Twenty Years on From

MacPherson: A Critical Analysis of

Institutional Racism in the Police

Aqsa Ahmed

2019
 1. Contents
Chapter 1:...................................................................................................................................4

1.1. Introduction.................................................................................................................5

1.2. A Brief History of Police Diversity.............................................................................5

1.3. Defining Racism..........................................................................................................6

Abstract:
The main aim of this dissertation is to critically analyse the issue o of institutional racism in
the Police. It will focus on the issues of disproportionate use of stop and search, under
-recruitment and the training. It explores how the changes in stop and search as well as the
recommendations by McPherson report has decreased institutional racism.
1. Chapter 1:
Introduction

1
1.1. Introduction

Historically, white male dominated police service has continuously been scrutinized for its
racist culture and lack of Black and Asian officers. The poor reputation of police service
being institutionally racist has created intense feelings of discontent among ethnic minorities
(Bhugowandeen, 2013). Lord Scarman Inquiry into the 1981 Brixton riots was held due to
issues between the police and minority communities. While Scarman acknowledged the
existence of “unconscious racism” within the policing of minority communities the report
rejected the term institutional racism. Eighteen years later, the concept of institutional racism
was brought into the centre of national debate in the UK when the MacPherson Report into
the murder of Stephen Lawrence claimed the Metropolitan Police Service were institutionally
racist. This has been identified as “watershed” in race relations, with the use of the term
becoming a focus for political movements (Souhami, 2012).

1.2. A Brief History of Police Diversity

Police diversity has been a recurring theme which has been used to describe the development
of policing since the Lawrence Report. Emsley (1996) and Reiner (2000) explain that
although police diversity has been used in police documents in the past however recently it
has been represented as new an agenda which has been incorporated within police service to
solve its relations with ethnic minorities. This is supported by Morris (1994) who argues that
it was crucial to bring in this new agenda as the ethnic communities were recognised as
“dangerous classes” by police service which therefore created a rift between them. Although
the fact of policing as diverse and complex society is not a recent challenge to the police
service; nevertheless, the realization that some section of society has distinctive policing
needs has been an entirely new development. This recognition had been a considerable push
by The Lawrence Report (Rowe, 2004).

Police culture has always been responsible for the wrong and discriminatory attitudes that are
displayed by the police officers. Bacon (2016) argues that police officers are not
"institutionalized clones" as the recruits and trainees do not automatically change their
behaviour according to police culture though they learn this along the way by following the
footsteps of senior officers. They observe how senior officers treat BME communities and try
to do the same to fit in with the rest of the officers (Brown, 2013).

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Foster et al. (2005) and Holdaway (2009) state that racial prejudice and discrimination with
the police workforce has been found in multiple researches and analyses which were done on
police officers and their behaviour towards the ethnic minorities. This is supported by Reiner
(2010) who discusses that racial prejudice is one of the vital aspects of police conservativism
and is seen through their work (Brown, 2013).

1.3. Defining Racism

Scarman (1981) introduces the notion of “bad apple thesis. “He argues that policies
introduced by Metropolitan Police are not racist. Besides this he states racial prejudice can be
found infrequently in the behaviour of some officers on the street; therefore, the whole
institution should not be judged based on these "bad apples." Using this definition, he argued
that a minority of police officers articulated racism. Mason (1984) however argues that this
concept failed to determine a clear theoretical bias for specifying why this is institutional
racism rather than individual racism. Mason (1984) instead called for analytical tools which
should explain "the interplay of social structures and human action, material conditions and
ideas” (PHILLIPS, 2010). Similarly, Holdaway and O’Neill (2006) discusses that Scarman
should have acknowledged that individuals from institutions.

Griever and French (2000) outline institutional racism as “stereotyping." They argue this is
about “unwitting, ignorance” as well as “failing to recognise racist and hate crime." They
further define this concept as about "white pretence and black people seen as a problem." The
term became part of mainstream political discourse as Macpherson labelled the Metropolitan
Police Service institutionally racist for its failed investigation.

The validity of this concept was challenged by numerous right-wing press as well as the
front-line officers who interpreted this as individual racism rather than institutional racism,
this concept to reforming of policing and race equality measures (Foster et al.,2005). Despite
this process seeming an essential key to reforming of policing as well as the originator of a
new equality agenda, it was critiqued by various constituencies.

Oakley (1999) suggests that institutional racism is defined as how racism impacts police
delivery, it is seen mainly through the deliberate actions of individuals however through more
systematic tendency which unconsciously had an impact on the police performance.

MacPherson further criticised Scarman as the report stated that the police as entire institution
was racist. Although both Scarman and MacPherson have different perspectives on the notion

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of institutional racism, the leading theory of institutional racism still depends upon Scarman’s
idea of individual racism which was adopted by some officers.

1.4. Police Discretion and Police Culture

Discretion exists when officers must choose an appropriate response to a situation. Although
discretion is crucial to police work, it has always been quite controversial. Brooks (2010)
argues while the police service requires discretion to deal with community members as well
as to address minor violations this can often lead to misconduct which mainly results in the
disruption between the relationship of members of community and police officers. Therefore,
to minimize police misconduct, various restriction on discretion have been suggested to
minimize the effects of an officer's bias behaviour further. Gellar and Scott (1992) argue that
Black individuals are essentially overrepresented in cases where officers have used lethal
force. They argue these are mainly due to a police patrol in minority communities which
usually led to hostile encounters between ethnic minorities and the police officers. As well as
that these hostile encounters are not very common within white communities (Nowicki,
2011).

1.5. Methodology

This dissertation used secondary data and literature review to research institutional racism
within police. The data was researched using various online resources such as google scholar,
university library catalogues and books.

1.6. Dissertation Outline

This dissertation will further highlight the issues of institutional racism within Police Service.
The following three chapters on stop and search, recruitment and training will focus on how
the police service treats BME communities in the past and today. It will further explain the
solutions to these issues and whether it affected to end the racism. Although within regards to
recruitment the Police defended their failure to recruit ethnic minorities by pointing to
cultural factors. There have been various ethnic minority recruitment initiatives which have
developed rapidly within the British Police. Therefore, to end the racism within the
institutions such as the police force, it is essential to set up new arrangements to recruit more
ethnic officers for our diverse society. However irrespective of rapid growth in the UK’s
level of multiculturalism various institutions such as police still must reflect on diversity
within their workforce.
4
 2. Chapter
Stop and Search

5
2.1. Introduction

This chapter investigates the disproportionate use of stop and searches powers against BME
communities. Besides, this it will further explore the uses and importance of search powers
under the Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) (1984), Criminal Justice and Public
Order Act (1994), Terrorism Act (2000) as well as the Misuse of Drugs Act (1971). The
frequent use of term disproportionate refers to the degree in which something seems to be out
of proportion to something else in relations to police powers to stop and search. Moreover,
this term is used mostly to describe the disparity in how power is used against minority ethnic
groups in comparison to the(white) majority of the public (Bowling and Phillips, 2007)

2.2. Powers of Stop and Search

Stop and search is mainly an investigative power adopted for crime detection or prevention
regarding a specific individual at a time (Lustgarten 2002). These powers have a long history
in England and Wales, dating back to section 4 of the Vagrancy Act (1824) known as the
“sus” law. The purpose of the “sus” law was to allow police officers to stop and search
individuals when they were suspected of loitering in a public place. Section 66 of the 1839
Metropolitan Police Act allowed the police in London the power to stop and search
individuals they "reasonably suspected" of carrying anything "stolen or unjustly obtained."

Bristol riots in 1980 and the Brixton riots in 1981 contributed to an end in using the “sus”
law. Therefore, this law was stopped because of the initiation of a negative relationship
between individuals from ethnic groups and police. The significant riots in 1981 based in
London and other major cities in the United Kingdom led to an inquiry by Lord Scarman
regarding the disturbances. These reports were crucial as they gave a real insight into
disproportionate use of stop and search powers. The Philips commission also recognised the
damage the power did to the relationship between police officers and the black minorities.
Because of these circumstances, it leads to the Police and Criminal Evidence. One criticism
made by the Philips commission of the police relates to how they exercise their powers to
stop and search individuals in the streets. Pre-Pace there was no regular monitoring of these
powers which led to police officers stopping individuals mainly based on their ethnicity.
Bowling and Philips discuss that these powers have been heavily used against certain ethnic
groups primarily young black people, which resulted in numerous issues between police
officers and certain ethnic minorities.

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The reports indicate the disproportionate extent, harmful behaviour, and misconduct by the
police towards young individuals from black and various other ethnic minorities due to
excessive use of their stop and search powers. These reports further suggest that race is a vital
issue in police suspect encounters. Besides this, it is also further complicated by geographical
location and social-economic circumstances of the suspects (Brunson and Miller 2006).

The 1984 Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) provided the police service with a new
national power to stop and search any individual or vehicle for stolen goods or prohibited
items (Delos and Shiner, 2016). Lugarsten (1986) urged that it is essential to follow all the
rules as conducting a stop and search without reasonable grounds for suspicion of a crime is
seen unlawful.

PACE introduced the provision of reasonable suspicion and a written record of the copy of
searches that are carried out. The copy must be accessible to an individual stopped. The main
aim of the PACE was to stop unlawful searches and balance the rights of suspects against the
demand to engage in crimes. In 1984 Section 1 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act
(PACE) appeared in power. The primary aim of this Act was to allow police to stop and
search the individuals for stolen and prohibited articles throughout England and Wales.

PACE also introduced Codes of Practice which examined the use of powers in the Act. PACE
code A highlights the principles which are used to govern stop and search. It emphasises that
stop, and search powers must be applied moderately. Police officers must have reasonable
grounds of suspicion that an individual in possession of any stolen or prohibited articles
before deciding to stop and search them.

Reasonable grounds for suspicion can be expressed as a legitimate test which is conducted by
police officers before they can detain individuals or vehicles to search them under powers
such as Section 1 of PACE is to find stolen or prohibited articles and section 23 of the Misuse
of Drugs Act 1971 which is to identify controlled drugs. It conducts this test in two parts.
First, it is essential that the officer must have genuine suspicion. Second, the doubt found
must be reasonable.

Reasonable suspicion can never be based on personal factors alone without supporting
intelligence or information. The code further shows that an individual's colour, age or the
way they dress, or any previous conviction cannot be applied solely or in combination with
anything to search that person. Besides this, the exercise of stop and search powers mainly
depends on the possibility that an individual stopped has any item for which they may be

2
searched. It does not rely on the person concerned about being considered of carrying out an
offence concerning the object of the search.

The fundamental aim of Section 60 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 is to
provide police officers with a power to stop and search and to tackle the issues which can
then lead to a serious crime. Stop, and searches under section 60 of the Criminal Justice and
Public Order Act 1994 are quite different from section 1 PACE searches as they do not
require suspicion in individual cases. Additionally, stop and. Searches carried out under this
act can be authorised by senior police officers. These powers are intended to prevent violent
offences at a massive scale.

Today the most frequently used powers of stop and search are under Section 1 of the Police,
and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, section 23 Misuse of the Drugs Act 1971. These powers
allow police officers to search the suspect for any prohibited items they might have.
Additionally, these powers require police officers to have reasonable grounds to suspect an
individual to have stolen or prohibited article or prohibited drugs to search. Less commonly
used search powers include Section 47 Firearms Act 1968 and under section 43 of the
Terrorism Act (2000), it is crucial that police officers have reasonable grounds for suspicion
that an individual is a terrorist. Therefore, it is vital that there must be an objective basis for
that suspicion. It must be based on facts or intelligence which are relevant to the article.
Likewise, any searches carried out must meet the requirement under section 43 of the
Terrorism Act 2000. Police officers should not base reasonable suspicion on personal factors
alone without reliable information or specific behaviour by the individual they are searching.
Moreover, an individual's age, race, and appearance or a previous conviction should not be
the reason to search that individual (Bowling and Phillips, 2007).

2.1. The use of stop and search

Concerns regarding excessive use of stop and search powers has been one of the most
controversial issues in the policing. From the perspective of black men and Asian men stop
and search has been of the most common example of police powers (Bowling and Phillips,
2002). Despite all the evidence police continues to deny that is racist violence and excessive
use of stop and search is an issue. Bowling (1999) specified that some police officers agree
with the “white men” who are against their area taken over” and those who feel that “the
system which should be providing services for them is working for black and Asian
communities”. As a result, these officers use their power as an advantage against these

3
minority communities. It is argued that consequences of the abuse of stop and search powers
are unlimited. The way the stop and search powers used can complicate things between
police and ethnic minorities (Bowling and Phillips, 2002).

The table below shows the figures of stop and searches per 1000 population, by ethnicity
England Wales from (2012 -2018). The table suggests that the decrease in stop and search
figures since 2012.There is clear fall in number of black individuals stopped and searched in
2012 and in 2018.

Stop and searches per 1000 population,by ethnicity Englan and

Wales(2012-18)
70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
2012 2014 2016 2018

White Black Asian

Figure 1 Stops and searches per 1000 population, by ethnicity England and Wales (2012-2018) (Office,
2019).

2.2. Disproportionate and discriminatory?

We can interpret the term disproportionate to a degree to which something is a proportion or

irrelevant to something else. As observed through the figures and studies BME minorities are
more likely to be stopped and searched in comparison to the white majority. In 1987 A
submission to the Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure by the Institute of Race Relation
drew attention to the mass stop and search of black individuals and racial abuse and regular
surveillance targeted against black communities. Besides this, a study conducted by Willis
(1983 page 143) represents that officers appeared not to adhere to specific provisions of
reasonable suspicion. The research further recommended, "black individuals particularly

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young black males were often more prone to be stopped and searched by the police than
whites." Despite subsequent prosecution rates being the same. This is because ethnic
minorities were stopped and searched more often (Miller, Bland and Quinton, 2002).

The excessive use of stop and search against ethnic minorities is one of the essential aspects
when discussing institutional racism. "The resident population" allows us to calculate the
number of stop and searches conducted per capita. British Crime Survey (2007) discovered
that around 39 percent black males aged between 16-19 were stopped in corresponding to
around twenty-five percent white males of similar age group. The figures undoubtedly
highlight the difference between both groups. The survey further recommended that on the
same occasion when ethnic minority group were held, they were stopped without being given
an acceptable reason in comparison to white counterpart. Consequently, stop and searches
involving ethnic minorities mainly black people were entirely hypothetical (Bowling and
Phillips, 2007). Besides this Gordon (1983) recommends that the conflict between the police
and ethnic minority communities is a result of “over-policing” mainly in the neighbourhoods
where ethnic minorities live. This was highlighted through the study “All Faith for One
Race” (1978) which included African and Caribbean men in Birmingham. The case study
painted a picture of clear harassment and excessive use of police powers as more than one-
third of these experienced these. It further highlighted “racial abusive manner” of police
officers towards black men portraying them as of” inferior race”. The reports concluded that
these behaviours were wide spread.

Following MacPherson, there was more significance placed on improved monitoring as well
as on the use of stop and search powers. Officers are required to record all stop and searches.
Ethnic minorities do not believe that the reasons provided to explain the high numbers of stop
and search against these communities are valid. Although they agree that there are other
factors which play a part; however, stop and search is a central element of discrimination
(Bowling and Phillips, 2007).

Reports allege that stop and search encounters involving individuals from minority groups are
more likely to be recorded than those which include white people. This is because these
incidents are demanding, and police officers feel the desire to protect their tails. As a result
this can contribute to people losing confidence in a police force which can generate further
issues between specific ethnic minority neighbourhoods and the police service.

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Race Relations Amendment Act (2000) brought the police service within the ambit of UK
and discrimination legislation for the first time. This Act states it is unlawful for police
officers to discriminate when carrying out their roles; this also includes when conducting stop
and searches or arresting individuals. Additionally, if the individual believes they have been
stopped or arrested based on the grounds of their race or ethnicity they can then complain to
racial discrimination (Bowling and Phillips, 2007).

Most searches require reasonable suspicion. However, s60(and the now less used section 47a)
searches are “suspicion less." Bowling and Philips suggest that reasonable suspicion is
mainly a case of stop and search which usually require it. These stops, therefore, damage the
relationship between police and community and undermine the respect for police service.
Bowling and Marks state that officers have unlimited discretion when choosing whom to
stop; however, in practice, they tend to stop, and individuals based on "professional
institution." They suggest that these individuals from African Caribbean, Asian and of
Middle Eastern descent are more likely to be targeted than the white majority.

Additionally, these suspicions less powers are targeted at the "usual suspects." These targets
searches portray a negative image of police officers on BME minorities which therefore leads
to misunderstandings and conflicts between these groups (Bowling and Marks, 2017). Most
of the stop and searches are based on indirect contradiction to the PACE codes of practice
mainly on stereotypes, particularly where levels of discretion are highest. They further
suggest that searches based on stereotypes rather than the actual suspicion or reason are
unlawful. Like-wise, Lustgarten argues that high numbers of searches do not reach the set
criteria for reasonable doubt and consequently are classed illegal under PACE. He further
questions whether this means that the police officers are acting unlawfully in these
circumstances. British Police service has been concerned about discrimination and keen to
provide excellent service to all communities. Both Scarman and MacPherson in their reports
have highlighted the use of institutional racism, discrimination against specific populations
(Bowling and Phillips, 2007).

Carol Willis (1983) conducted a study to explore the use of police powers to stop people in
the street. The survey produced data from four police stations some within and some beyond
the boundaries of Greater London. The study suggests that the rate of black people stopped
were higher than any of the other groups. It further implied that in areas such as Kensington
London rates were three times greater among black men ages 16 to 24 than for any other men

6
in this group. These figures reveal that officers follow specific criteria such as looking at the
characteristics of people before carrying out their judgment to use their stop and search
powers. Macpherson suggests that people from an ethnic group such as black people have
been stopped more than white people, who were arrested more than Asians. On foot, black
people were four times more likely to be stopped than people compared to diverse ethnic
groups. These factors suggest clear discrimination between black and Asian groups. These
factors suggest a clear bias between stop and search rates of ethnic groups (Holdaway, 1996)

Although PACE was brought in for the best intentions and to deal with everyone lawfully, it
has been subject to a different range of critiques (Miller, Bland, and Quinton, 2002). Bowling
and Phillips argue that that the pattern of excessive use of police stop and search powers is
entirely consistent with the trends of selective enforcement by police officers which are
usually based on cultural stereotyping and the "heightened suspicion" of Black and minority
ethnic communities. Scarman report highlighted this particular issue as the report suggested
that "some officers think that al young black people are potential criminals. Similarly, Smith
and Gray (1983) stated that police officers stopped back people as they believed that "nine
out of ten times they would have drugs." The over-generalizations and stereotypes are one of
the main issues to why individuals from BME communities do not trust police officers.

Moreover, the issue of extreme overgeneralization was further supported by Quinton et al.
(2000) study. About a hundred police officers from dozens of police forces were interviewed
to find out more about police, stops., decision making, and practice. This study highlighted
that police officer had a firm belief that individuals from BME communities usually have
drugs are responsible for any crimes that might take place in the area. Their vehicles are
stopped without intelligence as the offices believe that they will most likely have drugs with
them. These examples clearly illustrate the link between stereotypes and the formation of
suspicion. Police officers use their powers to arrest individuals based on their ethnicity
without intelligence. Individuals from BME communities are stopped because of racial
discrimination. Although in the 1980s there has been a secure connection between skin colour
and the police action. The police officers at that time were unapologetic about the behaviour,
racist beliefs and targeting BME groups mainly young black people.

Similarly, a study conducted by Smith and Gray (1985) on police behaviour and street duties.
The police officers when questioned about the stop and search e.g on how they know whom
to stop. One of the experienced and high-rank officers replied individuals with "dark

7
complexion, thick lips, and usually dark fuzzy hair." This indicates the use of racist language
to describe people from BME communities. Bowling and Philips(2007) argue that although
this is still an ongoing issue, however, the police officers are now more reluctant to accept it
due to consequences it might have on their job and the police service as an institution. Janet
Foster argues that the racist attitudes and behaviour of police officers towards certain ethnic
minorities has not decreased or ended, but it has simply gone "underground." Although one
can argue that racially prejudiced attitudes affect the relationship between police service and
BME communities, however Hall argues that there is no link between racially prejudiced
attitudes and language. Report by home office suggested that police officers "routinely use
skin colour as an excuse for stop and search”, which clearly indicates the stereotypical
behaviour of police officers.(Bowling and Phillips, 2007).

Bowling argues that police officers usually cite various patterns of arrests as evidence that
black individuals are more likely to be involved in crime than their white counterparts.
Bowling further argues that police officers use this explanation for justifying their lawful stop
and searches against BME communities and mainly black individuals. Additionally, Black
people are more likely to be arrested for specific kinds of offences such as street robbery and
drugs involvement. Police service justifies all these unlawful arrests by explaining arrest data.
They argue that arresting officer must have grounds for the arrest to convince the supervisor
that they have acted according to the rules and the person they have arrested is an actual
suspect. However, there are various issues in using arrest data. This is because it clearly does
not explain the involvement of ethnic minorities in the crime. In addition to this, it also does
not state whether the individual arrested by police as guilty of an offence or not. Bowling and
Philips argue that about 20 percent of arrests have not further action taken against them. This
clearly shows that police officers are arresting BME groups just based on their suspicions and
not because of any actual evidence or intelligence (Bowling and Phillips, 2007).

2.5 The impact of disproportionate use of stop and search

The eternal significance of stop and search as an essential reason a hostility between the
police and black communities. There has been nothing more damaging to the relation
between the police and black community than ill-judged use of stop and search powers. The
report suggested that if there was one complain which was quite universal, it was stop and
search. A report carried out by Metropolitan Police (2004) suggested that the current use of

8
stop and search increased the level of distrust in our police. The excessive use of these
powers has led to more deep-seated racial tensions against the police as well as the increased
level of uncertainty about the police officer's credibility. The report further suggested that
evidence presented on the current use of stop and search continued to be influenced by racial
bias. Philips and Philips (1998) that there has been a history of distrust and lack of confidence
in the police service by BME communities. As well as this Black communities within
London have also had issues with police service for their unfair treatment and discrimination
against them for many years (Bowling and Phillips, 2007).

Searches carried out under s60 are questionable as the police officers have the power to
search everyone in a neighbourhood without reasonable suspicion. This can still have a
negative impact as it can damage police and community relations as officers might be
carrying out the searches based on their assumptions (Miller, Bland, and Quinton, 2002).
Commissioner of Metropolitan Police recognised the demanding nature of this act. They
released a statement which began by highlighting the role of stop and search and its impact
on police-community relationships.

The study directed by Brunson and Miller (2006) provides a broader insight into the
relationship between the police service and young people from ethnic minority groups. They
achieved this through interviews with St Louis, Missouri. This research features the
disproportionate degrees of harassment by the police. Young people from black and other
ethnic groups reported a higher level of harassment by the police and a significant degree of
negative views towards the police in terms of their professionalism and approachability.
These attitudes have grown up from the young individual’s experiences of stop and search
which they acknowledge being inadequate in inhibiting and diminishing crime.

2.6 Conclusion

Police powers have expanded quite a lot since the past years. They suggest that these powers
have developed since the power to stop and search first introduced in PACE. Although the
excessive use of stop and search powers has not decreased Though Scarman and Lawrence
inquiry a lot has changed in terms of new set rules and the strict guidelines which are set for
police officers to follow. The evidence further suggests that the use of stop and search powers
on ethnic minorities is consistent with the significance proof or stereotyping. The above
discussion also highlights that although racial groups are targeted more than their white

9
counterpart but black young black men are more likely to be stopped and searched by police
officers (Bowling and Phillips, 2007).As discussed above Police service still needs to make a
lot of changes to control the use of stop and search powers against ethnic minorities. It is
essential that police officers follow the primary purpose of stop and search powers which is
for officers to confirm suspicions without arresting anyone. It is vital that police officers
follow the set rules to stop excessive used of power and create a positive image in society.

Chapter Three: Black and Minority Ethnic Representation in Policing in England and
Wales

3.1 Introduction

This chapter examines the recruitment of ethnic minorities in the police service. In particular,
it will explore issues of institutional racism within the police service and the under-
representation of ethnic minorities. The MacPherson inquiry cited institutional racism as a

10
core factor in the discriminatory treatment of BME communities. Police have been directed to
recruit more officers from ethnic minorities for an estimated four decades. In 1965 ethnic
minorities constituted approximately 2 percent of the British population, yet there were only
three ethnic minority part-time constables present in the whole country at that time (Skolinck,
1975, p. 48). As well as examining the history of underrepresentation this chapter will
consider what can be done to resolve these issues. In addition to this, this chapter will further
highlight recommendations made by both Scarman and Macpherson within their reports. It is
essential that police officers try to build a positive and trustful relationship with ethnic
minority communities, so they feel more comfortable joining police service.

Scarman was appointed by the government to investigate the disorder in 1981. Although
Scarman rejected the suggestion that the police service was institutionally, systematically,
racist, he did find evidence of a few officers, whose behaviour was occasionally racist.

The Scarman report (1981) warned that the Metropolitan Police did not reflect the
surrounding population. He also highlighted that insensitive and inappropriate behaviour of
police officers led to a breakdown of relations between the police and minority officers. This
was perceived as one of the main reasons why ethnic minorities were not willing to be part of
the organisation. The Scarman report argued that the structure of our police force must reflect
the make-up of the society they serve in, which it did not at that time. It was thought that
recruiting more BME officers could build trust and a positive relationship between the
communities and police force which had been bitter for years. Following the report
publicized by the Home office in 1982, only a small number of forces began to develop
recruitment initiatives. The report suggested recruitment of BME groups was crucial as police
and BME communities did not have good relations at that time and recruiting individuals
from those groups would develop trust and can lead to better communication between the
groups as well as police. However, it also stated in the Scarman report that the front-line staff
was deliberately racially prejudged and ill-considered. Some might argue that this is because
these officers were not trained to deal with ethnic minorities. It shows how ethnic minority
communities were treated at that time, which therefore harmed the relationship between these
communities and the police service (Rowe, 2007). Racism within the police force towards
BME officers was one other main reason why individuals from BME groups were not
recruited within the police force, and those who were recruited later claimed they were
discriminated and treated unjustly.

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The Scarman report highlighted two crucial aspects of the policing society: These include
balance and consent as well as independence and accountability. These factors were
highlighted by Scarman as “necessary” to ensure that the police service operated not only
within the law but also with the support of the community (Bowling and Phillips, 2002).
Scarman argued that there are various ways to increase recruitment from ethnic minorities.
These include visible and committed police policy, unique initiative as well as support from
the elders of black communities (Holdaway, 1991). He discusses that the primary purpose of
this was to avoid black officers feeling as they entered this organisation as a second-class
recruit.

Following the murder of Stephen Lawrence, the Macpherson inquiry in the 1990s highlighted
the issues of institutional racism within the police, which needed to be addressed to avoid
further damage between them and BME communities. Eighteen years after the Scarman
Report, the Macpherson report highlighted the issue of institutional racism. One of the
significant issues highlighted by Macpherson as a reason why the police were institutionally
racist was the ongoing failure of the police to recruit and encourage more ethnic minorities to
join. The MacPherson report highlighted that racism could also take more of a subtle form
which can be as damaging as others. Therefore, the Macpherson inquiry accepted that the
action of these organisations could be racist despite their intention. This can lead to low
results in ethnic minority recruitment. The investigation highlighted recruitment as one of the
significant issues which needed to be solved. The inquiry suggested that police service is
required to set targets to increase the recruitment as well as retention of BME officers. If the
police service sets targets and tries to achieve those targets by encouraging BME groups to
join police service, this would then have a supportive impact and will build strong relations
between police service and BME communities. However, despite these recommendations,
Stone, who had been a member of the original MacPherson inquiry, suggested that the police
service had not done enough to recruit from ethnic minority communities. He moreover
argued, "police have not moved when it comes to racism at all. “He recommended that
targeting misconduct, and not promoting the police service as a career option to ethnic
minority communities has led to the underrepresentation of ethnic minorities within the
police service. Therefore, it is crucial that police service sets immediate measures to recruit
more people from BME communities.

In contrast to this, Nick Herbert (the former policing minister) argued, "Equality has always
been vital for policing," and therefore, over the decades the, police service has made quite a

12
few improvements to recruit individuals from BME communities (Awan, Blakemore, and
Simpson, 2013).

3.2 Barriers to Recruitment

The under-representation of ethnic minorities within the police force have numerous reasons,
both a shortfall in applications, as well as a lower proportion of BME individuals, being
successful in the recruitment process. Banton (1994) explains that indirect discrimination
plays a significant role in under the recruitment of ethnic minorities within the police service.
Indirect discrimination occurs due to policies which unintentionally disadvantage the
members of ethnic minorities. Due to this institutional racism enters the picture. For example,
in previous years police forces in England Wales had a minimum height limit for recruits.
This, consequently, was a particular disadvantage for Asian people for example, whose
height is usually less than five feet eight inches which were the requirement for police
service. Consequently, this could have been a reason for under-recruitment from Asian-
British communities. Banton argues that police had institutionalized a rule which was
physically and sexually discriminatory (Holdaway, 1996).

Whitfield (2004) argues that throughout the twentieth century there is clear evidence that
police officers have harassed BME communities and have never responded adequately to
racist violence. This, hence, had a significant impact on BME communities and be the reason
for under-recruitment from BME groups (Brown, 2014).Moreover As individuals from BME
groups struggled to join the police service in the 1970s ad 198s, its is argued that the
treatment they received from their colleagues within the service and their attitudes towards
the ethnic minorities were quite racist(Bowling and Phillips, 2002).Smith and Gray(1983)
highlighted this in the study “of the Police in Action” as they recommended that the
language used by police officers to describe the ethnic minorities has been distressing. As
well as this they also discriminated against ethnic minorities as officers within the service
which led to ethnic minorities leaving the service. Additionally the racist behaviour of these
police officers was supported by the senior officers who did not play their role as leaders to
stop them rather they promoted this behaviour (Bowling and Phillips, 2002).

Stone and Tuffin (2000) in their qualitative study on ethnic minorities' attitudes towards a
police service career highlighted various negative issues that were associated with joining the
police service. Those include having to work in a racist environment, denial of cultural

13
identity, sexism, isolation as well as a perception that promotion aspects would be quite
weak. These negative factors play a considerable part in undermining ethnic groups from
joining the police force (Bowling and Phillips, 2002).

Wilson and Holdaway (1984) examined the factors that prevented the recruitment of ethnic
minorities in the police force. The study consisted of interviews with black and Asian officers
serving in seven constabularies. These individuals were interviewed, and over the half,
officers interviewed state that they had been subject to name calling which to other officers
was general banter. This study highlights how their colleagues treated ethnic minority
officers at the time. This clearly shows the reason for under-recruitment of ethnic minorities
in the police force. If ethnic minority officers are not treated appropriately within the police
force, this will be viewed by other community members and the rest of the black and Asian
population which can put them off from joining police service.

Stone and Tuffin (2000) conducted a Home Office report which analysed the attitudes of
black and ethnic minority communities. This report found that these individuals believed that
working in a quality workplace was more important to them than their earnings. The report
further highlighted that although the participants agreed that this role could be quite
rewarding, they had concerns about racism in the workplace. The report stated that other jobs
were thought to offer these individuals more significant opportunities mainly in terms of
promotion and pay without any fear of racism within the workplace or any danger to them.
Hence, this highlights that BME communities do not feel safe working with the police service
due to their attitudes towards them. Stone and Tuffin (2000) highlighted that overall, the
participants felt that career options within the police service were quite weak and questioned
the attitudes of police officers towards ethnic minorities (Awan, Blakemore, and Simpson,
2013).

One of the primary reasons for the underrepresentation of ethnic minorities within the police
service is the salary. The Home Office report (2012) states that police officers from ethnic
backgrounds were paid less than other police officers. The report further states that this
shows "that white males have been the largest groups which have been paid maximum, and
the force has the majority of white male officers." It can also deter individuals from ethnic
backgrounds from joining the police (Awan, Blakemore and Simpson, 2013). Holdaway and
Spencer (1984) similarly reported that that current ethnic minority officers might be
unwilling to recommend the police service to recruits because of the difficulties that they

14
might be facing or have faced in the past. In addition to this, Holdaway and Spencer (1984)
argued that the negative perception that ethnic minorities have police service had an impact
on police service to recruit more ethnic police officers (Bowling and Phillips, 2002).
Research interviews conducted by Holdaway (1991) about experiences of police employment
and recruitment policies. Black and Asian constables were clearly against the recruiting
strategies taken by police service to recruit ethnic minorities. Against in what sense? What
were the recruiting strategies? What did they oppose? Why? The study highlights that the
officers were against the special recruitment procedures in place for ethnic monitories.

The study conducted by Awan, Blakemore, and Simpson in 2011 to investigate views within
the Muslim community regarding choosing a career in the police service found that the
Muslim community replied in quite a “homogeneous” way. The study interviewed 20 people
aged between (15-and 30 years old) from two Muslim communities (Pakistani and
Bangladeshi) in Birmingham (UK). It included community leaders, mosque representatives,
and female groups. The participants indicated a lack of trust and raised issues against the
police service. They stated that the police service is a racist organisation that has failed to
engage with Muslim communities. Due to bad experiences with police officers, Muslim
communities had a negative perception of the service overall. They responded that the police
service should work more actively with BME communities, which would build trust and
improve the image of the service overall. The participants further stated the police service
should use community policing as a way of reaching out to "hard-to-reach groups." It could
improve recruitment issues within the police service, while people from the BME
communities would be more likely to apply for careers within the police service (Awan,
Blakemore, and Simpson, 2013).

3.3 Addressing the underrepresentation of BME officers in the police

There have been many practical efforts to encourage individuals from ethnic minorities to
join the police service.

Scarman advised more recruitment of individuals from ethnic minority backgrounds. As well
as this, the Scarman report further highlighted that there were no specific measures carried
out to attract individuals from ethnic minorities to join the police force. This, consequently,
shows why there has been under the recruitment of ethnic minorities in the police service.
Due to the recommendations made by Scarman Home office in (1982) in their report

15
suggested that senior officers are responsible for ensuring that Black and Asian officers are
treated same as white officers by their colleagues as well as the supervising officers
(Holdaway, 1991).

Some of which included targeted recruitment campaigns with the assistance of community
organizations and contacts. In addition to this, there were also access courses and placement
schemes. These courses introduce individuals from BME communities to the police force and
provide them with application forms in "minority languages"(Holdaway, 1991). However,
Wilson, Holdaway, and Spencer (1984) argue that all these efforts were permanently ruined
because applicants focus on their experiences of racism with police officers. This
consequently be a significant issue of under-representation of ethnic minorities in police
service. Moreover, the public also considers the discrimination that they might face as a
minority in police service which consists of traditional white and male-dominated hierarchy
(Bowling and Phillips, 2002).

Since the publication of the MacPherson Report, the Black Policing Association (BPA) has
gained influence throughout the constabularies within the UK. These groups began to form in
the UK in the mid-1990s and mainly consist of informal, voluntary support groups that exist
to support officers and other police staff from ethnic minority backgrounds (Holdaway and O'
Neill 2004). These groups also work with Chief Officers to address issues of ethnic diversity
to ensure there are no issues within the communities. The issues are discussed both with
public and police to avoid any misunderstanding between both. In addition to this, BPA is
also involved in local communities with a high minority ethnic population to develop
relationships between them and the police force. They are taking part in events which spread
the message of recruitment for the police force and helping to create a bond between citizens
and the police.

Nevertheless, although those groups have existed for more than 20 years under recruitment
and representation of ethnic minorities is still one of the significant issues within the police
service. This issue can be due to various reasons. Although the groups are there to support
people from BME communities to join the police, they are mainly voluntary organisations.
They are not provided with enough facilities or are encouraged as much for the work they do
(Rowe, 2007).

Some of the other measures that have been currently used by the police to recruit more BME
groups include "Positive Action." The measure is used to encourage more BME groups to

16
join; it includes talent management schemes which mainly aim to promote BME candidate
and enhances awareness and generates their interest in police service. (Gareth subs
dissertation)

One of the most common types of initiative undertaken has been the participation of ethnic
minority officers in the recruiting activities. This process was bought mainly to provide
senior officers as well as recruiting staff with valuable information and guidance on which
strategies work the best to recruit black and Asian individuals.

Moreover, the presence of ethnic minority officers in a force which serves particularly in an
area with small ethnic minority population is considerably notable as it can deliver change
within and beyond the force's organisational boundary. The presence of the ethnic officers
can help change the public's view of ethnic minority officers and get to know them more. It
can also have a decisive role in encouraging individuals from BME groups to join the service
(Holdaway, 1991). Waddington (1999) recommended increasing BME recruitment by
tackling the "white male"-driven culture. He argues that this requires cultural change.

Moreover, this can be done by educating officers on other cultures and their values (Awan,
Blakemore and Simpson, 2013)

There has been various ethnic minority recruitment initiative which has developed rapidly
within the British Police. Therefore, to end the racism within the institutions such as the
police force, it is essential to set up new arrangements to recruit more ethnic officers for our
diverse society

West Midlands Police, who serve quite a relatively large number of Asian and black
population, planned to carry out various initiatives including an educational access course to
teach individuals and guide them towards a career in policing, street- to- street leafleting
campaigns as well as meetings at community centres which were mainly used by Black and
Asian people. Likewise, Leicestershire Constabulary ran a yearlong recruitment campaign
which included meetings, television broadcasts as well as public meetings. Due to the
initiatives, both these forces showed a vast number of increases in their number of Asian and
black recruits. However, despite this general progress in the recruitment of ethnic minorities
groups have been quite low (Holdaway, 1996).

Due to the Home Office's recommendation for direct recruitment into the police service with
higher level education for higher management roles. Some scholars might argue this is not

17
institutional racism as Virdi (2009) discusses that education influences recruitment. Virdi
implies that there is a higher percentage of BME minority recruits than non-minority
graduates within the police service. Hence, he asks whether raising the educational status of
police officers could attract more individuals from BME groups.

Contrary to this, Stone (2009) suggests that school qualifications should not be the reason for
individuals to not being police constables. However, Stone argues that this should be
available for individuals with a high degree who would like higher-ranking roles as this could
attract more people.

Waters (2007) describes the process of the hierarchy system that those with better/higher
qualifications for senior ranks as a "power vacuum." He argues this can harm ethnic
minorities as they will be limited to bottom level roles (Awan, Blakemore and Simpson,
2013).

3.4 Conclusion

Holdaway (1991) argues that numerous people force have developed initiatives to increase
the recruitment of ethnic minorities with the service. He further explains that if all the
initiatives regarding recruitment procedures and strategies are followed the police force
should be able to increase the number of BME recruits in the future. BME communities will
be even more encouraged when they see ethnic officers patrolling the streets. Consequently,
it is vital that police service follow the set rules, including strategies to increase the number
of ethnic officers within the police. Development in recruitment is a crucial feature to end
racism within the police (Holdaway, 1991).

18
Chapter 4: Training

4.1 Introduction

Cashmore (2001) referred to the term diversity training as “racism awareness training” as this
term was not particularly acknowledged in forces and many of his interviewees experienced
racism awareness training instead of diversity training. He highlighted and that training
regarding community and race relations issues was inconsistent around the country.
Institutional racism is said to be universal throughout institutions of British society. This also
includes the police service. Due to the nature of the police profession, it is crucial to address
the issues of institutional racism as this can have a severe impact on the public. On the one
hand, although some people might argue that every officer should tackle institutional racism
is mainly the responsibility of senior management within the service to identify and remove
the barriers (O'Neill and Holdaway, 2007).

Furthermore, senior management is also responsible for ensuring all the trainee officers or the
front-line officers who deal with ethnic minority groups are trained, as well as the skills and
knowledge to deal with racist incidents. These officers have the responsibility to provide
adequate service to ethnic groups. Therefore, although various initiatives have been taken by
police to address these issues from two decades institutional racism within the police is still a
significant issue. Training was mainly focused and directed at internal equal opportunities
problems rather than external relationships with the community. This consequently led to
misunderstandings and issues within the police force and ethnic minorities. This is because
ethnic minorities were facing various racial problems which needed to be tackled. This
chapter will examine the role that equal opportunities, community and race relations training
can play in fostering a better understanding between the police, those they serve and the
issues relating to training within the police service. It will further explore the history of
training, Police Training Council, as well as recommendations, made Scarman and
Macpherson within their reports to improve training. Lastly, this chapter will examine the
effectiveness of training programmes (Oakley, 1999)

4.2 History of Race Relations/Diversity Training in the Police

19
Since the 1970s the traditional policing curriculum changed in various aspects with more
attention given to community and race relations (Rowe & Garland, 2003). According to
HMIC (Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary, the forerunner to Her Majesty's
Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue Services) the Metropolitan Police introduced
elements of social and humanitarian skills to the curriculum during the early 1970s,
community relations and race (CRR) also became an essential part of the curriculum in 1973
(HMIC 1997). Since community relations and race training were first introduced, this has
become one of the significant aspects within police training programmes with a focus on both
internal relations and external service delivery (Rowe, 2004).

4.3 Scarman

While CRR training had been introduced in the Metropolitan Police Force Area in the 1970s,
the Scarman Report (1981 page 325) recommended that all police officers should receive
training on community race relations. This included both experienced staff as well as the new
trainees. Scarman argued that more time should be dedicated to developing the skills of
recruits. He argues this is crucial as they can spend that time learning more other cultural
backgrounds and understand our diverse society (Oakley, 1995).

These recommendations were followed up by a more detailed report from Police Training
Council (PTC). The PTC made various series of recommendations which continued to be
present at this time. They argued that CRR training needs to be more clearly defined and that
it is crucial that all officers should receive substantial training on topics that can help resolve
issues of institutional racism within police force by monitoring their performance, as well as
their behaviour towards ethnic minority communities. These recommendations were followed
up by Home Office which contracted Brunel University to deliver CRR training to police
services (Oakley, 1999). The programme was named "reflective practitioner." The main
purpose of this training aim was to encourage police officers to reflect on the impact of their
behaviour on ethnic minority communities. However, this programme was criticized by
Oakley (1999) as he noted that there were various problems which prevented the programme
from achieving its aims. One of the main issues highlighted by Oakley was that the police
service as an institution was quite reluctant to admit that institutional racism was an issue
which was the root of all the issues. Oakley suggested that naming the courses "community
relations" diverted the attention from the notion of the institutional racism which needed to be

20
acknowledged. In addition to this Oakley further argued that although training providers
wished to provide in-depth training, so officers are fully trained to tackle any situation, the
police service demands high turnover programmes that could quickly train large numbers of
staff (Cashmore, 2001).

Hall (1988) argues historically "lay involvement" within the training process has frequently
involved members of ethnic communities to get their perspectives on the police CRR
training. This, therefore, led to the incorporation of four new approaches. Those include the
black experience approach, the intellectual approach, the balancing act, and the information
focus approach. The black experience approach was the first approach. This particular
approach stated that "black individuals are asked to "tell us where it hurts." Secondly, the
intellectual approach suggested white people of various professional, as well as academic
institutions, discuss minority communities" without first-hand knowledge of their past." The
third approach is known as "balancing approach" which stated that police and ethnic minority
communities are equally responsible for the poor performance. The fourth approach comes
from a belief that issues arose as "whites " misunderstood "non-white cultures." As CRR
Training was less focused on these approaches and more on ethnic and cultural practices such
as arranged marriage issues or caste system that were not mainly the real issues. Hall (1988)
argues that this was diverting attention away from institutional patterns of racism (Rowe,
2004).

In comparison to Scarman race relations training was also an essential part of Macpherson
plan. He suggested that there had been very less improvement in terms of race relations
training since Scarman's report as very little as done to recruit ethnic minority staff or
improve relations with ethnic communities via police training (O'Neill and Holdaway, 2007)

4.4 MacPherson

Although there have been various issues that may have challenged police service to improve
its training, one o the major factor was the Macpherson Report. The MacPherson Report
(1999) highlighted issues of police relations with minority ethnic communities. Since the
Report the Chief Constable of Greater Manchester Police and the Commissioner of the
Metropolitan Police and various other senior officers have publicly accepted and stated that
the police service is institutionally racist (Oakley, 1999). Despite training provision
introduced in the 1970s and developed in the 1980s and 1990s, there were ongoing concerns

21
regarding community and race relations. CRR training was quite ineffective. This, therefore,
led to an immediate review or racism awareness training within police services by
MacPherson. The HMIC (1997) suggested that training regarding cultural issues has been
marginalized.
However, Since the late 1990s due to the inquiry of the Stephen Lawrence case, there had
been quite a few changes which lead to series of "Inspections" on community and race
relations which were conducted by HIMIC. These inspections were held to monitor the
changes that were made within police service to deal with diversity issues. The main aim of
these inspections was to highlight any improvements that could be made within
constabularies to improve their ways of engaging with ethnic minorities. The winning
constabularies were awarded the title of "Winning the Race: Policing Plural Communities"
which not only underlined the weaknesses but also highlighted the good strategies taken by
police service to tackle race relations issues. Due to recommendations made by MacPherson
report, as well as the Race Relations Act 2000, The Race and Relations training was
introduced to make police staff more aware of the diverse culture and experiences of minority
groups. The main purpose of the new training was that the police officers within the training
the programmes were specifically taught to interact differently within men and women
among ethnic minority groups to respect their cultural and religious beliefs. This differed
from past training programmes as this focused on excluding unlawful racial discrimination
and promoting good relations between police service and ethnic communities. These changes
were essential to building a positive and strong relationship with ethnic communities.
Secondly, the main purpose of the Community Race Relation training was to change officers’
attitude towards ethnic minorities. This was crucial to bring peace harmony in the
communities as well as a chance for officers to learn more about other cultures. Although
discriminatory behaviour, racist and homophobic language was quite common before
Stephen Lawrence inquiry, the report suggested that the inside behaviour reflected how the
police officers interacted with minorities. Therefore, it was crucial to guiding police officers
on how to interact with certain ethnic minorities to maintain peace and harmony. In addition
to this Liaison officers were also introduced to coordinate communication between ethnic
communities and police (Oakley, 1999). This was one of the ways to improve communication
as a step towards building trust and confidence between both parties. Furthermore, various
new internal initiatives were introduced, following Macpherson Inquiry which included
training provided mainly focused on "race relations." These were entirely different from
previous ones as they focused specifically on issues such as how to prevent racial
22
discrimination, promote racial equality and promote good relations between members of
different ethnic groups. These courses and training are and have been quite useful for police
officers as it provided them with a clearer insight into different cultures and cultural traditions
which can help foster positive relationships between the police and communities as officers
learn how they should be dealing with diverse communities accordingly.

4.5 Effectiveness

Even though these programmes have bene in place for years the main question remains as to
whether they have been effective or not to tackle the issue of racism. Although training
strategies on racial issues were set out by the Police Training Council Working Party in about
1983, those strategies have still not been entirely carried out. Therefore, this has a
considerable effect on how ethnic minorities communities are treated. Due to strategies not
being carried out by Police service, this, consequently, can lead to negative service provided
to ethnic communities by police officers (Oakley, 1999). Regarding the effectiveness of
diversity training Cashmore (2001) quoted two police officers who stated that diversity
training has did not change police officers. Similarly, the Black Police Association BPA
officers who revealed their involvement within diversity training also reported that "middle
managers tend to be the main problem due to their lack of action" (O'Neill and Holdaway,
2007). They argued that senior officers were not showing their real leadership which was
required for the success of diversity training. In contrast to this Cashmore argued that some
officers found the diversity training “flawless. “They stated that they saw “no room for
improvements within this. Considering the point, BPA had questioned the local civilians, and
Cashmore was questioning the senior officers there is a huge alteration between two
responses. This is because the civilians are on the receiving end. Therefore, they are more
likely to have better knowledge however the trainee officers who stated the training was
"flawless" mainly train officers and therefore have no knowledge of whether the trainee
officers carry out their tasks properly (O'Neill and Holdaway, 2007) .The changes in the
training suggested that officers had then chosen suitable techniques to interact with ethnic
minorities which resulted in positive community relations between police and ethnic
minorities. Officers who attended those training courses were prepared to face problems. The
officers also suggested that these initiatives gave them better understand how to tackle those
crimes and how to handle certain situations. In comparison to officers who had not improved

23
community relations (Bhugowandeen, 2013). In contrast to this Although some officers
stated the training was “flawless," Cashmore highlighted that some officers stated that
diversity training has no impact on police officers. They stated that although it has been in
place for twenty years, it had no effect on racism within the training workforce at all. They
further suggested that middle officers who were mainly the trainers were the main issue as
they did not value diversity training which leads to lower ranks not paying much attention to
their training sessions. The lack of leadership and no interest in diversity training courses
signifies why institutional racism is still an issue and mainly why the ethnic minorities are
still being treated respectfully by officers (O'Neill and Holdaway, 2007). The lack of
engagement with black and other minorities groups had a negative impact. This, therefore,
led to problems when achieving goals and addressing the issues faced in more deprived
neighbourhoods.

Furthermore, there were various other challenges in contemporary CRR training as it argued
that the training focused on the needs and experiences of police officers rather than the ethnic
minorities. This was seen through the curriculum design as well as the classroom
management environment. Both these aspects were crucial in order to train officers to deal
with ethnic issues however the curriculum, as well as the classroom environment, highlighted
the officers were not paying much attention to what was being taught. In addition to this,
some officers also thought that diversity training caused a massive issue as they argued that
due to staff being on training they did not have minimum officers to carry out the daily
duties. This, therefore, led to officers missing out the training to perform their primary roles
which harmed the training. Due to officers missing out on their training they had various
issues with the CRR training courses as they argued that many of the training officers were
not experienced and therefore only taught within their comfort zones to get through every
day. This was suggested by the trainee officers who expressed their view on the training they
were receiving. Trainee Officers argued that the officers did not discuss “thorny issues” such
as institutional racism which were most important and the main objective of the course. Hall
(1988) argued that officers focused on “information focus approach” to avoid conflict with
those that they are training. Hall further argued that the trainers were unable to discuss the
critical issues as they lacked support. Similarly, Luthra and Oakley (1991) explained that
racism awareness training was difficult as the content of the training programme did not
focus on and affect the institutional issues. They argued that although the training did not

24
embrace a confrontational approach it was quite clear that the training officers felt they were
racist.

Furthermore, there was also very little evidence that the training offered to police officers
addressed an issue relating to the field of policing. This was seen in two distinct ways.
Firstly, it was evident that nothing has been done to integrate the content of training sessions
into everyday working practices. Secondly, there was no opportunity for the content of
training to be further developed in the long term although these concerns do not affect the
trainers, who were unable to address the main issues. However, it does show an institutional
failure to develop an effective training strategy which could have been able to reshape the
organization. Similarly, national review by HMIC (2003) suggested that there were no long-
term plans to tackle diversity issues or to train officers on dealing with ethnic minorities. The
report indicated that this was due to lack of institutional strategy. The report further identified
various concerns. It argued that there was an absence of a systematic plan on how the service
should improve its CRR training and how to incorporate diversity issues into general training
programmes as they were not done before. They further stated that although it has been in
place for almost twenty years, it has not had any effect on the racism within the force. Chan
(1997) argues police officers are not "institutional clones “the trainees and new recruits do
not completely conform to the police culture as soon as they have joined however this does
change within the time. Therefore, to reduce further racism within institutions and to treat
ethnic minorities appropriately it is crucial that these new recruits are trained from the
beginning. Although Chan argues that the new recruits look more up to the senior officer and
copy their behaviour, but a study conducted by Chan (1997) on racism and reform suggests
police organisations play a huge role in "developing and transforming cultural. This,
therefore, suggests that reform initiatives should be sued to teach new recruits and help them
develop knowledge on how to deal with ethnic minorities. She further argues that this can
play a huge role in developing a police culture which can bring transformation (Brown,
2014).

4.6 Conclusion: Future of diversity training

Although there have been improvements made within the police training post MacPherson
Report on institutional report however evaluating the current evidence and effectiveness of
those measures one can argue that there has been lack of success over time. As highlighted

25
above there are various barriers to success although the police service has introduced new
initiatives to work with.

Conclusion

The MacPherson ten on year report made various recommendations. One of the proposals
which were made in MacPherson ten year on the report was the introduction of appropriately
trained Family Liaison Officers in critical incidents. It was important for liaison officers to be
adequately trained for them to maintain a good relationship with families and to get the
evidence required for the cases. Mrs Lawrence raised this issue regarding the way police
treated her family during the investigation. Therefore, the family liaison officers have been
introduced to support4 families and treated everyone equally with respect. In addition to this
MacPherson's ten-year report further suggested that staff discipline is a huge issue. As the
police officers are "extremely disproportionate and extremely harsh towards visible
minorities." Therefore, it is significant that strict actions are being taken against those officers
who do not treat ethnic minorities appropriately. It is also essential to make officers aware of
the consequences that will be taken if they do not follow the rules properly. The report further
highlights that Metropolitan Police "without a doubt" continues to be institutionally racist.
This issue was raised by Mr Alfred John who argued that the police service in his view is
institutionally racist as they fail to recognise the discriminatory behaviour within the
organization. Although the reports suggest that police leaders have shown commitment
towards this notably as they now increased the awareness of discrimination issues within the
forces. However, this still has not solved any problems as the police service is still as
institutionally racist and ethnic minorities are not treated appropriately. Chan (1997) argues
that although BPA has had some effect on police service. BPA is still entirely new to the
internal police world, and although it did not have a significant effect, it can see as changing
police occupational culture and make developments to improve relations between police and
minority communities furthermore, Although BPA leads to change in officer’s behaviour to
some extent. However, Chan argues that BPA and issues concerning ethnic groups are not
always in the minds of senior officers or the political agenda. This, therefore, describes why
institutional racism is still a significant issue within police service even after all these years
(O'Neill, Marks and Singh, 2007).

The issues of fairness, legitimacy, and effectiveness have been a constant debate within
policing and are still existing to this day. Rather than concentrating entirely on getting a

26
result, it is vital that officers should treat BME communities like they treat the white
majority. As highlighted above in chapter one stop and search be a crucial example of the
tensions between police and BME communities. As stated by Bradford (2011) stop and
search behaviour by police officers has been the cause for low levels of trust in police
between ethnic minorities. Additionally, if the officers treat the ethnic minority groups
appropriately without any discrimination, these communities will have a positive relationship
with police service. (Police Culture and the New Policing Context

MacPherson Report provided police service with a push to develop its policing diversity
policies. Prior to the publication of MacPherson Report “race relations” was a most common
approach used by police service to address all the members of society. Through this approach
they key message was to ensure that ethnic minorities received equal attention and equal
service as the majority white group. However, this led to huge issues as different
communities have different needs. However Post-Lawrence Report anti-racism has become
one of the most common themes within police service, this theme required police officers to
tackle prejudges and to understand the need of ethnic minority groups.

\Racism continues to shape relations between the policing and BME communities which
leads to the conclusion that “nothing has changed since 1999”. The polices and new
initiatives brought in by police service to tackle the institutional racism, to encourage BME
communities to take police service as career and the relations between communities and
police are just a distraction from the “real business “of policing. (Rowe 2004). Post Lawrence
report many ethnic minority communities have been encouraged to speak and discuss their
views about policing with their areas. Cohen (2003) states that “because police accepted that
they were wrong and could be wrong in future, individuals who lives in fear are now coming
out”. These individuals are coming tout to express their thoughts an what they believe should
be done to improve policing.

However, on the other hand media reports continue to highlight the racist attitudes of police
officers towards ethnic minorities to this day clearly suggests that probe to tackle racism has
still not ended from police service and that police service should make more effort to tackle
these issues (Rowe 2004).

The concept of racism has been proven to be the most controversial topic police service.
While attempts are made to combat racism within the service there has not been much change
prior to the Lawrence Report. Although efforts have been made to recruit more ethnic

27
minority officers, to train the new and existing staff on importance and impact of personal
values and attitudes, to treat BME communities with respect, and to minimise the use of stop
and search powers. These aspects have done little to address the institutional aspects of
racism within the service. Rowe (2004) states that recommendations made in Lawrence
Report have not been reflected on the racism continues to be perceived at an individual level.
Officers still tend to believe the Scarman report which highlighted that there are “some rotten
apples” and therefore the whole institutional should not be classed as racist (Rowe, 2004).

28
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