of 0.7g acceleration in the frequency range of
13.2 Hz to 100 Hz.
• It should be suitable for automatic draining where condensation is possible.
• Fire test arrangements should be compatible with the local codes.

Revised by Shama Naz Islam, Lecturer, EEE, BUET

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